Grzimek's SALR - Reptiles

grzimek’s
Student Animal Life Resource

••••
grzimek’s
••••
Reptiles
volume 1
Turtles to Wormlizards
Leslie A. Mertz, PhD, author
Madeline S. Harris, project editor

Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt, editors
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Reptiles
Leslie A. Mertz, PhD
Project Editor Rights and Acquisitions Composition

Madeline S. Harris Sheila Spencer, Mari Masalin-Cooper Evi Seoud, Mary Beth Trimper
Editorial Imaging and Multimedia Manufacturing
Kathleen J. Edgar, Melissa Hill, Randy Bassett, Michael Logusz, Dan Wendy Blurton, Dorothy Maki
Heather Price Newell, Chris O’Bryan, Robyn Young
Indexing Services Product Design
Synapse, the Knowledge Link Tracey Rowens, Jennifer Wahi
Corporation
© 2005 Thomson Gale, a part of or information storage retrieval While every effort has been made to
the Thomson Corporation. systems—without the written ensure the reliability of the informa-
Thomson and Star Logo are permission of the publisher. tion presented in this publication,
trademarks and Gale and UXL are For permission to use material from Thomson Gale does not guarantee
registered trademarks used herein this product, submit your request via the accuracy of the data contained
under license. Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/ herein. Thomson Gale accepts no
permissions, or you may download payment for listing; and inclusion in
For more information, contact the publication of any organization,
Thomson Gale our Permissions Request form and
submit your request by fax or mail agency, institution, publication, serv-
27500 Drake Rd. ice, or individual does not imply
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 to:
endorsement of the editors or pub-
Or you can visit our Internet site at Permissions lisher. Errors brought to the atten-
http://www.gale.com Thomson Gale tion of the publisher and verified to
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 27500 Drake Rd. the satisfaction of the publisher will
No part of this work covered by the Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 be corrected in future editions.
copyright hereon may be reproduced Permissions Hotline:
or used in any form or by any 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253,
means—graphic, electronic, or ext. 8006
mechanical, including photocopying, Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058
recording, taping, Web distribution,
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Mertz, Leslie A.
Grzimek’s student animal life resource. Reptiles / Leslie A. Mertz ; edited by Neil
Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7876-9404-5 (hardcover set : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-9405-3 (volume
1) — ISBN 0-7876-9406-1 (volume 2)
1. Reptiles—Juvenile literature. I. Schlager, Neil, 1966- II. Weisblatt, Jayne. III.
Title.
QL644.2.M427 2005
597.9—dc22 2005000033
ISBN 0-7876-9402-9 (21-vol set), ISBN 0-7876-9404-5 (2-vol set), ISBN 0-7876-9405-3 (vol 1), ISBN 0-7876-9406-1 (vol 2)
This title is also available as an e-book

Contact your Thomson Gale sales representative for ordering information.
Printed in Canada
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
REPTILES: VOLUME 1
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii
Getting to Know Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxvii
Dinosaurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Turtles and tortoises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Pig-nose turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Australo-American side-necked turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Seaturtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Snapping turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Central American river turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Leatherback seaturtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
New World pond turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Eurasian pond and river turtles and neotropical wood
turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
American mud and musk turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
African side-necked turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Big-headed turtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Afro-American river turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Tortoises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Softshell turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharials . . . . . .101

Gharial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Alligators and caimans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Crocodiles and false gharials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Tuatara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
Contents v
Snakes and lizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Angleheads, calotes, dragon lizards, and relatives . . . . . .145
Chameleons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Anoles, iguanas, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Geckos and pygopods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Blindskinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Wormlizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
Mole-limbed wormlizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Florida wormlizard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Spade-headed wormlizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Species List by Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xli
Species List by Geographic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xliii
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see the Cumulative Index
REPTILES: VOLUME 2
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii
Getting to Know Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxvii
Night lizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Wall lizards, rock lizards, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Microteiids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Whiptail lizards, tegus, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Girdled and plated lizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
Skinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Alligator lizards, galliwasps, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Knob-scaled lizards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
Gila monster and Mexican beaded lizard . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Monitors, goannas, and earless monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
Early blind snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Slender blind snakes, thread snakes, or worm snakes . . .295
Blind snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
False blind snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
Shieldtail snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Pipe snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
False coral snake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
Sunbeam snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
Neotropical sunbeam snake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
Boas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
Pythons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Splitjaw snake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
Woodsnakes and spinejaw snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
File snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Vipers and pitvipers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
African burrowing snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Colubrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
vi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Cobras, kraits, sea snakes, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Species List by Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvi
Species List by Geographic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xliii
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . see the Cumulative Index
Contents vii
Reader’s Guide
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Reptiles offers read-
ers comprehensive and easy-to-use information on Earth’s rep-
tiles. Order entries provide an overview of a group of families,
and family entries provide an overview of a particular family.
Entries are arranged by taxonomy, the science through which
living things are classified into related groups. Each entry in-
cludes sections on physical characteristics; geographic range;
habitat; diet; behavior and reproduction; animals and people;
and conservation status. All entries are followed by one or more
species accounts with the same information as well as a range
map and photo or illustration for each species. Entries conclude
with a list of books, periodicals, and Web sites that may be used
for further research.
ADDITIONAL FEATURES
Each volume of Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Rep-
tiles includes a pronunciation guide for scientific names, a glos-
sary, an overview of Reptiles, a list of species in the set by
biome, a list of species by geographic range, and an index. The
set has 180 full-color maps, photos, and illustrations to enliven
the text, and sidebars provide additional facts and related in-
formation.
NOTE
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Reptiles has standard-
ized information in the Conservation Status section. The IUCN
Red List provides the world’s most comprehensive inventory of
Reader’s Guide ix
the global conservation status of plants and animals. Using a set
of criteria to evaluate extinction risk, the IUCN recognizes the
following categories: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically En-
dangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Conservation Dependent,
Near Threatened, Least Concern, and Data Deficient. These terms
are defined where they are used in the text, but for a complete
explanation of each category, visit the IUCN web page at http://
www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlists/RLcats2001booklet.html.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Gale would like to thank several individuals for their assis-
tance with this set. Leslie Mertz wrote the vast majority of the
text; Linda Patricia Kite also wrote a few articles. At Schlager
Group Inc., Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt coordinated the
writing and editing of the set, while Marcia Merryman Means
and Leah Tieger also provided valuable assistance.
Special thanks are also due for the invaluable comments and
suggestions provided by the Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Re-
source: Reptiles advisors:
• Mary Alice Anderson, Media Specialist, Winona Middle
School, Winona, Minnesota
• Thane Johnson, Librarian, Oklahoma City Zoo, Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma
• Debra Kachel, Media Specialist, Ephrata Senior High
School, Ephrata, Pennsylvania
• Nina Levine, Media Specialist, Blue Mountain Middle
School, Courtlandt Manor, New York
• Ruth Mormon, Media Specialist, The Meadows School, Las
Vegas, Nevada
COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS

We welcome your comments on Grzimek’s Student Animal
Life Resource: Reptiles and suggestions for future editions of this
work. Please write: Editors, Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Re-
source: Reptiles, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Rd., Farmington Hills,
Michigan 48331-3535; call toll free: 1-800-877-4253; fax: 248-
699-8097; or send e-mail via www.gale.com.
x Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for
Scientific Names
Acanthophis antarcticus uh-KAN-thuh-fuhs ant-ARK-tih-kuhs
Acrochordidae AK-ruh-KOR-duh-dee
Acrochordus granulatus AK-ruh-KOR-duhs GRAN-yoo-LAH-
tuhs
Agama hispida uh-GAM-uh HIH-spih-duh
Agamidae uh-GAM-uh-dee
Agamodon anguliceps uh-GAM-uh-don AN-guh-LIH-seps
Agkistrodon piscivorus ag-KIS-truh-DON PIH-sih-VER-uhs
Alligator mississippiensis AL-uh-GAY-der MIS-uh-SIP-ee-EN-
suhs
Alligatoridae AL-uh-guh-TOR-uh-dee
Amphisbaena alba AM-fus-BEE-nuh AL-buh
Amphisbaenidae AM-fus-BEE-nuh-dee
Anguidae ANG-gwuh-dee
Aniliidae AN-uh-LY-uh-dee
Anilius scytale AN-uh-LY-uhs SY-tuh-lee
Anolis carolinensis uh-NOH-luhs kar-uh-LINE-en-sis
Anomalepididae uh-NOM-uh-luh-PID-uh-dee
Anomochilidae AN-uh-moh-KIL-uh-dee
Anomochilus leonardi AN-uh-moh-KIL-uhs LEE-oh-nar-DY
Apalone spinifera uh-PAL-uh-nee SPIH-nih-FER-uh
Aspidites melanocephalus a-SPID-uh-teez MEL-uh-noh-SEF-
uh-luhs
Atractaspididae at-TRAK-tuh-SPID-uh-dee
Atractaspis bibronii at-TRAK-tuh-spuhs bib-ROH-nee-EYE
Bachia bresslaui buh-KEE-uh BREZ-lou-eye
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xi

Bipedidae by-PED-uh-dee
Bipes biporus BY-peez by-POR-uhs
Boa constrictor constrictor BOH-uh kun-STRIK-ter kun-
STRIK-ter
Boidae BOH-uh-dee
Bolyeriidae boh-LY-uh-REE-uh-dee
Brookesia perarmata broo-KEEZ-ee-uh per-ARM-uh-tuh
Caiman crocodilus KAY-mun KRAH-kuh-DIL-uhs
Cape ctenosaura hemilopha KAYP STEN-uh-SOR-uh heh-MIL-
uh-fuh
Caretta caretta kuh-RED-uh kuh-RED-uh
Carettochelyidae kuh-RED-oh-kuh-LY-uh-dee
Carettochelys insculpta kuh-RED-oh-KUH-leez in-SKULP-tuh
Casarea dussumieri KAY-suh-REE-uh duh-SOO-mee-AIR-eye
Cerastes cerastes suh-ROS-teez suh-ROS-teez
Chamaeleo chamaeleon kuh-MEE-lee-OH kuh-MEE-lee-ON
Chamaeleo jacksonii kuh-MEE-lee-OH JAK-suh-NEE-eye
Chamaeleonidae kuh-MEE-lee-ON-uh-dee
Chelidae KEL-uh-dee
Chelonia mydas kuh-LON-ee-uh MY-duhs
Cheloniidae KEL-uh-NY-uh-dee
Chelus fimbriatus KEL-uhs fim-bree-AH-tuhs
Chelydra serpentina kuh-LIH-druh ser-pen-TEE-nuh
Chelydridae kuh-LIH-druh-dee
Chlamydosaurus kingii kluh-MID-uh-SOR-uhs KIN-jee-eye
Chrysemys picta KRY-suh-meez PIK-tuh
Cistoclemmys flavomarginata sis-TOK-luh-meez FLAV-uh-
MAR-gih-NAH-tuh
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus snuh-MID-uh-FOR-uhs SEKS-lih-
NEE-ah-tuhs
Coleonyx variegates KOH-lee-ON-iks VAIR-ee-uh-GAH-teez
Colubridae kuh-LOO-bruh-dee
Corallus caninus koh-RAL-is kay-NINE-uhs
Cordylidae kor-DIL-uh-dee
Curucia zebrata kuh-ROO-shee-uh zee-BRAH-tuh
Crocodilians KRAH-kuh-DIL-ee-unz
Crocodilurus lacertinus KRAH-kuh-DIL-oor-uhs luh-SER-duh-
nuhs
Crocodylidae KRAH-kuh-DIL-uh-dee
Crocodylus acutus KRAH-kuh-DIL-uhs uh-KYOO-tuhs
xii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Crocodylus niloticus KRAH-kuh-DIL-uhs NY-lah-TIH-kuhs
Crotalus horridus KROH-tuh-luhs hoh-RID-uhs
Cylindrophiidae suh-LIN-druh-FEE-uh-dee
Cylindrophis rufus suh-LIN-druh-FIS ROO-fuhs
Dermatemydidae DER-muh-tuh-MID-uh-DEE
Dermatemys mawii der-muh-TEH-mis muh-WEE-eye
Dermochelyidae DER-muh-kuh-LY-uh-dee
Dermochelys coriacea DER-muh-KEL-eez KOH-ree-ah-SEE-uh
Dibamidae dy-BAH-muh-dee
Dibamus bourreti dy-BAH-muhs BOOR-uh-ty
Dispholidus typus DIS-fuh-LEE-duhs TY-puhs
Draco volans DRAY-koh VOH-lunz
Drymarchon corais DRIH-mar-kun KOR-ray
Elapidae uh-LOP-uh-dee
Emydidae uh-MID-uh-dee
Eumeces laticeps YOO-muh-seez LAD-ih-seps
Eunectes murinus yoo-NEK-teez myoo-REE-nuhs
Gavialidae GAY-vee-AL-uh-dee
Gavialis gangeticus GAY-vee-AL-is gan-JET-uh-kuhs
Gekkonidae geh-KON-uh-dee
Geochelone nigra JEE-oh-KEL-uh-nee NIG-ruh
Geoemydidae JEE-oh-uh-MID-uh-dee
Gerrhonotus liocephalus JER-uh-NOH-duhs LEE-oh-SEF-uh-
luhs
Gopherus agassizii go-FER-uhs AG-uh-SEE-zee-eye
Gymnophthalmidae JIM-noh-THAL-muh-dee
Heloderma suspectum HEE-loh-DER-muh suh-SPEK-tum
Helodermatidae HEE-loh-der-MAD-uh-dee
Hemidactylus frenatus HEM-uh-DAK-tih-luhs FREH-nah-tuhs
Heterodon platyrhinos HED-uh-ROH-don PLAD-ih-RY-nohs
Iguanidae ih-GWON-uh-dee
Kinosternidae KIH-nuh-STER-nuh-dee
Lacerta agilis luh-SER-duh uh-JIL-uhs
Lacertidae luh-SER-duh-dee
Lachesis melanocephala luh-KEE-suhs MEL-uh-noh-SEF-uh-
luh
Lampropeltis triangulum LAMP-roh-PEL-tuhs TRY-ang-YOO-
lum
Laticauda colubrina luh-TIK-oh-duh kuh-LOO-bree-nuh
Leptotyphlopidae LEP-toh-ty-FLOP-uh-dee
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xiii

Leptotyphlops dulcis LEP-toh-TY-flops DUL-sis
Liotyphlops ternetzii LEE-uh-TY-flops ter-NET-zee-EYE
Loxocemidae LOK-suh-SEM-uh-dee
Loxocemus bicolor LOK-suh-SEM-uhs BY-kuh-ler
Micrurus fulvius my-KRER-uhs ful-VEE-uhs
Morelia viridis moh-REEL-ee-uh vih-RID-is
Naja nigricollis NAH-juh NIH-grih-KOHL-luhs
Ophiophagus hannah ah-FEE-ah-fuh-guhs HAN-nuh
Pelomedusa subrufa puh-LOM-uh-DOO-suh SUB-ruh-fuh
Pelomedusidae puh-LOM-uh-DOO-suh-dee
Platysaurus capensis PLAT-ih-SOR-uhs KAY-pen-sis
Platysternidae PLAT-ih-STER-nuh-dee
Platysternon megacephalum PLAT-ih-STER-nun MEG-uh-
SEF-uh-lum
Plectrurus perrotetii plek-TRER-uhs PAIR-uh-TET-ee-eye
Podocnemididae poh-DOK-nuh-MID-uh-dee
Podocnemis expansa poh-DOK-nuh-MIS ek-SPAN-suh
Python reticulatus PY-thon ruh-TIK-yoo-LAH-tuhs
Pythonidae PY-thon-uh-dee
Ramphotyphlops nigrescens RAM-fuh-TY-flops nih-GRES-unz
Rhineura floridana ry-NYOOR-uh floh-RID-uh-nuh
Rhineuridae ry-NYOOR-uh-dee
Sauromalus obesus soh-ROM-uh-luhs oh-BEE-suhs
Scincidae SKIN-kuh-DEE
Scincus scincus SKIN-kuhs SKIN-kuhs
Sphenodon punctatus SFEN-uh-don PUNK-tah-tuhs
Sphenodontidae SFEN-uh-DON-tuh-dee
Squamata skwuh-MOD-uh
Sternotherus odoratus STER-nah-THUH-ruhs OH-duh-RAH-
tuhs
Teiidae TEE-uh-dee
Terrapene carolina ter-ROP-uh-nee KAR-uh-LINE-uh
Testudines tes-TYOO-duh-neez
Testudinidae TES-tyoo-DIN-uh-dee
Thamnophis sirtalis THAM-nuh-FIS ser-TAL-is
Trionychidae TRY-un-NIK-uh-dee
Trogonophidae TROG-uh-NOH-fuh-dee
Tropidophiidae TROP-uh-doh-FEE-uh-dee
Typhlopidae ty-FLOP-uh-dee
Ungaliophis panamensis un-GALL-ee-OH-fis PAN-uh-MEN-sis
xiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Uropeltidae YOOR-uh-PEL-tuh-dee
Varanidae vuh-RAN-uh-dee
Varanus salvadorii vuh-RAN-uhs SAL-vuh-DOR-ee-EYE
Viperidae VY-per-uh-dee
Xantusia vigilis ZAN-tuh-SEE-uh vih-JUH-lis
Xantusiidae ZAN-tuh-SEE-uh-dee
Xenopeltidae ZEE-noh-PELT-uh-dee
Xenopeltis unicolor ZEE-noh-PELT-uhs YOO-nih-KUH-ler
Xenosauridae ZEE-noh-SOR-uh-dee
Xenosaurus grandis ZEE-noh-SOR-uhs GRAN-duhs
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xv

Words to Know
A
Algae: Tiny plantlike growths that live in water and have no
true roots, stems, or leaves.
Ambush: A method of hunting in which the animal finds a hid-
ing place from which it can spring out to attack unsuspect-
ing meal animals that wander past.
Amphibian: An animal with a skeleton inside the body and
that spends part of its life in the water and part on land.
Amphisbaenians: A small group of reptiles that look somewhat
like long earthworms, but with scales.
Annuli: Rings, such as those seen around the length of an
earthworm and some wormlizards.
Antibodies: Substances that fight bacteria, which can cause
health problems in humans.
Antivenin: An antidote, or remedy, that neutralizes, or makes
ineffective, the poison from the bite of a venomous animal.
Arboreal: Describing an animal living in trees.
Arid: Describing areas with very little water, such as a desert
area.
Autohemorrhaging: Bleeding that starts on its own and not be-
cause of an injury.
B
Barbel: A bit of flesh that dangles from the chins of some turtles.
Bask: To warm up the body, especially by lying in the sun;
basking is seen in such animals as turtles and snakes.
Bay: A part of the sea that cuts into the coastline.
Words to Know xvii

Billabong: An Australian word for a dried-up streambed.
Blunt: Not pointed.
Brittle: Easily broken.
Bromeliad: A plant that often grows high above the ground on
the sides of trees.
Burrow: A tunnel or hole in the ground made by an animal for
shelter.
C
Caecilians: Salamanderlike animals that live underground.
Camouflage: A way of hiding or disguising something by mak-
ing it look like its surroundings.
Carapace: The upper shell of a turtle.
Carnivore: An animal that eats meat.
Carnivorous: Meat-eating.
Carrion: Dead animal flesh.
Caruncle: The toothlike part a hatchling reptile uses to break
out of its egg.
Centipede: An animal with a segmented, wormlike body and
many legs.
Clone: An exact duplicate, seen in a mother and her babies of
parthenogenic species.
Cloud forest: A wet, tropical, mountain forest.
Clutch: A nest of eggs.
Cold-blooded: Having a body temperature that changes with
the temperature of the surrounding environment.
Concave: Hollowed or curved inward.
Coniferous forest: A forest with trees that have seeds inside
cones, such as pines; also called evergreen forest.
Constriction: A method snakes use to kill their prey, by wrap-
ping their bodies around the prey animal and squeezing un-
til it cannot breathe.
Constrictor: A snake that squeezes animals, usually to death,
before eating them.
Continent: A large mass of land on planet Earth, such as Africa
or South America.
Continental shelf: A shallow plain in the sea that forms the
border of a continent, usually with a steep slope to the ocean
floor.
Courtship: An animal’s activities that are meant to attract a
mate.
xviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Crest: A ridge on an animal’s body.
Crepuscular: Describing an animal active at twilight, that is,
at dusk and dawn.
Crevice: A narrow opening or a crack.
Critically Endangered: Facing an extremely high risk of ex-
tinction in the wild in the near future.
Crustacean: An animal that lives in water and has a soft, seg-
mented body covered by a hard shell, such as lobsters and
shrimp.
D
Decayed: Rotting.
Deciduous forest: A forest with trees, such as maples, that lose
their leaves in dry or cold weather.
Deflate: To cause to collapse by letting out the air.
Deforestation: Clearing land of trees to use the timber or make
room for human settlement or farming.
Depression: A hollow or a hole.
Dew: Small drops of water that collect on cool surfaces, espe-
cially at night.
Dewlap: The flap of skin that lies under the chin.
Diameter: The width of a circle, measured as a straight line
through the center.
Diurnal: Describing an animal active during the day.
Drought: A dry spell.
Dune: A hill of sand piled up by wind or water.
E
Ectothermic: Describing an animal whose body temperature
changes when the outside air warms up or cools down; of-
ten referred to as “cold-blooded.”
Eggs: The reproductive cells that are made by female animals
and that are fertilized by sperm, or reproductive cells of male
animals.
Embryo: A developing baby that is not yet born.
Endangered: Facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild
in the near future.
Endothermic: Describing an animal that uses its own energy
to maintain a constant body temperature; often referred to
as “warm-blooded.”
Words to Know xix

Equator: The imaginary circle around Earth midway between
the North Pole and the South Pole, the points on Earth’s sur-
face that are farthest north and south, respectively.
Erosion: The wearing away of earth by wind or water.
Estivation: A period of inactivity during dry spells or during
the summer.
Estuary: The wide part at the lower end of a river, where the
river meets the sea.
Evolution: The process of change and development that an an-
imal undergoes over time to adapt to its surroundings.
Extinct: No longer alive.
Extinction: Elimination or death, especially of an entire species
of animal.
F
Fangs: Long, pointed teeth.
Flexible: Movable or bendable.
Forage: A style of hunting in which an animal wanders about
looking for food.
Fossil: The remains, or parts, of animals that lived long ago,
usually found set into rock or earth.
Fossorial species: Those that live underground.
Frill: Pleated or ruffled neck folds.
Fused: Firmly joined together.
G
Genus: Defined by scientists, a group of similar species. A group
of similar genera (the plural of genus) make up a family.
Granular: Grainy like sand.
Grub: A wormlike young insect.
H
Habitat: The natural environment, or living area, of an animal.
Hatchling: A newly hatched young animal.
Herbivore: An animal that eats only plants.
Hibernate: Become inactive during the winter.
Hibernation: A period of inactivity during the winter.
Humus: A material made up of decayed, or rotting, plants and
leaves that feeds soil and holds in water.
xx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Hybrid: Young born to parents from two different species.
Hydrozoan: An ocean-living animal that has tentacles, or long
thin body parts used for feeling or holding on to things.
Hyoid: A bone that supports the tongue.
I
Incubation: The period of time after eggs are laid and before
they hatch, during which they develop.
Inflate: To make larger or expand.
Infrared vision: The ability to detect, or to “see,” heat.
Invertebrate: An animal, such as an insect, spider, or earth-
worm, that lacks a backbone.
Iridescent: Having the ability to turn light into many colors,
much as rain can bend the sunlight into a rainbow; reflect-
ing different colors depending on the light.
Iridescent scale: Seen in a few snakes, scales that shine dif-
ferent colors depending on how the light hits them.
J
Jacobson’s organ: Common in reptiles, an organ that connects
to the roof of the mouth by a small opening, called a duct,
and helps the animal to smell chemical odors picked up by
the tongue.
Juvenile: A young animal.
K
Keel: A ridge on the upper shell of a turtle.
Keeled scale: On a snake, a scale with a ridge down the middle.
L
Lagoon: A shallow body of saltwater near the sea.
Larva: In many insects, such as beetles and butterflies, the life
stage after the egg and before the pupa.
Ligament: Tough but flexible tissue that connects bones.
Limbs: Legs.
Lineage: A group of animals that connect species through time
to their ancestors.
Live-bearing species: A species, or kind, of animal in which
the females give birth to babies rather than laying eggs.
Words to Know xxi

M
Mangrove: A tropical tree or shrub that forms thick growths
along coastlines.
Marine: Having to do with the sea.
Migrate: To move from one area or climate to another to breed
or feed.
Migration: Movement from one region or climate to another,
usually for breeding or feeding.
Mimicry: Resemblance of one usually dangerous species by an-
other usually harmless one.
Mollusk: An animal with a soft, unsegmented body usually
covered by a shell, such as a snail or a clam.
Molt: As seen in snakes, the shedding of the outer skin.
Murky: Dim or dark.
Musky: Smelling earthy and sometimes stinky, like the spray
of a skunk.
N
Native: Natural to a country, that is, produced by nature and
not produced or brought in by humans.
Near Threatened: At risk of becoming threatened with ex-
tinction in the future.
Nocturnal: Describing an animal active at night.
Nostrils: Nose holes.
O
Omnivore: An animal that eats both plants and meat.
Omnivorous: Describing an animal that eats both plants and
meat.
Opportunistic: Taking advantage of what is available, as in
feeding on whatever food can be found.
Opportunistic hunters: Animals that will eat almost anything
they happen upon if they are hungry.
Oscillation: In spade-headed wormlizards, the back-and-forth
swiveling motion of the head that digs through the soil and
forms the smooth sides of the tunnel.
Osteoderms: Bony plates that lie under the surface of the scaly
skin in some reptiles, including crocodilians.
Oviparous: Describing an animal that produces and lays
shelled eggs that later hatch into young.
xxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Ovoviviparous: Describing a female that produces eggs that
hatch inside her body just before she gives birth to the young.
P
Palate: A bony plate on the roof of the mouth.
Parthenogenesis: A type of reproduction where a female can
have babies by herself without a male.
Parthenogenic species: An all-female species in which a female
can become pregnant and have young by herself and with-
out a male.
Pectoral: Relating to the chest area.
Plastron: The lower shell of a turtle.
Pollution: Poison, waste, or other material that makes the en-
vironment dirty and harmful to the health of living things.
Predator: An animal that hunts and kills other animals for
food.
Prey: An animal hunted and caught for food.
Protrude: To stick out.
Pupa: In many insects, such as beetles and butterflies, the life
stage after the larva and before the adult.
Pupil: The part of the eye through which light passes.
R
Rainforest: A tropical woodland area of evergreen trees that
has heavy rainfall all year long.
Range: The area where an animal roams and feeds.
Retract: To pull backward.
Rodent: A small animal, such as a mouse, beaver, or hamster,
with long front teeth that it uses for gnawing.
S
Sac: A pouch.
Sandbar: A ridge of sand built up by currents, or the flowing
movement of water.
Savanna: A flat plain covered with grass and a few trees.
Scale: A clear, thin film or coating over the eyes or a flat, rigid
plate that acts as part of a body covering.
Scent: The particular smell of an animal, which can be left on
the surface over which it travels.
School: A large number of fish or other water-dwelling animals
that swim together.
Words to Know xxiii

Scrub: A flat, dry area of land with small bushes.
Scrubland: Land covered with small bushes.
Scute: A bony or horny scale or plate.
Seasonal: Happening as part of the changes at the different
times of the year.
Serpentine locomotion: Seen in snakes and legless lizards, the
way they slither in an S-shaped motion.
Setae: Tiny hairs or hairlike projections.
Silt: Fine, tiny specks of earth that settle out of water or fall
to the bottom.
Snout: Nose area, usually long and pointed.
Sockets: Hollow openings, usually where one body part fits
into another.
Species: A group of animals that share many traits and can
mate and produce young with one another.
Spectacle: A see-through scale that covers the eye; seen in
snakes and some lizards that do not have blinking eyelids.
Sperm: The reproductive cells that are made by male animals
and that fertilize the eggs of female animals.
Specimen: A single example that is considered typical of a
group.
Squamates: The group of animals that includes the lizards,
snakes, and wormlizards.
Stalking: A type of hunting in which the predator sneaks up
on the prey before attacking.
Stratum corneum: The outer skin that snakes lose when they
shed.
Subspecies: A smaller group within a species that typically
lives in a particular area and usually has a slightly different
look from the rest of the animals in the species.
Subtropical: Relating to regions that border on the tropics.
Swamp: A wetland that is only partly or now and then cov-
ered by water.
T
Tail: In snakes, the part of the body that occurs after the vent.
Temperate climate: Describing areas that have distinct sea-
sons, including cold winters.
Tentacles: Long thin body parts used for feeling or for hold-
ing on to things.
Terrestrial: Describing an animal that lives on land.
xxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Territorial: Describing an animal that is protective of a living
or breeding area.
Territory: An animal’s preferred living area, which is consid-
ered off-limits to other animals of the same species.
Toxic: Poisonous.
Trek: A journey, typically one that is long and difficult.
Trunk: In a snake, the portion of the body between the head
and the tail.
Tubercles: The cone-shaped bumps on a snake’s tail.
V
Venom: Poison, usually injected by snakes, bees, or scorpions
by biting or stinging.
Venomous: Poisonous.
Vent: On a snake, a crosswise opening on the belly side and
toward the rear of the animal.
Ventrals: In snakes, the scales on the underside of the animal,
usually much larger than the scales on the snake’s back and
sides.
Vertebrate: An animal that has a backbone.
Vertical: Positioned straight up and down.
Vibrate: To move back and forth rapidly.
Viviparous: Describing a female that makes no eggs, but rather
provides all of the food for her young through direct con-
nections inside her body and gives birth to live babies.
Vocal: Making sounds.
Vocal cord: Body part used to produce sound.
Vulnerable: Facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
W
Wetland: Land that is covered with shallow water or that has
very wet soil.
Contents xxv
Getting to Know Reptiles
REPTILES
Snakes, crocodiles and alligators, lizards, and turtles might
not look alike at first glance, but they all share certain features.
These animals, plus the tuataras that resemble a cross between
a prehistoric dinosaur and a present-day lizard, are reptiles. In
all, the world holds 285 species of turtles, 23 crocodiles and
alligators, two tuataras, 4,450 lizards, and 2,900 snakes. Scien-
tists suspect that hundreds of other reptile species have yet to
be discovered.
Scales
Almost all reptiles have thick tough skin with scales or
scutes. Alligators have large heavy rectangular scales covering
their bodies, while snakes often have thinner overlapping
scales. Most snakes have larger and wider belly scales, which
are known as scutes. Even turtles have noticeable scales on the
legs and head. These scales and scutes can help protect the rep-
tile from scraping its skin on the ground or from dangerous at-
tacks by other animals that want to eat it. For land-living
reptiles, the scales can also keep the body from drying out too
quickly. Besides the scales on their legs, turtles also have a dif-
ferent type of scutes. The tops of the upper and lower shell are
divided into large pieces, which are also known as scutes.
Reptiles come in many different sizes and colors. Some
snakes grow to less than 12 inches (30.5 centimeters) long as
adults, while others can reach 25 feet (7.7 meters). Likewise, a
whole range of sizes separate the smallest of turtles at just a
Getting to Know Reptiles xxvii

People often see reptiles
sunbathing, or basking, in the
sun. (John M. Burnley, Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
few inches (centimeters) long from the largest, which have

shells that can reach 8 feet (2.4 meters) in length. Many rep-
tiles have dull drab colors that help them blend into their sur-
roundings, but others are very brightly colored and patterned.
Body temperature
Reptiles are often called cold-blooded animals, but this de-
scription is only correct sometimes. A reptile actually changes
its body temperature, becoming hotter when the outside tem-
perature is warm, and colder when the outside temperature is
cool. In other words, a reptile is only “cold-blooded” on cold
days. This changing body temperature is called ectothermy (EK-
toe-ther-mee): ecto means outside and thermy refers to the
temperature. Reptiles, then, are ectothermic animals. In “warm-
blooded” animals, such as human beings, the body has to stay
about the same temperature all the time. If a person’s body tem-
perature rises or falls more than just a few degrees, he or she
can die. For the ectothermic reptiles, however, their body tem-
peratures can swing 20 to 30° F (7 to 13° C)—and sometimes
more—in a single day without causing any harm. Because they
are ectothermic, reptiles do not have to use their energy to stay
warm. Instead, they can simply let the sun warm them up by
sunbathing, or basking, on a forest path or the shore of a river
or lake. Ectothermy can also have a downside. Reptiles are
slower on cooler days or in the cool morning or evening air,
which can make them easy prey for attackers. Most reptiles,
xxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

however, hide themselves away when their
bodies start to chill.
Venom
Not all reptiles are venomous, but many
snakes and a few lizards are. Venom is a type
of toxin, or poison. Venomous snakes gen- FLYING REPTILES?
erally have two fangs in their upper jaw— No reptiles can actually fly, but several
sometimes in the front of the mouth and can glide through the air much like a
sometimes in back. These fangs usually have paper airplane. The flying tree snake,
grooves that send the venom down the tooth which is common in Singapore, flattens
and into the prey. Unlike the snakes, the two out its body to soar from one tree branch
venomous lizards, the Gila monster and the to a lower one. The common gliding lizard,
Mexican beaded lizard, store their venom in also known as the common flying dragon,
the lower jaw and deliver it through grooves can likewise glide through the air, but it
in numerous teeth. does so by stretching out a large flap of
skin, as if opening a fan, on each side of
HOW DO REPTILES MOVE? the body. The flying geckos of Southeast
Walking Asia have numerous little flaps on their
Although not all reptiles have legs, many body, tail, legs, and head that help them
of them do. Crocodiles and alligators, turtles, to glide.
most lizards, and tuataras can walk on their
four legs. Each leg ends in a foot with five or
fewer claws. Usually they walk with their legs held out from
the body, rather like a human would hold up his or her body
when doing a push-up. Many of the smaller lizards, in partic-
ular, are very speedy, zipping across the ground at speeds that
make their capture difficult. The exceptionally large lizards,
known as Komodo dragons, usually walk very slowly, as do
crocodiles, which often slide their bellies along the ground
while walking. If necessary, however, both can run surpris-
ingly fast. A few reptiles, such as the Nile crocodile and Amer-
ican crocodile, can even do a fast rabbitlike hop, called a gallop,
to cover ground quickly. Some lizards can run on just their
two hind legs, and the basilisk lizard is even able to run across
the surface of a pond without sinking.
Slithering
Snakes slither, usually twisting and bending their bodies in
an S-shaped pattern along the ground. This type of movement
is called serpentine (SER-pen-teen) locomotion. Like the
snakes, some lizards also have no legs. They move much the
Getting to Know Reptiles xxix

Flaps of skin
on the
underside of
hindfoot.
The green basilisk lizard is able same way as snakes do. Occasionally, some lizards that have
to run across water aided by
the flaps of skin on the
legs will slither instead of run. When they are in thick grass
underside of its hindfeet. that makes running very difficult, some will lie down, hold the
(Illustration by Emily Damstra. legs against the body, and begin to slither.
Reproduced by permission.)
Swimming
Many turtles, alligators, and crocodiles spend most of their
lives in the water. Turtles often have wide feet that they use to
push them through the water. A few, like the seaturtles, even
Snakes slither, usually twisting

and bending their bodies in an
S-shaped pattern along the
ground. (David Hughes/Bruce
Coleman, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
xxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

have feet that are shaped like paddles. Alliga-
tors and crocodiles have very powerful and
long tails that propel and steer their bodies
through the water. Many snakes are also ex-
cellent swimmers, moving through lakes and
streams with the same serpentine locomotion
they use to slither on land.
1
WHAT DO REPTILES EAT?
Carnivores
Many reptiles are meat-eaters, or carnivores
(KAR-nih-vores). Some of them, especially the
smaller lizards and snakes, eat mainly insects,
spiders, worms, and other invertebrates (in-
VER-teh-brehts), which are animals without
2
backbones. Larger snakes often eat mammals,
amphibians, other reptiles, fishes, and birds.
A number of snakes and lizards also eat eggs.
Snakes usually will only eat living animals,
but other species, including snapping turtles,
will eat dead, even rotting animals that they
find. 3
Plant eaters
A few reptiles, especially some of the turtle
species and a few lizards, eat plants. Animals
that eat plants are called herbivores (ER-bih-
vores). A few animals will eat both meat and plants. These are Seaturtle swimming strokes.
called omnivores (OM-nih-vores). Some turtles, including the (Illustration by Patricia Ferrer.
commonly seen painted turtles, will switch from a mostly meat Reproduced by permission.)
diet to one that is mostly plants when animal prey are hard to
find.
REPTILES AS PREDATORS AND PREY

As predators
Predators (PREH-duh-ters) are animals that hunt and kill
other animals for food. Many reptiles hunt by ambush, which
means that they find a good hiding spot or lie very still and
wait for a prey animal to happen by. Then they lunge out and
grab their prey. Other reptiles hunt by foraging, when they
crawl, slither, or swim about looking for something to eat. Many
Getting to Know Reptiles xxxi

reptiles, including lizards and turtles, simply
snap their mouths around the prey and swal-
low it. Crocodiles and alligators clamp their
jaws around larger prey, such as deer, drag
them underwater to drown, and then tear off
hunks of flesh. Snakes usually swallow their
meals whole, often by unhinging their jaws.
Many snakes are venomous, which allows
them to inject a toxin into the prey to either
kill it or knock it out.
Some reptiles, especially the lizards, mainly
use their eyes to spot their prey. Snakes have
an excellent sense of smell and are able to pick
up scents from the air and from the ground
with the tongue, which they flick again and
again while looking for food. Some snakes, in-
cluding the pit vipers, have small holes on the
front of the face. These holes, or pits, are cov-
ered with a thin sheet of detectors that can
pick up the heat given off by a prey animal.
Snakes are also able to sense ground vibrations
through the jaw bone, which connects to the
ear. They can not only feel the ground move,
but they can also hear it.
An Amazon tree boa eating a
bird. (Joe McDonald, Bruce As prey
Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
permission.) Prey are those animals that are hunted by other animals for
food. Eagles, hawks, other large birds, along with some mam-
mals, eat snakes and lizards. In fact, some snakes and lizards
eat other snakes and lizards. One of the biggest threats to tur-
tles come from mammals that dig up their nests and eat their
eggs.
WHERE REPTILES LIVE

Underground reptiles
The tuataras, many lizards, and some snakes, including the
blind snakes, spend most of their time underground in bur-
rows, or beneath rocks, logs, or other ground covers. Some of
them stay underground all day and only come out at night.
Others stay underground all night and sneak out during the
day. Some burrowing reptiles dig their own burrows, but many
others simply move into the burrow of another animal.
xxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Crocodiles may grab an animal
on shore, but will drag it into
the water to drown it. (Fritz
Polkina/Bruce Coleman, Inc.
Freshwater reptiles
Alligators and crocodiles, many turtles, some snakes, and a
few lizards live in freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams.
Depending on the species, they may spend a good deal of time
every day on shore basking in a sunny spot. Some will even do
some hunting on land. Crocodiles, for instance, may grab a prey
animal on shore but will then drag it into the water to drown it.
Sea reptiles
Among the reptiles, the seaturtles are most known for their
association with the oceans. With their paddlelike front legs,
they can glide easily through the water and cover very long dis-
tances, often migrating hundreds of miles (kilometers) between
their nesting beaches in warm climates and their feeding areas
in cooler climates. The leatherback seaturtle migrates the far-
thest, taking trips of up to 3,100 miles (5,000 kilometers) from
its nesting place to a feeding site. Some snakes also live in the
ocean. The seasnakes make their home in coral reefs, where
they eat eels and fishes.
Tree reptiles
Animals that live in trees are said to be arboreal (pronounced
ar-BOR-ee-ul). Some reptiles are arboreal. These include many
snakes, even large ones like the emerald tree boa that can grow
to 7.3 feet (2.2 meters) in length. Many lizards are also excel-
lent climbers and slither through trees looking for insects or
bird eggs to eat.
Getting to Know Reptiles xxxiii

NEW REPTILES
Scientists believe that many more species. He named the snake Slowinski’s
reptiles live on Earth than those they know corn snake in honor of snake researcher
about. In fact, they are continuing to find Joseph Slowinski, who died in 2001 when
new reptiles today. he was bitten by venomous snake.
Sometimes, they discover new species Besides finding new species in old ones,
inside old ones. In other words, they decide scientists are also discovering new never-
that a snake or lizard that they always before-seen species in remote places
thought was one species is actually two where few humans have ever traveled. In
similar-looking species. In 2003, for 2001, for example, scientists Blair Hedges
example, Wolfgang Waster of the School of of Pennsylvania State University and
Biological Sciences at the University of Richard Thomas of the University of Puerto
Wales and keepers from the London Zoo Rico discovered a tiny lizard that is smaller
received a group of strangely colored than any other known lizard. This little
spitting cobras. After taking a closer look, reptile, which measures barely more than
they discovered that the snakes were one-half inch (16 millimeters) long, is a little
actually a completely different and gecko that lives on the island of Beata in
previously unknown species, which they the Dominican Republic. This species is
called the Nubian cobra. Similarly, zoologist one of more than four dozen new reptiles
Frank Burbrink studied American corn and amphibians that Hedges and Thomas
snakes and found that one was so different have discovered in hard-to-reach spots in
from the others that it should be its own the Caribbean.
REPRODUCTION
Most female reptiles lay eggs, but some give birth to babies.
Some of the newborn babies may have actually hatched from
eggs while they were still inside the mother. Female reptiles all
lay their eggs or give birth to their babies on land. Even those
that live in the water for the rest of the year crawl onto shore
to have their young. Tuataras lay eggs in their burrows. Some
female turtles and crocodiles bury their eggs on shore or far-
ther inland. A few turtle species lay their eggs in leaf piles. Af-
ter laying the eggs, a female turtle leaves the nest, and the young
are on their own. Crocodiles care for their young, bringing the
new hatchlings from the nest site to the water. Snakes and
xxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

1 2
3
4
lizards may lay eggs or have babies. In some species, the female Egg laying strategies.
1. Peninsula cooter turtle;
may remain with the eggs and/or the young, although scien- 2. American alligator;
tists are unsure how much real protection or care many of the 3. Python; 4. Copperhead.
mother snakes actually provide. (Illustration by Dan Erickson.
REPTILES AND PEOPLE

Many people keep reptiles as pets. This can be a problem if
the animal bites, if it grows too large, or if it lives too long. Some
snakes, for example, can grow to be 6 feet (1.8 meters) long or
more, and some turtles can live to be 100 years old. In the wild,
most people only see reptiles when the animals are warming
themselves in the sun. Usually, the reptile will leave the area as
the person draws near. If the animal is surprised, however, some
reptiles may bite. Not all snakes are venomous, but some are.
A bite from a venomous snake can be dangerous and even deadly
and requires an immediate visit to the hospital.
ENDANGERED REPTILES
Reptiles in danger
Many, many species of reptiles may disappear from the
Earth soon, if they do not receive some protection. Two-
Getting to Know Reptiles xxxv

1 2
3 4
5 6
Reptilian visual displays: thirds of all turtle species, for example, are now listed by the
1. Cottonmouth uses gaping
mouth as a defensive warning;
World Conservation Union (IUCN) as being at risk. Overall,
2. Frilled lizard looks larger as a the IUCN counts 453 species of reptiles, or more than one
defensive display; 3. A ringneck in every six species, as being at some risk. Moreover, scien-
snake draws attention away
from its head and shows its tists know so little about many species that others may be at
coloration as a defense; 4. The risk, too.
alligator snapping turtle uses a
food lure to attract its prey; The decline in reptile populations is commonly a result of
5. and 6. Territorial or mating habitat destruction or of overhunting for their meat or skin or
displays for green anole (5) and for the pet trade. For turtles, much of the danger comes from
tuatara (6). (Illustration by Dan
Erickson. Reproduced by the growing number of predator animals that dig up turtle nests
permission.) and eat the eggs. Scientists estimate, for instance, that 75 to 90
xxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

A KwaZulu-Natal Nature
Conservation Service staff
member cuts notches into the
carapace of a loggerhead turtle
hatchling as part of a research
project. (©Roger De La Harpe:
Gallo Images/CORBIS.
percent of the eggs from some species of North American tur-

tles are lost each year to such predators.
Saving endangered reptiles
In some cases, scientists, government agencies, and/or other
concerned groups are protecting the land where the animals live
and setting up laws that prevent overhunting. Many zoos are also
helping by trying to breed their own captive reptiles. This is es-
pecially important for those species that are already very rare.
Too late to save
According to the IUCN, twenty-one species of reptiles are
extinct. This includes three snakes, eleven lizards, and seven
turtles.
FOR MORE INFORMATION

Books:
Badger, David. Lizards. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Behler, John. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Reptiles and Am-
phibians of the World. New York: Simon and Schuster Inc.,
1989, 1997.
Getting to Know Reptiles xxxvii

Cleaver, Andrew. Snakes and Reptiles: A Portrait of the Ani-
mal World. Wigston, Leicester, England: Magna Books,
1994.
Irwin, Steve, and Terri Irwin. The Crocodile Hunter. New York:
Penguin Putnam, 1997.
Ivy, Bill. Nature’s Children: Lizards. Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1990.
Lamar, William. The World’s Most Spectacular Reptiles and Am-
phibians. Tampa, FL: World Publications, 1997.
Lockwood, C. C. The Alligator Book. Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University Press, 2002.
Mattison, Chris. Lizards of the World. New York: Facts on File,
1989.
Mattison, Chris. The Encyclopedia of Snakes. New York: DK Pub-
lishing Inc., 1997.
McCarthy, Colin. Eyewitness: Reptile. New York: DK Publish-
ing, 2000.
Montgomery, Sy. The Snake Scientist (Scientists in the Field).
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.
O’Shea, Mark, and Tim Halliday. Smithsonian Handbooks: Rep-
tiles and Amphibians. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Rue, Leonard Lee. Alligators and Crocodiles. Wigston, Leicas-
ter, England: Magna Books, 1994.
Tesar, Jenny. What on Earth is a Tuatara? Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Press, 1994.
Periodicals:
Barr, Brady, and Margaret Zackowitz. “The Big Squeeze. (The
Icky Adventure of Brady Barr).” National Geographic Kids.
May 2003, page 40.
Calvert, Pam. “Out of Control!: The Brown Tree Snake.”
Odyssey. April 2000, page 23.
Chiang, Mona. “The Plight of the Turtle.” Science World. May
9, 2003, page 8.
Gill, Paul G., Jr. “Red on Yellow, Kill a Fellow! Get Snake-smart
before Heading into the Wild.” Boys’ Life. April 2004, page
26.
Mealy, Nora Steiner. “Creatures from Komodo.” Ranger Rick.
August 2001, page 18.
xxxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Murphy, Thomas J. “Swamp Wars.” Boys’ Life. November 2000,
page 10.
Myers, Jack. “Flicking tongues.” Highlights for Children. Sep-
tember 1997, page 32.
O’Meara, Stephen. “Creature from the Black Lagoon.” Odyssey.
March 1999, page 42.
Scheid, Darrin. “It’s a Bird! It’s a Plane! It’s a Snake.” Boys’ Life.
January 2003, page 11.
Swarts, Candice. “The Tortoise and the Pair.” National Geo-
graphic Kids. October 2003, page 14.
Thompson, Sharon. “Attention, Lizard Parents.” National Geo-
graphic World. May 2002, page 6.
Web sites:
“All About Turtles.” Gulf of Maine Aquarium. http://octopus
.gma.org/turtles/ (accessed on November 1, 2004).
“How fast can a crocodile run?” Crocodilian Biology Database,
Florida Museum of Natural History. http://www.flmnh.ufl
.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/cbd-faq-q4.htm (accessed
on November 1, 2004).
“Reptiles.” Environmental Education for Kids. http://www.dnr
.state.wi.us/org/caer/ce/eek/critter/reptile/index.htm (accessed
“Reptiles.” San Diego Natural History Museum. http://www.sdnhm
.org/exhibits/reptiles/index.html (accessed on November 1,
2004).
“Snakes.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.kidsplanet.org/
factsheets/snakes.html (accessed on November 1, 2004).
Sohn, Emily. “The Cool Side of Snake Pits.” Science News for
Kids. http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20030625/
Note2.asp (accessed on November 1, 2004).
Sohn, Emily. “Delivering a Little Snake Venom.” Science News
for Kids. http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20030903/
Feature1.asp (accessed on November 1, 2004).
Trivedi, Bigal P. “Smallest Known Lizard Found in Caribbean.”
National Geographic. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/
news/2001/12/1203_TVtinylizard.html (accessed on Novem-
ber 1, 2004).
Getting to Know Reptiles xxxix

DINOSAURS
Class: Reptilia
Superorder: Dinosauria
●
Number of orders: 2 orders
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
The dinosaurs are a large group of reptiles that lived from class
230 to 65 million years ago. Some, such as the well-known
subclass
Tyrannosaurus rex, were enormous meat-eating animals. Oth-
ers, however, were small and timid creatures that nibbled on ● order
plants. monotypic order
Scientists divide the dinosaurs into two orders. One order is
suborder
Saurischia, which includes the theropods (THAIR-oh-pods)
that walked on their two hind legs and were mostly meat-eat- family
ing dinosaurs and the sauropods (SAWR-oh-pods) that walked
on all fours and ate plants. The theropods had more primitive
features, including jagged teeth, and some, such as the Cer-
atosaurus, had hornlike knobs jutting out of their skulls. Tyran-
nosaurus rex was a theropod. Although it was quite large at 40
to 50 feet (12.2 to 15.2 meters) long, its ancestors only grew
to about 10 feet (3 meters) long.
The sauropods looked much different than the theropods.
They had very long necks and tiny heads. Some of them were
able to lift their front legs off the ground and grab leaves or
other things with their hands. Other species, including Bra-
chiosaurus, had longer front legs than hind legs, similar to the
arrangement in current-day giraffes. Their tall front legs, com-
bined with their overly long necks, helped them easily reach
food even at the tops of most trees.
The other order within the dinosaurs is Ornithischia, which
included those dinosaurs that ate plants and had hip bones that
looked like those found in present-day birds. Many of them had
Dinosaurs 1
crests, beaks, horns, or helmets, and some had armor-like
plates, called scutes, covering their bodies and occasionally
spikes. Stegosaurs are an example of an Orinithischian. These
dinosaurs had armor-like spines down the middle of the back
and spiked tails. The Ornithischia also includes the duckbill di-
nosaurs with their wide snouts.
Within these two orders of dinosaurs, the animals are fur-
ther split into several hundred smaller groups, called genera
(jen-AIR-uh). One or more species is grouped into each genus
(JEAN-us), which is the singular of genera.
Although the name dinosaur actually means “terrible
lizards,” dinosaurs are not lizards and are different from all
other groups of reptiles. One of the major differences between
dinosaurs and other reptiles is in the way they moved. Lizards
and crocodiles walk with their legs held out to the side, in the
same type of position a person’s arms take when doing pushups.
A few dinosaurs sprawled their front legs like a lizard, but the
vast majority of them walked like a dog or cat—with the legs
directly below the hips and shoulders.
Many scientists also now suspect that at least some of the
dinosaurs were warm-blooded, instead of cold-blooded like
other reptiles. A warm-blooded animal, more properly called
an endothermic (EN-doe-THER-mik) animal, uses its own en-
ergy to keep its body at a constant temperature. Cold-blooded,
or ectothermic (EK-toe-THER-mik), animals get their body heat
from an outside source, like the warmth of the sun.
Dinosaurs came in many shapes and sizes. The Seismosaurus,
or “earth-shaking dinosaur,” may have been the longest at 120
to 150 feet (36.6 to 45.7 meters) long. The heaviest may have
been the Argentinosaurus, which grew to 100 to 130 feet (30.5
to 39.6 meters) long and weighed 110 tons (99,800 kilograms).
Other enormous dinosaurs include the Supersaurus at 100 feet
(30.5 meters) long and about 50 tons (45,000 kilograms) and
the Brachiosaurus at 85 feet (25.9 meters) long and about 75
tons (68,000 kilograms). The Tyrannosaurus rex, a name that
is often shortened to T. rex, was considerably smaller at 40 to
50 feet (12.2 to 15.2 meters) long and 6 tons (5,400 kilograms)
in weight. Since T. rex stood on its hind legs rather than on all
fours, it towered over most other dinosaurs. Other similarly
sized meat-eating dinosaurs were the Gigantosaurus, Spin-
osaurus, and Carcharodontosaurus. All dinosaurs were not gi-
ants, however. Some, such as the Saltopus and Lesothosaurus,
2 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

were only 24 to 36 inches (61 to 91 centimeters) long, and the
tiny Microraptor’s full-grown size may have been only about 16
inches (41 centimeters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Earth that the early dinosaurs knew looked much dif-
ferent than the Earth does today. The planet had a single, huge
land mass, called Pangaea, and the dinosaurs lived over much
of this area, particularly in the warmer climates. About 180 mil-
lion years ago—50 million years after the dinosaurs first
evolved—Pangaea began to split up and eventually formed the
continents seen on Earth today. Given such huge changes, a fos-
sil found nowadays in Germany, for example, says nothing about
the location of the dinosaur that left it 220 million years ago.
HABITAT
Because scientists are studying fossils from many millions of
years ago, rather than living animals, they usually cannot tell
much about the dinosaur’s habitat. They do, however, suspect
that none of them lived in the water. Although a few dinosaurs
may have been able to keep their bodies afloat for brief peri-
ods, or could wade to catch fish, none were full-time swim-
mers. Some scientists believe that sauropod dinosaurs may have
been able to float and, based on footprints left behind, think
they pushed themselves along by bouncing their front feet on
the bottom of the pond or lake.
DIET
About two-thirds of all genera contain dinosaurs that were
plant eaters, and a third of the genera include meat-eating di-
nosaurs. Scientists can determine whether a dinosaur ate meat
or plants by looking at its teeth. The teeth of meat-eaters, also
known as carnivores (KAR-nih-voars), are pointed for tearing
flesh. The teeth of a plant-eater, or herbivore (ER-bih-voar), are
flatter for grinding grasses and leaves. Studies of other dinosaur
bones can also reveal information about their diet. One study,
for instance, showed that some dinosaurs were cannibals. By
looking at teeth marks on the bones of certain dinosaurs and
comparing the marks to the teeth of the same species, the sci-
entists figured out that the reptile was eating its own kind. This
particular species, a theropod called Majungatholus atopus, grew
to 29.5 feet (9 meters) long.
Dinosaurs 3
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
With almost nothing but fossils to study, scientists can only
guess at most dinosaur behavior. For example, although T. rex
is often described as a ferocious predator, scientists only know
that it had a skeleton that likely supported a strong body, and
it had the jaws and teeth necessary to eat large prey animals.
It is possible, however, that T. rex never even attacked live an-
imals, but instead ate only animals that were already dead. Re-
cently, scientists think they may have found evidence that some
dinosaurs were social animals, which means that they spent
time together in groups. They based this idea on a fossil find
in Patagonia, where the bones of six, large, carnivorous di-
nosaurs were found huddled together in one area. The scien-
tists think the dinosaurs, a new species that measures 40 feet
(12.2 meters) long and had sharp and bladelike teeth, may have
hunted together so they could attack and kill sauropods that
grew to at least twice their size. Scientists believe some di-
nosaurs were social because their bones suggest that they were
able to make loud noises. The lambeosaurs, for instance, had
sound-producing tubes inside the skull, and scientists suspect
that the animals communicated with one another.
Scientists sometimes find dinosaur footprints that have been
preserved over time. From these, they can learn how the ani-
mal moved. Footprints of ornithomimids, which were ostrich-
like dinosaurs, show that they could run at least 25 miles (40
kilometers) an hour, while those of a 3-foot-long (9 meter) meat
eater called a Megalosaurus could zip along on its hind legs at
speeds of 29 miles (48 kilometers) an hour. By looking at the
bones of dinosaurs, scientists can also guess their fastest run-
ning speed. A recent study of T. rex bones shows that it prob-
ably could run no faster than the much smaller ornithomomids.
Scientists have recently found many dinosaur eggs, some of
them with young still inside. A group of Allosaurus eggs found
in Portugal provided some clues to the way they were born. The
egg shells were covered with tiny holes, called pores, and looked
very much like the pore-covered eggs of current-day crocodil-
ians. The pores allow air to flow into the eggs, so the growing
babies can breathe. Based on these findings, scientists believe the
female dinosaurs of this species laid their eggs in mounds of veg-
etation or buried them, just as the now-living crocodilians do.
One of the best places in the world to find dinosaur fossils is
Mongolia. In 1993, scientists learned that it was also an excellent

place to find eggs with developing babies,
called embryos (EM-bree-ohs), still inside.
Here, they discovered a nest containing the
first embryo ever found of a meat-eating di-
nosaur. It was a theropod, called an ovirap-
torid, that looked much like an ostrich, and
the embryo dated back 70 to 80 million years BRING BACK THE DINOS!
ago. Interestingly, they also found the skulls
Movies and TV shows sometimes
of two small velociraptors in the nest. Were
pretend that humans today can bring the
the velociraptors there to eat the eggs, or had
extinct dinosaurs back to life by growing
the mother oviraptorid brought the velocirap-
them from bits of their DNA found in fossils.
tors to feed her babies? Scientists do not know
In one such film, called “Jurassic Park,” a
for sure. Some even guess that the mother ve-
scientist found dinosaur blood in the
lociraptor may have laid her eggs in the ovi-
stomachs of prehistoric blood-sucking
raptorid nest. If the oviraptorid mother did not
insects that had been preserved through
notice the intruders, she would raise them as
the ages in tree sap. The blood contained
her own.
DNA, which is found in each of a body’s
DINOSAURS AND PEOPLE cells and holds the instructions for making
the animal. In the film, he was able to
Despite the pictures in some cartoons and
create a dinosaur from that DNA. Although
science fiction movies that show cave people
scientists do sometimes find prehistoric
living at the same time as the dinosaurs, sci-
insects, they have yet to find any blood
entists know that this is not true. By dating
inside, whether from a dinosaur or not.
dinosaur fossils, they can definitely state that
Even if they did, any DNA in the ancient
dinosaurs lived between 230 to 65 million
blood would most likely be in such bad
years ago. Humans did not evolve until about
shape that it would be useless.
one million years ago. Nonetheless, people
nowadays are very interested in these reptiles
from the planet’s past. Television programs,
films, books, web sites, and entire museum wings are devoted
to the description or study of these animals.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago. Their
deaths likely resulted from a huge asteroid, a rock from outer
space, that slammed into the Earth, probably near the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico. The impact from the 4 to 9 mile-wide (6
to 15 kilometer) asteroid sent up a thick plume of dust and
caused a chain reaction that resulted in a severe change in the
planet’s climate. For years afterward, the sun was unable to pen-
etrate the dark curtain of dust. Temperatures around the world
began to drop. Without sunlight, plants died, and with fewer
plants to eat, many herbivores also perished. With fewer and
Dinosaurs 5
fewer herbivores to eat, the carnivores may have begun to eat
each other, until they also disappeared. Scientists believe that
one group of dinosaurs survived the great extinction, however.
These were the dromaeosaurids that eventually evolved into the
birds. For this reason, some books refer to birds as modern-
day dinosaurs.
Books:
Farlow, James O., and M. K. Brett-Surman, eds. The Complete Dinosaur.
Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997.
Haines, Tim. Walking with Dinosaurs: A Natural History. New York: Dorling
Kindersley, 2000.
Holta, Thomas R., Michael Brett-Surman, and Robert Walters. Jurassic
Park Institute (TM) Dinosaur Field Guide. New York: Random House
Books for Young Readers, 2001.
Lambert, David, and Steve Hutt. DK Guide to Dinosaurs. New York: Dorling
Kindersley, 2000.
Paul, Gregory S., ed. The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs. New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
Weishampel, David B., Peter Dodson, and Halszka Osmólska, eds. The
Dinosauria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
Periodicals:
Adams, Judith. “Footsteps in Time.” Faces: People, Places, and Cultures.
April 2003, vol. 19: 30.
Hesman, Tina. “Dinosaurs, party of six, meat eating.” Science News. April
1, 2000, vol. 157: 223.
Mandel, Peter. “Dino Might! 10 Recent Discoveries That Have Rocked
the Dinosaur World.” National Geographic Kids. March 2003: 14.
Davy, Emma. “Crash Test: What Wiped Out the Dinosaurs? Scientists
Studying an Enormous Crater in Mexico Hope to Find the Answer.” Current
Science. September 27, 2002, vol. 88: 6.
Perkins, Sid. “Bob, Bob, Bobbin’ Along: Dinosaur Buoyancy May Explain
Odd Tracks.” Science News. October 25, 2003, vol. 164: 262.
Web sites:
“Dinosaur embryo.” American Museum of Natural History. http://
www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/
Dinosaur_Embryo/embryo.html?dinos (accessed on December 22,
2004).

“Dinosaurs.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dinosaurs/ (accessed on De-
cember 22, 2004).
“Dinosaurs.” EnchantedLearning.com. http://www.enchantedlearning.
com/subjects/dinosaurs/ (accessed on December 22, 2004).
“Dinosaurs.” KidSites.com. http://www.kidsites.com/sites-edu/dinosaurs
.htm (accessed on December 22, 2004).
“Dinosaurs.” Scholastic. http://teacher.scholastic.com/researchtools/
articlearchives/dinos/general.htm (accessed on December 22, 2004).
“The Science of ‘Jurassic Park’: Frequently Asked Questions.” San Diego
Natural History Museum. http://www.sdnhm.org/research/paleontology/
jp_qanda.html (accessed on December 22, 2004).
“What is a Dinosaur?” San Diego Natural History Museum. http://www
.sdnhm.org/kids/dinosaur/dino.html (accessed on December 22,
2004).
Dinosaurs 7
TURTLES AND TORTOISES
Testudines
●
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Number of families: 14 families
order C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
class Turtles and tortoises, which are in the order Testudines, have
bony upper and lower shells that surround much of the body. The
subclass
upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays), can be tall and rounded,
● order can be flat, or can be some shape in between. The lower shell, or
monotypic order plastron (PLAS-trun), can cover most or just a portion of the bot-
tom of the animal, depending on the species. In most cases, the
suborder upper shell connects to the lower shell by way of a bony bridge.
family In some species, the bridge is made of more flexible tissue called
ligament (LIH-guh-ment). The hard shell often is covered with
large scales called scutes (SCOOTS). In some species, new scutes
grow under the old ones, and the old ones pile up. A person can
count the number of scutes in the pile to tell how old the turtle
is. Softshell turtles have no scutes. They do have small bony shells,
but the bones are covered with leathery or rubbery skin.
Besides shells, another feature of turtles and tortoises is that
they have no teeth. Instead they have hard, flat surfaces on their
jaws that allow them to grip and tear off bits of plants or ani-
mals for feeding. Sometimes these surfaces come to a sharp
point in front and look much like the hook on the end of a
hawk’s or eagle’s beak. Turtles with such pointed upper jaws
are often said to have horny beaks.
Turtles and tortoises, like birds, dogs, humans, and other an-
imals, are vertebrates (VER-teh-brehts), which means they have
a backbone. Turtles and tortoises are unlike all other vertebrates
in that their hip and shoulder bones are inside the rib cage in-
stead of outside because the ribs are attached to the upper and

lower shells. If the shoulder and hip bones were outside the rib
cage, they would have to be outside the shell.
Many turtles and tortoises have long necks, which they can
pull back or stretch out. Because some species can pull their
necks straight back and others can only pull them sideways,
scientists often describe them as being in the hidden-necked
group, called Cryptodira, or in the side-necked group, called
Pleurodira. A hidden-necked turtle can pull its neck straight
back and usually tuck its whole neck and head inside the shell.
A side-necked turtle pulls its neck back sideways, often tuck-
ing the neck and head along the side of the body and against
the bridge between the upper and lower shells.
Turtles come in many sizes. The largest living species is the
leatherback sea turtle, which can weigh up to 1,191 pounds
(540 kilograms), or more than half a ton. The upper shell can
become 8 feet (2.4 meters) long. Some of the smallest of the
Testudines are the speckled cape tortoise, flattened musk tur-
tle, and bog turtle. The carapace on each of these three animals
barely reaches 4.7 inches (12 centimeters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Turtles and tortoises live on all continents except Antarctica.
HABITAT
Depending on the species, turtles and tortoises can live on
land, in fresh water, in the ocean, and along the coast. They
live on many of the larger islands of the oceans and on every
continent of the world except Antarctica.
DIET
Some species of turtles and tortoises are almost completely
vegetarian, some eat almost nothing but meat, and still others
eat a mix of meat and plants. Many turtles are opportunistic (ah-
per-too-NIS-tik) feeders, meaning that they eat just about any-
thing they can find, from fruits and leaves to live tadpoles and
bits of dead fish. In some species, baby turtles eat mostly insects
and other meat but switch to mostly plants as they get older.

One of the most commonly known behaviors of turtles and
tortoises is their ability to pull their legs, tail, neck, and head in-
side the shell. Many of them hide from attackers this way, but
Turtles and Tortoises 9

not all of them are able to do it. Side-necked turtles, for exam-
ple, can pull in the tail and legs but can only tuck their necks
along the bridge. Other species, like the big-headed turtle, are
hidden-necked but their heads are too large to fit inside the shell.
Other turtles have hinges in the lower shell that allow them to
draw the lower and upper shells tight against one another once
the head, neck, legs, and tail are inside. A few species even have
hinges on the upper shell. Attacking animals, or predators
(PREH-duh-ters), find it very difficult to get at the turtle’s soft
body inside such a tightly closed shell, and the turtle usually sur-
vives without harm. Besides protecting the turtle from attackers,
the shells protect the turtle from drying out too much on hot,
dry days. Hinges in the back of the plastron also allow the shell
to open wide enough for some female turtles to lay large eggs.
Many water-living turtles are excellent swimmers. Some,
such as leatherback turtles, have paddle-like front legs that help
them swim hundreds of miles in a year. Others, such as soft-
shell turtles, have webbing between their toes that helps them
sweep through the water. Some species of water-living turtles,
however, are poor swimmers. American mud and musk turtles,
for example, are small to medium-sized turtles that move slowly
through the water by walking across the bottom rather than
swimming. Land-living turtles and tortoises can get around
quite well on the ground, although their shells do not allow
enough leg movement for fast running.
Turtles and tortoises are able to protect themselves from
predators by hiding inside their shells and in other ways. Many
turtles have musk glands, which are small sacs that ooze a sub-
stance with a strong odor. This odor may be enough to make
a predator stop its attack and leave the area. Some turtles fight
back with strong bites. Snapping turtles, for example, are vi-
cious and quickly fling out their long necks to bite at anything
or anyone coming too close. Besides having a hard bite, snap-
ping turtles have sharp claws that can badly scratch anyone
who picks up the turtle from behind. Other species that are
quick to bite include softshell and musk turtles.
During mating season, or courtship, the males of many species
of turtles and tortoises try to attract females by methods that can
range from head bobbing and gentle rubbing against the female
to biting her legs or ramming his shell into hers. Some species,
on the other hand, have no such courtship behaviors. Species
that live in warmer areas may mate and nest at various times of

the year, but those that live in cooler areas
usually mate in the fall or spring and nest in
the spring or summer. In many species, the
female can mate once and lay eggs from that
mating for several years.
Most female turtles and tortoises nest by
finding a spot on dry land, digging a hole, HOW TURTLES AND TORTOISES USE
THEIR SHELLS
dropping the eggs inside, and burying them.
A few species skip making a hole and simply A turtle’s shell can be important in
lay their eggs among leaves on the surface of several ways. It can help the turtle protect
the ground. Most turtles and tortoises provide itself from attacking animals. The shells of
no further care for their eggs or young. The some turtles are so thick and strong that
Asian giant tortoise is an exception. The fe- they can even resist the bite of a large
male of this species lays her eggs and stays with crocodile. Other turtles, such as Asian river
the nest for a few days to keep away predators. turtles, often dive very deeply, where the
Most of the smaller species of turtles and tor- water pressure would be severe enough to
toises lay one to four eggs at a time, but larger crush their lungs if they were not protected
species can lay fifty or more. For most turtles by the shell. In turtles that live in very dry
and tortoises, the temperature of the nest con- places, the shell provides a shield from the
trols whether the eggs hatch into males or fe- sun and helps the turtle keep from drying
males. A very warm nest usually produces out too much. Tortoises, which live only on
females, and a cooler nest produces males. In land, use their shells for yet another
some species, an extremely cold nest temper- purpose. They collect rain in the crevices
ature produces females too. In a few species, of their upper shells and then tip their
the nests have about equal numbers of males bodies forward so the water runs down the
and females, no matter what the temperature sides and into their mouths.
of the nest. Newly hatched turtles and tor-
toises, or hatchlings, have a small, hard, tooth-
like part on the upper jaw called a caruncle (KAR-un-kul), which
helps them break out of the egg. Hatchlings usually head straight
for the water or for a hiding spot on land, but a few species that
hatch during cold winter months stay underground until spring.
Adults of many species that live in colder climates enter a state
of deep sleep, or hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun), during the
winter months. Many species that live in hotter areas survive dry
weather by entering a state of deep sleep known as estivation (est-
ih-VAY-shun).
TURTLES, TORTOISES, AND PEOPLE

Many people hunt turtles for food or to use in making tra-
ditional medicines. Humans also collect many kinds of turtles
and tortoises for the pet trade.
Turtles and Tortoises 11

CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), nearly
half of all living species of turtles and tortoises are at risk of be-
coming extinct. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists thirteen
U.S. species and twenty-four foreign species as Endangered.
Many species are at risk because of overhunting and overcol-
lecting or because their habitat is disappearing. Efforts are un-
der way to protect many species.
Books:
Behler, John L., and F. Wayne King. The Audubon Society Field Guide to
North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Knopf, 1979.
Burnie, David, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Animal: The Definitive Visual
Guide to the World’s Wildlife. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. A Field Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. 3rd ed. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1998.
Ernst, C. H., and R. W. Barbour. Turtles of the World. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989.
Ernst, C. H., J. E. Lovich, and R. W. Barbour. Turtles of the United States
and Canada. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994.
Harding, J. H., and J. A. Holman. Michigan Turtles and Lizards. East
Lansing: Michigan State University, 1990.
Pough, F. H., R. M. Andrews, J. E. Cadle, M. L. Crump, A. H. Savitzky, and
K. D. Wells. Herpetology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
Stebbins, Robert C. A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians.
3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory
Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001.

PIG-NOSE TURTLE
Carettochelyidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Carettochelyidae
One species: Pig-nose turtle
(Carettochekys
insculpta)
family C H A P T E R
This family has only one member: the pig-nose turtle. This is class
quite a large freshwater turtle, with an upper shell that can reach subclass
22 inches (56 centimeters) in length and 14 inches (35.6 cen-
timeters) in width. It may weigh up to 50 pounds (22.7 kilo- order
grams). It often swims with just its long snout sticking out of the monotypic order
water. That long snout is one of its most notable features. A fleshy, suborder
tube-shaped structure, it is similar in appearance to the snout of
a pig. The shell of the pig-nose turtle is also different from that ▲ family
of most other turtles. The shells of most turtles are covered in
bony plates, called “scutes” (SCOOTS). The pig-nose turtle, on
the other hand, has a hard shell with a leathery covering.
This turtle also has long front legs that can stretch to a length
almost half as long as the carapace (KARE-a-pays), or upper
shell. The legs are flat and wide, like paddles or flippers. In
fact, the limbs, or legs, more nearly look like the front legs of
marine turtles, or turtles that live in the sea, than those of other
freshwater turtles. Each front limb is tipped with two claws. In
color, the turtle is mostly olive or gray on the tops of its limbs
and high-domed upper shell and is whitish or yellowish on its
bottom shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), and on its chin, lower
neck, and the undersides of its limbs. Males and females look
very much alike, except for the male’s larger tail. Besides their
smaller size, juveniles (JOO-vuh-nuhls), or young turtles, dif-
fer from adults in the smoothness of the carapace. The juvenile
carapace has a lumpy ridge, called a “keel,” down the middle
and is jagged along the edge, whereas the adult carapace does
Pig-nose Turtle 13
not have a keel anywhere except toward the
back, and it is rounded at the edge.
At one time scientists believed that these
turtles should be included with the side-
necked turtles, a group known as the Pleu-
rodira, rather than the hidden-necked turtles,
A TURTLE BY ANY OTHER NAME or the Cryptodira. The better-known hidden-
Although the family Carettochelyidae necked turtles pull their heads and necks
contains only one species, a person might straight back into their shells, whereas side-
think several exist. The reason is that the necked turtles fold their necks sideways. Sci-
one species, Carettochelys insculpta, goes entists based their decision mostly on the
by the common names pig-nose turtle, pig- location of the first turtle discovered back in
nosed turtle, Fly River turtle, and pitted- the late 1800s. The original specimen (SPEH-
shelled turtle, to name just a few. They are suh-muhn), or example, was not whole; it was
one and the same turtle. Sometimes missing the part of its backbone that would
common names describe a body feature. have shown scientists whether it was a side-
For instance, “pig-nose” refers to the necked or a hidden-necked turtle. Because it
turtle’s piglike snout. Common names can was found in New Guinea and all of the other
also identify the species’ home. “Fly River,” turtles known from New Guinea or from Aus-
for example, names one of the places the tralia at that time were of the side-necked va-
turtle is found in New Guinea. riety, the scientific community assumed that
the pig-nose turtle must be a side-necked tur-
tle too. As more of these turtles turned up,
however, scientists were able to take a closer look at the back-
bone, and they discovered that this species should be considered
a hidden-necked turtle.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This turtle is found in southern New Guinea and northern
Australia.
HABITAT
The pig-nose turtle usually lives in freshwater rivers, lakes,
swamps, and other water bodies with shady shorelines. Some-
times it makes its home in saltier estuaries (EHS-chew-air-eez),
or the wide parts at the lower end of rivers that link these water
bodies to the ocean. They tend to prefer slower-moving and even
unmoving waters that have soft bottoms of silt, or loose earth, on
top of sand or gravel. The pig-nose turtle is sometimes also called
Fly River turtle, because it is found in the Fly River in Papua,
New Guinea. Scientists once thought the turtle lived only in New
Guinea, but ten of the turtles were discovered in Australia’s Daly

River in 1970. They later were also found in the Alligator River
system of Australia about 240 miles (386 kilometers) from the
Daly River site, as well as other places in northern Australia.
DIET
Pig-nose turtles will eat just about anything they can find.
They seem to prefer plants; they especially like figs and other
fruits that drop from trees along the shoreline, but they will eat
leaves, flowers, underwater plants, and the tiny plantlike
growths called algae (AL-jee). They will also eat hard cones that
require a solid bite to break open. They are not strict plant
eaters, however. If the turtles find the wormlike young form of
an insect, called a “grub”; a beetle; or an ant, they will eat those
too. They will even partake of freshwater snails or other mol-
lusks, crustaceans (krus-TAY-shuns) such as shrimp, or even
dead mammals or birds.

Unlike most other water-living turtles, the pig-nose turtle
swims by paddling its large front legs, rather than using mainly
its hind legs. It uses the hind limbs, which have webbing, to
help them paddle and steer. They do not bask, or sun them-
selves, but they do warm their bodies by swimming to areas of
the water with higher temperatures, such as small thermal
springs, or hot springs. There, they lie on the river bottom,
above the outpouring of hot water, and heat up their “cold-
blooded” bodies. Like other animals that are cold-blooded, their
body temperatures vary, depending on the outside temperature:
In cool water, they are cool; in warm water, they are warm.
These turtles spend much of the day eating. Several of them
will sometimes group together and share a good food source
when they find one. Otherwise, the turtles spread out, with
males and females ranging over a fairly large area: males are
known to travel over a 5-mile (8-kilometer) area of river and
females over a 2-mile (3.2-kilometer) area.
Males and females come together once a year or possibly
once every two years to mate. Scientists know little about their
courtship or other mating activities, but the turtles have been
seen nesting in the evening and at night toward the end of the
dry season, and some females have more than one set of young
in a single year. The female makes her nest in a dry spot, of-
ten on a high beach. She scrapes out a shallow hole with her
Pig-nose Turtle 15
Pig-nose turtle (Carettochelys insculpta)
hind legs and drops in seven to thirty-nine round, brittle (BRIH-

tuhl), or easily broken, eggs that measure 1.5–2.1 inches
(3.8–5.3 centimeters) around and weigh 1.1–1.6 ounces (32–46
grams). The white eggs begin developing into young turtles im-
mediately and are ready to hatch in sixty-four to seventy-four
days, but the hatching time can be delayed temporarily until
the rainy season starts. Because of this delay, the time from egg
laying to hatching can be as little as eighty-six days or as much
as 102 days. As with many other turtles, the outside tempera-
ture during the time before the eggs hatch can affect the num-
ber of male and female hatchlings. In this species, a warm spell
about halfway through incubation produces females, and a cool
spell produces males.
PIG-NOSE TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Pig-nose turtle eggs often fall victim to local people in New
Guinea, who find the turtle’s beach nests and collect the eggs

for food. In both New Guinea and Australia,
local people trap, net, spear, fish, and simply
collect the turtles by hand for their meat. The
turtle also is popular in the international pet
trade, although it is protected in Australia.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Collection of the pig-nose turtle for food
and as pets, combined with loss or destruction
of their habitat, or preferred living areas, have
all threatened this turtle. The World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN) has given its status as
Vulnerable, meaning that it faces a high risk
of extinction, or dying out, in the wild. Log-
Pig-nose turtles often swim with
ging and farming can destroy waterside plants and drastically just their long snouts sticking
increase erosion (ih-ROH-zhen), or wearing away of the land, out of the water. (Illustration by
both of which can affect the turtles. In addition, the passage of Barbara Duperron. Reproduced
by permission.)
water buffalo on their way to watering holes may also hurt the
turtles’ chances of survival. The buffalos crush the plants that
the turtles eat, and they also trample across the beaches used
by the turtles to lay their eggs. Heavy foot traffic can destroy
the nests and the eggs inside.
Books:
Cann, John. Australian Freshwater Turtles. Singapore: Beaumont
Publishing, 1998.
Periodicals:
Bargeron, Michael. “The Pig-nosed Turtle, Carettochelys insculpta.”
Tortuga Gazette 33, no. 3 (March 1997): 1–2.
Web sites:
“Carettochelyidae.” Herpetology: Reptiles and Amphibians. http://www
.nafcon.dircon.co.uk/Carettochelyidae.htm (accessed on August 19,
2004).
“The Pig-nosed Turtle.” University of Canberra Australia Applied Ecology
Research Group. http://aerg.canberra.edu.au/pub/aerg/herps/fncchely
.htm (accessed on August 2, 2004).
Pig-nose Turtle 17
AUSTRALO-AMERICAN SIDE-
NECKED TURTLES
Chelidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Chelidae
Number of species: 50 species
class Australo-American side-necked turtles are a varied group of
medium-sized to rather large turtles with necks that fold sideways
subclass
under their shells, rather than retracting, or pulling backward,
order into the shell. In some cases, the neck can be as long as the up-
monotypic order per shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays) or even longer. A few side-
necked turtles, however, have very short necks. Depending on
suborder the species, the upper shell of adults can range in length from 6
▲ family to 19 inches (15–48 centimeters). Most turtles have dark upper
shells, and a few have brightly colored lower shells, or plastrons
(PLAS-truns); heads; necks; legs; or tails. These parts of the body
may be red, orange, or yellow. Often, the juveniles (JOO-vuh-
nuhls), or young turtles, are the most brightly colored; the color
fades as they age. Some of these turtles have glands, or special or-
gans, that give off a bad smell, which wards off predators, or other
animals that hunt and kill the turtles. Males and females look
quite similar, although the females in most species are larger than
the males. In a few cases, the males have especially long tails that
they may use in mating with females.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These turtles range across New Guinea, Australia, Indone-
sia, and South America.
HABITAT
The Australo-American side-necked turtle typically lives in
freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams that are always
filled with water, but they spend part of their time in wetlands

or flooded forests that are wet for just a short
period of time each year. Only one species,
the New Guinea snake-necked turtle, can be
found in estuaries (EHS-chew-air-eez), or
that part of a river where it meets the sea,
and other areas of partially salty water.
OUT OF ANTARCTICA?
DIET Australo-American side-necked turtles,
Most members of this family eat meat or both living animals and fossils (FAH-suhls),
both meat and plants. The adult northern or remains of animals that lived long ago,
Australian snapping turtle may live only on are found in Australia and South America,
vegetation, including algae (AL-jee), which but nowhere else. The large gap in their
are tiny plantlike growths that live in water, geographic range makes scientists believe
and the leaves and fruits of waterside trees that the South American and Australian
they find during the dry season. The meat species are related through a common
eaters may feed on worms, insects, fishes, ancestor that lived long ago in Earth’s
and frogs. Some also eat mollusks, such as history, when the two continents were still
clams; crustaceans (krus-TAY-shuns), such linked together by what is now Antarctica.
as shrimp; or dead animal matter. Many of This common ancestor, which spread
the mollusk eaters have large, broad jaws that across Antarctica, could have migrated, or
they use to crush their prey’s shell. Other traveled, into the areas that eventually split
species, particularly those that dine on fishes, off to become South America and Australia.
have long necks that burst through the water
when they are going after prey. As the turtle
opens its mouth, both water and prey rush
in. The turtle then spits out the water and swallows the animal.

Many Australo-American side-necked turtles feed mainly at
night and spend their days basking, or warming themselves, in
the sun. When a dry spell strikes, some species bury themselves
in the mud and become inactive until the rains come. Stein-
dachner’s turtle is one example. This turtle can survive droughts
(DROWTS), or dry spells, as long as two years by living off wa-
ter that it stores inside its body in sacs, or pouches, called “ac-
cessory bladders.” In cooler climates, some also hibernate, or
become inactive, during the winter months. Most hibernate
alone, but the common snake-necked turtle of Australia hiber-
nates in groups. Other turtles, like the Argentine side-necked
turtle, will take occasional breaks from hibernation (high-bur-
NAY-shun) on warm days, when they venture out to a sunny
spot and stretch out in the sun.
Australo-American Side-necked Turtles 19

Except for the most tropical of species, which may breed all
year, side-necked turtles mate in the early spring. Depending on
the species, the female lays one to twenty-eight round or ob-
long eggs in a shallow depression, or hollow, under leaves; in
an underground nook, or sheltered space; or in some other nest.
The female of one species, the northern snake-necked turtle,
lays her eggs underwater in the muddy bottom of a temporary
pond. The eggs develop only after the pond dries up, and the
young hatch before the next rainy season arrives. For those eggs
laid in underground nests, the young hatch out of the eggs but
stay in the nest until the rains come to soften the soil above
them. Then they claw their way to the surface and take their
first steps aboveground. The outdoor temperature has no effect
on whether the eggs hatch into males or females, as it does with
many other turtles.
AUSTRALO-AMERICAN SIDE-NECKED TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Some people hunt and kill these turtles for their meat, which
they use as food. Although certain species are kept as pets, the
pet trade does not harm their survival.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists three species
as Critically Endangered, or facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, or death, in the wild, and four as Endangered, or
facing a very high risk of extinction. Six are Vulnerable, mean-
ing that they face a high risk of extinction, and eight are Near
Threatened, meaning that they face the risk of becoming ex-
tinct in the near future. One of the Critically Endangered tur-
tles is the western swamp turtle, of which fewer than four
hundred individuals survived in 2003, and all live in a few small
areas of Brazil. Another turtle, called Hoge’s side-necked tur-
tle, is also very rare, existing in just a few spots in the same
country. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists two species as
Endangered. The main reason for concern about these species
is loss of their habitat, through either damage or complete de-
struction. Efforts are under way to save these threatened species
from extinction by removing them from the wild and breeding
them in captivity, possibly for future release back into the wild.

Matamata (Chelus fimbriatus)
SPECIES
MATAMATA ACCOUNT
Chelus fimbriatus
Physical characteristics: The matamata is one of the larger side-

necked turtles as well as one of the biggest freshwater turtles; its dark
upper shell can reach up to 18 inches (46 centimeters) in length, and
it can grow to a weight of 27 pounds (12 kilograms). It has a flat,
lumpy, triangular head, with a rough fringe, or edging. The head sticks
out from a flat, knobby shell. Two tiny eyes dot the head. The turtle’s
upper shell is mostly dark brown. Juveniles have a pinkish-orange
lower shell. Often, only the turtle’s head is visible in the water, and

Rarely seen, the matamata often
travels through the water by
walking along the bottom and
only occasionally takes an
awkward swim. (Gail M.
Shumwav/Bruce Coleman Inc.
sometimes just its tube-shaped nose breaks the water’s surface as the
turtle moves about underwater. Females usually are larger than males.
Geographic range: The matamata lives in northern South America.
Habitat: These turtles prefer still or slow-moving freshwater habi-

tats, or areas in which to live, but some are able to live in saltier wa-
ters. Although matamatas sometimes live in swift-moving rivers, they
stay out of the current and move beneath underwater banks or logs.
Diet: The matamata is mainly a fish-eating species; it ambushes, or

attacks, its prey by settling on the bottom and waiting for a fish to
approach. Water currents brush the turtle’s head fringes back and
forth, and many scientists think that this movement attracts fishes.
When the prey is close enough, the turtle darts out its head while en-
larging its neck and mouth, and sucks in a great gulp of water along
with the prey. The turtle then releases the water from its mouth and

eats the fish. Some turtle experts believe that the skin flaps, or fringes,
on the head may also help the turtle sense water movement and know
when prey species are swimming through the murky, or dark, water
of muddy ponds.
Behavior and reproduction: Rarely seen, this side-necked turtle of-

ten travels through the water by walking along the bottom and only
occasionally takes an awkward swim. Juveniles are known to bask,
but adults do not. Once a year, the females make nests, sometimes in
riverbanks, where they lay eight to twenty-eight round eggs that mea-
sure 1.4–1.6 inches (3.6–4 centimeters) in diameter, or width. The
eggs hatch more than six months later. Little is known about
courtship, mating, or other activities of these turtles in the wild.
Matamatas and people: Matamatas are quite popular in the pet

trade, probably because of their unusual fringed heads.
Conservation status: This turtle is not threatened. ■
Books:
Cann, John. Australian Freshwater Turtles. Singapore: Beaumont Pub-
lishing, 1998.
Pritchard, Peter C. H., and Pedro Trebbau. The Turtles of Venezuela.
Athens, OH: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1984.

SEATURTLES
Cheloniidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Cheloniidae
class The seaturtles are large animals that live in the ocean. Their
upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays), is quite flat rather than
subclass
highly rounded. The lower shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), is a
order bit smaller than in most turtles and attaches to the upper shell
monotypic order by tough but flexible tissues called ligaments (LIH-guh-ments),
rather than the bony bridge common to land turtles. Seaturtles
suborder are excellent swimmers, gliding through the water with sweeps
▲ family of their large, broad, and powerful front limbs, which look like
flippers or paddles. Unlike many other turtles, they cannot re-
tract, or pull back, their limbs or heads into their shells. The
largest members of the family, the leatherback seaturtles, tip
the scales at half a ton (454 kilograms) or more. The
leatherbacks have a carapace that measures 6 to 7 feet (1.8–2.1
meters) in length.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Seaturtles inhabit all the oceans of the world and the Mediter-
ranean Sea.
HABITAT
These turtles live in saltwater from the tropics to areas with
mild climates well north and south of the equator, the imagi-
nary circle around Earth that is midway between the poles. They
are more common close to shore than far out to sea, and they
feed and nest at sites along the coastlines on continental shelves,
or shallow plains forming the borders of continents.

DIET
Most seaturtles are primarily meat eaters.
Their diets are made up of a variety of ma-
rine, or sea, animals, including fishes; snails
and other mollusks (MAH-lusks), or animals
with a soft, unsegmented body covered by a
TRAWLING AND TURTLES
shell; barnacles and other crustaceans (krus-
TAY-shuns), or animals with a soft, seg- Trawling is a type of fishing business that
mented body covered by a shell; and certain many scientists believe is dangerous to
sponges and sea urchins. The green seatur- marine life, including seaturtles. In this kind
tle is the only member of the family that is of fishing, a device scrapes the seafloor and
known to prefer eating plants. Sea grasses collects animals that live on the bottom. For
make up the majority of its diet. turtles, the danger is not in accidentally
collecting them but rather in disturbing
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION them as they move from feeding grounds
to nesting sites. One study of olive ridley
Perhaps the most famous behavior of sea- seaturtles found that trawling delayed the
turtles is migration (my-GRAY-shun). An in- arrival of the female turtles at their nesting
dividual seaturtle may travel hundreds of sites, and the females laid their eggs later
miles to go from its feeding area to its nest- in the year, when temperatures were
ing site and back. Usually, the feeding grounds warmer. The warmer temperature meant
are in temperate waters, which are neither that the young ridleys were mostly females.
very warm nor very cold; the nesting areas, Scientists believe that if this shift in the
on the other hand, are in tropical waters, numbers of males and females continues,
which are very warm. The distance between it could have an effect on the survival of this
the two places can result in a trek, or journey, endangered species.
of 190 miles (306 kilometers) or more, one
way. When the winter months arrive, many
turtles migrate (MY-grayt) to warmer tropical
waters, but some drop down to the muddy bottoms of
coastal waters and bury themselves there to survive the coldest
temperatures.
Female seaturtles typically produce several clutches, or nests,
of eggs in a season—sometimes seven or more—but they do so
only once every two or three years. Rarely, a seaturtle will nest
every year. In some cases, the female turtles will gather offshore
in groups. Members of these groups clamber onto shore to make
nests near one another. The females of almost all species wait
until nightfall to dig their nests and lay their eggs. The round
eggs are leathery and range from about 1 to 2 inches (2.5–5
centimeters) in diameter, or width across each egg. A single
clutch may contain up to 250 eggs, but 90–130 is more com-
Seaturtles 25
mon. The eggs hatch in forty to seventy days. As with most tur-
tles, the outdoor temperature during their incubation (ing-
kyuh-BAY-shun), or the period of time before the eggs hatch,
determines whether the egg will become a male or female upon
hatching. When the weather is warm, more females hatch;
males usually hatch when the weather is cooler.
SEA TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Humans have long sought seaturtles and seaturtle eggs as
food. Some people make the eggshells into trinkets. Adult
leatherback seaturtles are also prized for their skins.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the olive rid-
ley, loggerhead, and green seaturtles as Endangered, meaning
that they face a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the
near future. The hawksbill and Atlantic ridley seaturtles are
Critically Endangered, meaning that they face an extremely
high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future. Hunting
and egg collecting, along with dangers that come from shrimp-
ing and fishing practices, are responsible for much of the de-
cline in turtle numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists
the olive ridley seaturtle as Threatened, meaning that it is likely
to face the danger of extinction in the near future in the United
States. Certain populations of green seaturtle are Endangered,
and others are Threatened. The hawksbill and Kemp’s ridley
are Endangered, and the loggerhead is Threatened.

Green seaturtle (Chelonia mydas)
SPECIES
GREEN SEATURTLE ACCOUNTS
Chelonia mydas
Physical characteristics: The green seaturtle is dark brown to

black, with a whitish underside. This turtle gets its name from the
color of its body fat, which is green from their diet of algae (AL-jee),
or tiny, plantlike growths that live in water. The upper shell of this
large turtle can measure 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length, and the turtle
itself can weigh as much as 750 pounds (340 kilograms). It has large,
flipper-like front legs, with which it swims, and a fairly flat upper
shell, to slice more easily through the water. Compared with females,
males have a long claw on the front flipper and a lengthier tail and
narrower upper shell.
Geographic range: The green seaturtle lives in tropical and tem-

perate seas around the world.
Habitat: Although they sometimes can be found in temperate salt-

water areas or far out at sea, green seaturtles are much more com-
mon in shallow, sea-grass-covered coastlines and in the warmer waters
of the tropics.
Diet: Adult green seaturtles spend much of the daylight hours munch-
ing on sea grasses and algae, which are the main items of their diet.
Only rarely do they eat a bit of meat, such as a sponge or jellyfish. Some
Seaturtles 27
The upper shell of the green
seaturtle can measure 5 feet
(1.5 meters) in length, and the
turtle itself can weigh as much
as 750 pounds (340 kilograms).
(©Dr. Paula A. Zahl/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
scientists believe that the young may eat much more meat, but there is
no evidence that they do.
Behavior and reproduction: As a cold-blooded animal, or one that

gets its body warmth from the surrounding environment, the seaturtle
does different things to maintain a healthy body temperature, such as
rising to the sunshine-drenched top of the water column. Unlike other
saltwater-living turtles, this species will even crawl up on the shoreline
to bask, or rest, in the sun. When winter cold arrives, some species hi-
bernate (HIGH-bur-nayt), or become inactive, by dropping down to the
bottom of the water and burying themselves in the mud. In the breed-
ing season, when they reproduce, males and females may migrate more
than 1,900 miles (3,058 kilometers) from their feeding grounds to their
nesting sites. There, males try to attract the females by giving them lit-
tle nips, nudges, and sniffs; the turtles mate in the water. A single fe-
male may mate with several males, and so the young in a female’s clutch
may have different fathers, some from matings that happened several
years earlier. When she is ready to lay her eggs, the female will crawl
up onto a dry coastline, dig a hole, and drop in fewer than a dozen to
nearly 240 eggs, although 108 to 120 per nest is typical. She may lay
two to five nests, and sometimes as many as seven, in a single season.
The leathery, round eggs hatch in one to three months.
Green seaturtles and people: For centuries, humans have hunted

green seaturtles for their meat and their eggs, which they eat for food.

Conservation status: The IUCN lists this species as Endangered.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists the breeding populations in
Florida and the Pacific coast of Mexico as Endangered and all other
populations as Threatened. Besides hunting and collecting, these tur-
tles are in danger from the development of their nesting grounds into
seafront resorts, from fishing nets that entangle them and often lead
to their deaths by drowning, and from boaters who unknowingly run
over them with their motor propellers. ■
Seaturtles 29
Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta)
LOGGERHEAD TURTLE
Caretta caretta
Physical characteristics: The loggerhead turtle has a short head that

is wide at the rear and rounded at the front. It is the largest seaturtle,
with a carapace up to 7 feet (2.1 meters) long and a weight of half a
ton (454 kilograms). It has a hard shell with a keel, or upper ridge,
down the middle and large, flipper-like front limbs. The upper shell is
reddish brown to greenish, and the lower shell is whitish to yellowish.
Geographic range: The loggerhead lives in tropical and temperate

oceans of the world, as well as the Mediterranean Sea.
Habitat: For the breeding season, this saltwater turtle prefers tropi-
cal waters in protected areas, such as bays, or parts of the sea that cut
into a coastline, and estuaries (EHS-chew-air-eez), or the wide parts
at the lower ends of rivers, where the river meets the sea. The turtle
travels well into temperate regions during the remainder of the year.
Diet: Meat is the primary food of both young and adult loggerheads.
Hatchlings, or newly hatched turtles, will also eat pieces of the algae
mats among which they float, and adults will munch on underwater

The loggerhead lives in tropical
and temperate oceans of the
world, as well as the
Mediterranean Sea. (©Michael
Patrick O’Neill/Photo
permission.)
plants and algae. Favored food items for adults include snails and
other mollusks, sponges, squid, and fishes.
Behavior and reproduction: Females sometimes migrate every year,

but usually every two to three years, from feeding areas to nesting
sites, which may be 1,300 to 1,700 miles (2,092–2,736 kilometers)
away. While migrating, the males court the females with little bites,
and the two turtles mate while floating in the water. After mating
with one or more males, the female arrives at the nesting site, waits
until nightfall to crawl onshore, digs a hole, and typically lays 96 to
120 round eggs. She may lay up to seven clutches in a single season.
In about two months the eggs hatch. The young from a single fe-
male—even young from the same clutch—may have more than one
father. The incubation temperature determines the sex of turtles, with
higher temperatures producing females and lower temperatures pro-
ducing males.
Loggerhead turtles and people: Some people still hunt this turtle
and collect its eggs for food.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the loggerhead as Endangered,

and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service describes them as Threatened.
Development of coastal properties seems to be destroying their nest-
ing areas, which has led to their decline. ■
Seaturtles 31
Books:
Bjorndal, Karen A. Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Washington,
DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.
Dunbier, Sally. Sea Turtles. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Service
Series, 2000.
Kalman, Bobbie. The Life Cycle of a Sea Turtle. New York: Crabtree
Publishing, 2002.
Laskey, Kathryn. Interrupted Journey: Saving Endangered Sea Turtles.
Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press, 2001.
Lutz, Peter L., and John A. Musick, eds. The Biology of Sea Turtles. 2
volumes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1996–2003.
O’Keefe, M. Timothy. Sea Turtles: The Watcher’s Guide. Lakeland, FL:
Larsen’s Outdoor Publishing, 1995.
Web sites:
“Animal Bytes: Sea Turtles.” Animals. http://www.seaworld.org/animal
info/animalbytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/
chordates/craniata/reptilia/testudines/sea-turtles.htm (accessed on
September 7, 2004).
“Sea Turtles for Kids.” Kidz Korner. http://www.turtles.org/kids.htm
(accessed on September 7, 2004).
“Turtles in Trouble.” National Geographic Kids. http://www.nationalgeo
graphic.com/ngkids/9911/turtle (accessed on September 7, 2004).

SNAPPING TURTLES
Chelydridae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Chelydridae
Snapping turtles are large, unfriendly turtles that have strong, class
clawed legs; a powerful bite; and a long neck. With its long
subclass
neck, the snapping turtle can quickly swing its large head far
forward as well as sideways and back over the upper shell. These order
turtles also have a long, strong tail with a row of ridges. The monotypic order
upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays), has three keels, or
ridges, but older turtles usually lose the keels and have smooth suborder
shells. The lower shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), is quite small, ▲ family
which allows the turtle to move its legs easily. The length of
an adult’s upper shell ranges from 7.1 to 31.5 inches (18 to 80
centimeters), and the lower shell may be only about one-fourth
that size. Females weigh about 4.4 to 5.5 pounds (2 to 2.5 kilo-
grams). Males generally are larger than females and can weigh
as much as 249 pounds (113 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Snapping turtles live in North America, Central America, and
South America, from southern Canada to Ecuador.
HABITAT
These turtles mainly live in permanent water bodies, ones
that are filled with water all year long. Some are able to survive
in somewhat salty waters, but they typically prefer freshwater.
Although they spend the majority of their time in the water,
they will travel quite a distance over land to nest, and one species
makes overland trips from one watering hole to another.
Snapping Turtles 33
DIET
Snapping turtles are primarily meat eaters,
dining on almost anything they can find,
whether it is alive or dead. The diet includes
worms, insects, snails, and larger items, such
as other turtles, ducklings, and small mam-
THE LURE OF THE TURTLE mals. Although it is not common, some tur-
Besides being the biggest member of the tles can live on an all-plant diet.
snapping turtle family, the alligator snapping
turtle has another interesting feature. It uses
a bit of flesh on its tongue to draw in hungry Most people know snapping turtles for their
fishes. This “lure” not only looks like a pink unfriendly personality. The turtles can quickly
worm but also wiggles like a worm. When a strike out with their long necks and powerful
fish approaches to nab an easy lunch, the jaws and snap at any passing animals, whether
turtle quickly lashes out and clamps its it is a fish or other prey they want to eat or a
strong jaws around the unsuspecting fish. person who comes too close. Instead of teeth,
Besides fishes, this turtle’s diet includes they have a hook at the front of the upper jaw
snails, clams, plant roots, other turtles, birds, that helps in grasping and then tearing apart
and even small alligators. prey. Snapping turtles occasionally sunbathe,
or “bask,” on land, but more typically they float
just below the water’s surface and soak up the
warmth there. Snapping turtles that live in warmer climates are
active day and night all year long, but those that live in cooler ar-
eas usually are active only during the day and typically spend the
cold winter months buried in the muddy bottom of a waterhole.
During the breeding season, the female digs a hole on land,
sometimes near the water and at other times quite far away, in
dry areas. There, she lays up to 109 round eggs and buries them.
Snapping turtles provide no care for the eggs or the young that
hatch from the eggs. The outdoor temperature controls the
number of males and females in each batch of eggs.
SNAPPING TURTLES AND PEOPLE
Although snapping turtles are not especially friendly, they
are of little threat to humans who do not bother them. Humans
hunt the turtles for food and occasionally for the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the alligator
snapping turtle as Vulnerable, which means that there is a high
threat of their extinction: they could die out entirely. There are
many sources for these threats, including too much hunting of
them and the loss of good habitat.

Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)
SPECIES
SNAPPING TURTLE ACCOUNT
Chelydra serpentina
Physical characteristics: The snapping turtle, or snapper, is a fairly

large member of this family. The upper shell is up to 19.3 inches
(49 centimeters) in length. The shell is dark, usually black to green-
ish-brown, and frequently covered with green, slimy algae (AL-jee),
or plantlike growths. The upper shell and the long tail have a series
of ridges. The shell ridges become less and less noticeable as the
animal ages. Snapping turtles have large heads with a hook on the
upper jaw.
Geographic range: Snapping turtles live in North America, Central

America, and South America, from southern Canada to Ecuador.
Snapping Turtles 35
Habitat: These turtles typically live in plant-
filled, shallow, calm waters with mucky bottoms.
Most make their homes in freshwater areas, but
some live quite well in somewhat salty waters.
Diet: Like most members of this family, the snap-

ping turtle eats mostly meat. It is not a picky eater.
Snapping turtles will eat earthworms and leeches;
clams; insects and spiders; frog eggs, tadpoles, and
adult frogs; reptiles, including other turtles; duck-
lings and other small birds; small mammals; and
almost any dead animal they come across. Plants
are not uncommon, and some populations of tur-
tles even live by eating only plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Despite its usually

slow walking speed on land, this turtle is amazingly
During the breeding season, the swift when it comes to striking out with its powerful jaws to grab a
female snapping turtle digs a passing animal as a meal or to defend itself against a large attacking
hole on land. There, she lays up
to 109 round eggs and buries animal or a person who is just a bit too curious. With its long neck,
them. The outdoor temperature this turtle can swing its head forward, sideways, and backward almost
controls the number of males half as far as it is long, and its powerful jaws can deliver a nasty bite
and females in each batch of
eggs. (E. R. Degginger/Bruce
to a person’s hand or fingers.
Coleman, Inc. Reproduced by For the most part, the snapping turtle stays in the water, where it
permission.)
spends most of its time sunbathing or hunting for food. To sunbathe,
or “bask,” the turtles float in warm water near or at the surface. Rarely,
a snapper will bask on shore on a log or rock. They often hunt by
hiding in the muddy bottom to wait for a tasty treat, like a fish or
tadpole, to swim by. They also hunt by slowly walking along the wa-
ter bottom and looking for their next meal. Turtles living in warmer
climates are active day and night and all year long. Those living in
cooler, northern areas are mostly active early and late in the day and
spend the colder months buried underwater in the mucky bottom.
Mating season runs from spring to fall. Some males may sway their
heads in front of females to attract them, but usually the males skip
courtship altogether. Females lay one batch of eggs a year. Sometimes
they make their nests, which are just holes they dig in the ground,
close to the water, but they also may travel great distances, in some
cases nearly 10 miles (16 kilometers). Females can lay six to 109
round, white eggs; they typically lay about thirty-two eggs per nest.
The eggs hatch in about seventy-five to ninety-five days, but some-
times they hatch in as little as two months or as much as six months.

Nest temperature controls the sex of the newly hatched young tur-
tles. High and low temperatures produce females, and moderate tem-
peratures produce males. Because a female can lay so many eggs at a
time and the nest is so large, some parts of the nest may be warmer
or cooler than others. This often means that females will hatch from
one part of the nest and males from another.
Snapping turtles and people: Humans hunt snapping turtles for

their meat. Many turtles also die each year from being hit by cars as
they cross roads to move from a water hole to a nesting site and back.
Conservation status: These turtles are not threatened, although

many snapping turtle eggs are destroyed each year when raccoons
and other mammals dig up the freshly laid nests and eat the eggs. ■
Books:
Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1998.
Harding, J., and J. Holman. Michigan Turtles and Lizards: A Field Guide
and Pocket Reference. East Lansing: Michigan State University Museum,
1990.
Hickman, Pamela. Turtle Rescue: Changing the Future for Endangered
Wildlife. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books, 2004.
Pritchard, P. C. H. The Alligator Snapping Turtle: Biology and Conservation.
Milwaukee, WI: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1989.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
Web sites:
“Common Snapping Turtle.” Chesapeake Bay Program. http://www
.chesapeakebay.net/info/snapping_turtle.cfm (accessed on September
14, 2004).
Snapping Turtles 37
Dillon, C. Dee. “The Common Snapping Turtle” Tortuga Gazette 34, no.
3 (March 1998): 1–4. http://www.tortoise.org/archives/snapping.html
LeClere, Jeff. “Snapping Turtle: Chelydra serpentine.” Iowa Herpetology.
http://www.herpnet.net/IowaHerpetology/reptiles/turtles/snapping_turtle
.html (accessed on September 14, 2004).

CENTRAL AMERICAN
RIVER TURTLE
Dermatemydidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Dermatemydidae
One species: Central American
river turtle
family C H A P T E R (Dermatemys mawii)

The only living Central American river turtle, which has the class
scientific name Dermatemys mawii, is a large animal with a small
subclass
head and a pointy snout. It has a dark-colored, somewhat flat
upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays). The carapace of adults order
is thick, heavy, and smooth. It is so smooth that is almost looks monotypic order
like it is made of leather. The yellow- or cream-colored lower
shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), is large, as is the bony bridge suborder
that connects the upper and lower shells. The feet are webbed. ▲ family
Females and males look similar, but females are generally larger.
In addition, the upper surface of a male’s head has a large yel-
lowish gold patch, while females as well as juveniles (JOO-vuh-
nuhl), or the young, have gray on the top of the head. The
biggest Central American river turtles can weigh as much as 49
pounds (22 kilograms) and have a carapace as long as 26 inches
(66 centimeters).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Central American river turtles live in Mexico, Guatemala,
and Belize.
HABITAT
Although some of them may wander into somewhat salty wa-
ter, Central American river turtles live mainly in freshwater,
such as rivers and large lakes. The turtles live in the lowlands
of southern Mexico near the Gulf of Mexico. They also live in
Belize and northern Guatemala, and possibly in Honduras.
Central American River Turtle 39

DIET
Central American river turtles eat mostly
plants. They prefer figs and other fruits as
well as leaves that fall into the water from
the trees lining the shoreline. They also eat
plants that grow in the water and sometimes
THE TURTLE OF MANY NAMES an insect, fish, or mollusk (MAH-lusk). Mol-
Besides Central American river turtle, this lusks are soft-bodied animals covered by a
animal has other common names, including shell, such as snails and clams.
hickety in Belize; jicotea, tortuga plana, and
tortuga aplanada in Mexico; and tortuga BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
blanca in Mexico and Guatemala. The word Central American river turtles spend most
“blanca” means “white” in Spanish and refers of their lives in the water. Turtles have lungs
either to the white underside of the turtle or and breathe air, but the Central American
to the color of its meat. Some people refer to river turtle is able to stay underwater for long
this turtle as the Mesoamerican (MEH-soh- periods of time. In the rare instances when
American) river turtle. Mesoamerican is the the turtles do leave the water, they are very
word used to describe the culture of Mexico slow, awkward walkers. They sometimes
and northern Central America before the float in the surface waters on sunny days to
Spanish explorers arrived. soak up some heat, but they do not leave the
water, as many other turtles do, to sunbathe,
or bask. Besides floating near the surface on
warm days, the turtles do little during the day. They become
active at night, when they do most of their feeding.
Central American river turtles mate anytime from March to
September. For the most part, the only time the turtles leave
the water is during the nesting season, which starts in Sep-
tember, when the rainy season is in full force. The turtles nest
any time from September to December, but some females start
as early as late August or wait until March or April. When she
is ready to lay her eggs, the female walks a few feet onto the
shore, usually no more than 10 feet (3 meters), and digs a hole.
She lays two to twenty brittle-shelled eggs that are about 2.1–2.8
inches (53–71 millimeters) long and 1.2–2 inches (30–51 mil-
limeters) wide and weigh about 1.2–2.5 ounces (34–71 grams)
each. A typical nest has eight to fourteen eggs. The female buries
the eggs under mud and bits of rotting, nearby plants. The
mother turtles usually produce two nests a year, but some have
only one nest, and others may make three or four nests each
season. Usually the largest females lay the most eggs in a year,
and the smallest females lay the fewest. Because female Central
American river turtles lay their eggs so close to the water,

Central American river turtle (Dermatemys mawii)
during the rainy season the lake or river can overflow onto the
shore and flood the nests. The good news is that the eggs can
survive being underwater for up to one month. The eggs need
about seven to ten months to hatch, and most hatch anytime
from late May to July, just when the rainy season starts up. As
happens with many other kinds of turtles, warmer nest
temperatures turn most Central American river turtle eggs into
female hatchlings, or newly hatched young, and cooler tem-
peratures produce males. The warm or cool weather has
to occur when the eggs are about halfway along in their
development.
CENTRAL AMERICAN RIVER TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Many local people in southern Mexico, northern Guatemala,
and Belize consider the meat of Central American river turtle
a delicacy and also collect the eggs. Even though these turtles
are protected in some areas, hunting continues and threatens
the survival of the species.

The Central American river turtle
usually remains in the water
because it is a slow, awkward
walker. (©Jean-Gerard
Sidaner/Photo Researchers, Inc.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Both the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service label the Central American river tur-
tle as Endangered, or facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild or throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
Some governments have protected these turtles, which makes
hunting or collecting them illegal.
Books:
Guide to the World’s Wildlife. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
Lee, Julian C. The Amphibians and Reptiles of the Yucatán Peninsula.
Ithaca, NY: Comstock, 1996.
Web sites:
“Family Dermatemydidae (Mesoamerican River Turtles).” http://www.
embl-heidelberg.de/uetz/families/Dermatemydidae.html (accessed on
August 7, 2004).
Lowry, H. 2001. “Dermatemys mawii.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Dermatemys_mawii.html (accessed on August 7, 2004).

“Mexico Coalition Launches Strategy to Stop Destruction of Country’s Rich-
est Forest.” Conservation International. http://www.conservation.org/xp/
news/press_releases/2003/062603.xml (accessed on August 7, 2004.
“Turtle, Central American River.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://
ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/SpeciesProfile?spcode=C04H (accessed on
August 7, 2004).

LEATHERBACK SEATURTLE
Dermochelyidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Dermochelyidae
One species: Leatherback sea
turtle (Dermochelys
coriacea)
class The leatherback seaturtle, which is the only member of its fam-
ily, is extremely large. The carapace (KARE-a-pays), or upper
subclass
shell, measures up to 8 feet (2.4 meters) long, and the turtle it-
order self weighs just under a ton, at 1,911 pounds (867 kilograms).
monotypic order Most seaturtles have a hard and bony upper shell, but this tur-
tle’s carapace has a smooth, leathery skin. It also has an unusual
suborder outline. The upper shell is wide at the front but then narrows to
▲ family a point at the back, giving it a teardrop shape. In addition, seven
very noticeable ridges run from the front of the carapace to the
back. This shell is usually black with a few white or yellow spots—
almost as if someone had shaken a paintbrush over the back of
the turtle. The plastron (PLAS-trun), or bottom shell, has color-
ing that is the opposite of the carapace coloring. Instead of black
with light spots, it is white with dark spots. Leatherback turtles
also have large front legs, which do not have separate toes and
claws but instead look like paddles or fins.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This species lives in oceans around the world.
HABITAT
The leatherback seaturtle is found over more of the world
than perhaps any other species of reptile. It can live quite well
in the warm ocean waters of the tropics and in cooler ocean
waters as far north of the equator as Alaska and Iceland and as
far south as New Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope at the

southern tip of Africa. It rarely comes into
shallow, shoreline waters, staying instead in
deeper water for most of its life.
DIET
The diet of the leatherback seaturtle is
mostly jellyfish. It also eats many other SAVING LEATHERBACKS
ocean-living animals, including snails, Leatherback seaturtles have survived
octopuses, squids, crabs, small fishes, and on Earth for at least 100 million years. They
hydrozoans (hy-druh-ZOH-uhns). Hydro- have even outlasted the great dinosaurs,
zoans and jellyfish are both sea-dwelling an- yet they are now facing extinction. The
imals without a backbone that have tentacles number of female leatherbacks worldwide
(TEN-tih-kuhls), or long, thin body parts dropped from 115,000 in 1982 to fewer
used for feeling or for holding on to things. than 25,000 two decades later, and the
These two types of animals look somewhat turtles living in the Pacific Ocean suffered
alike. Seaturtles sometimes think that float- the biggest decline in numbers. Many
ing balloons and plastic bags look much like conservation groups, as well as country
these creatures too, and they eat them by governments, are worried about the future
mistake. This can kill the turtle. The turtles of this turtle and are trying to do away with
also eat plants, such as sea grasses and kelp, hunting and egg collecting. They are also
which is a type of seaweed. preserving their nesting beaches and
protecting adult turtles from fishing and
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION other activities at sea that accidentally
Like other turtles, the leatherback seatur- harm the turtles.
tle is cold-blooded, meaning that its body
temperature gets cooler when the outside
temperature drops and warmer when the outside temperature
rises. In most turtles, body temperature very closely matches
the outdoor temperature. The seaturtles are a little different.
Because they are so large and their muscles heat up when they
swim, they can stay warm much longer than a smaller turtle
can. They also have oily skin that acts like a jacket, to help
keep the body warm. For these reasons, they are able to travel
to much colder waters, like those off Alaska or Iceland. These
turtles take advantage of this ability to travel to warm and cold
waters. They often swim very long distances in what are called
migrations (my-GRAY-shuns), moving from one region or cli-
mate to another to find food and to lay their eggs. Scientists
have tracked some turtles that have swum as far as 3,100 miles
(4,989 kilometers) one way to go from a nesting site to a feed-
ing site. On average, these turtles swim about 19 miles (30.5
kilometers) a day for weeks at a time.
Leatherback Seaturtle 45
Many leatherback seaturtles may join together at a particu-
larly good feeding site, like a school, or group, of jellyfish. They
also hunt for food alone. Seaturtles are excellent divers, and
they can swim down to more than 3,300 feet (1,006 meters) to
find deep-water animals to eat. Turtles do most of their diving
at night, but they are active both day and night.
Scientists know very little about courtship or mating in
leatherback turtles. The turtles may mate before or during the
long migration from a feeding area to a nesting area or just off-
shore from the nesting site. Females make their nests about
once every three or four years on tropical beaches. Those that
live in the Atlantic Ocean nest from April to November. Pacific
Ocean leatherbacks nest at different times of the year, depend-
ing on the beach they choose. A small group of females usu-
ally nests together on one beach.
The females climb up onto shore, usually at night, and find
a spot on dry land. They typically pick a nesting site that is just
beyond the highest point that water reaches. Like the upper
shell, the lower shell of leatherbacks is softer than that of most
turtles, so the females choose sandy rather than rocky beaches
to crawl over and dig their nests. They use both their front and
back legs to dig a wide hole that can fit the entire body. Then
they continue to dig a smaller, deeper pit with just the rear legs.
Each female lays 47 to 263 eggs in the pit. Only some of the
eggs hatch. From the time she lays them, 1 to 103 eggs have
no yolks and so cannot develop into turtles. The rest are nor-
mal eggs. Eggs are round and range in diameter, or width, from
1.9 to 2.6 inches (4.8 to 6.6 centimeters) in diameter. Each egg
weighs 2.5 to 3.2 ounces (71 to 91 grams).
Usually, the biggest females lay the most eggs and the largest
eggs. In addition, turtles of the Atlantic typically lay more eggs
than those of the Pacific, and nests made during the middle of
the nesting season often contain more eggs than nests made
earlier or later. Females may make up to eleven nests a year,
although five or six is more common. Once she lays the eggs,
the female uses her hind legs to cover them with sand and then
continues with her front and rear legs to bury the larger body
hole. She then leaves the area and provides no care for the eggs
or the newly hatched young.
The eggs hatch in sixty to sixty-eight days, although some
may hatch in as little as fifty days or as much as seventy-eight

A newly hatched leatherback sea
turtle makes its way into the
ocean. (AP/Wide World Photos.
days. If the beach, and therefore the nest, is especially warm

about halfway through the eggs’ development, most of the
eggs hatch into females. If the nest is particularly cool, most of
the eggs will hatch into males. The hatchlings wait until night-
fall to climb out of the nest and onto the surface of the
beach. They then head to the area that is most open to the sky
and is the most brightly lit—usually the ocean. The young
turtles continue to grow at sea, and when the reach the age of
thirteen to fourteen years, they are ready to become parents
themselves.
Leatherback seaturtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
LEATHERBACK SEATURTLES AND PEOPLE

Because this turtle is found in so many areas of the world,
it has many names. In Trinidad, for example, people call it cal-
don, while in the Caribbean and Latin America the turtle is
known as canal. This familiarity can pose a problem, however.
Although it is illegal in most countries, some people continue
to raid the turtles’ nests for their eggs or hunt them for their
meat or the oil in their shells.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), this
species is Critically Endangered, which means it faces an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service lists the leatherback turtle as Endangered,
meaning that the turtle is in danger of extinction through all
or most of its range, or the region over which it roams and
feeds. The number of leatherback turtles has dropped rapidly
over a very short time, mostly due to hunting of adults
and gathering of their eggs. Development of tropical beaches
for homes and resorts is also making it more and more
difficult for the turtles to find a safe nesting spot. Many coun-
tries are now making it illegal to kill adult turtles or take
their eggs or else protecting the beaches where they lay their
eggs.

Books:
Guide to the World’s Wildlife. New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 2001.
Hickman, Pamela. Turtle Rescue: Changing the Future for Endangered
Wildlife. Richmond Hill, Canada: Firefly Books, 2004.
Athens, OH: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1984.
Watt, E. Melanie. Leatherback Turtles. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn
Publishers, 2002.
Web sites:
“Leatherback Sea Turtle.” In the Wild: Oceans. http://www.bagheera
.com/inthewild/van_anim_turtle.htm (accessed on September 10, 2004).
“The Leatherback Turtle.” Oceanic Resource Foundation. http://www
.orf.org/turtles_leatherback.html (accessed on September 10, 2004).
“The Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea).” Turtle Trax.
http://www.turtles.org/leatherd.htm (accessed on September 10, 2004).
NEW WORLD POND
TURTLES
Emydidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Emydidae
class The New World pond turtles come in many shapes and sizes.
Adult small bog turtles have upper shells, or carapaces (KARE-
subclass
a-pays), that grow to about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in
order length, while the carapaces of the large Gray’s sliders can reach
monotypic order a length of 2 feet (61 centimeters) or more. Most pond turtles
have a least a little webbing between their toes. The males and
suborder females look very much alike, though sometimes the females
▲ family are larger. In some species, the male is more colorful and has
long, thin front claws.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Members of this family live in North and South America,
Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.
HABITAT
New World pond turtles may live in tropical areas, where it
feels like summer all year, or in cooler areas that have all four
seasons, including winter. These cooler areas are known as
“temperate climates.” Many turtles spend almost their entire
lives in or near ponds, lakes, and other freshwater areas, though
some can live quite well in saltier waters. Other species live
their lives mainly on land.
DIET
Depending on the species, New World pond turtles may eat
meat, plants, or a combination of meat and plants. Sometimes,

baby turtles begin their lives as meat eaters
but start to munch plants as they grow older.
The meat eaters may dine on such animals
as fishes, tadpoles, insects, worms, and slugs.
Turtles that eat plants prefer grasses, flow-
ers, and berries. They also eat algae (AL-jee),
or tiny plantlike growths that live in water. COUNT THE RINGS
In many turtles, including some New
World pond turtles, a person can tell how
Many people have seen these turtles, be- old a turtle is by counting its rings. The rings
cause most of the animals in this family like are on the upper shell, which is split into
to sunbathe, or “bask.” Turtles that live in the little sections, called scutes (SCOOTS).
water typically climb up onto a rock or log Wood turtles, for example, have five scutes
sticking up above the water’s surface and soak down the middle of the shell and another
in the sunshine. Often, many turtles will climb four on each side. Every year the turtle gets
onto the same rock or log and may stack up a new set of scutes, which grow underneath
on one another. Turtles that live on land sim- the old ones; they stack up in a pyramid
ply find a sunny spot and bask there. Many shape, with older and slightly smaller
of these turtles are active all year, but those scutes on top. By counting all of the scutes
that live in temperate climates sink underwa- in one pile, a person can guess the age of
ter and bury themselves in the muddy bottom the turtle. Sometimes the oldest scutes
or bury themselves in shallow holes or under wear away, so the turtles may actually be a
piles of leaves to wait out the winter. Some little older than their scutes reveal.
that live in areas with long, dry spells also be-
come inactive until the rains come again.
During breeding season, usually in the spring, the males try
to attract the females by bobbing their heads or waving their
front claws in front of a female’s face. After mating, the female
finds a dry spot onshore, sometimes up to 0.6 miles (1 kilome-
ter) away from the water, and digs a hole. She lays as few as one
egg and as many as two dozen eggs in the hole and then cov-
ers them up. Afterward, she provides no care for the eggs or the
young. As with most turtles, the temperature of the nest con-
trols whether the egg becomes a male or a female turtle. Warm
nest temperatures produce females, and cool temperatures pro-
duce males. The eggs hatch in about two to three months.
NEW WORLD POND TURTLES AND PEOPLE

People enjoy seeing turtles in the wild, but the numbers of
many New World pond turtles are dropping. People once col-
lected and killed these turtles to eat their meat. While that prac-
tice is not as common anymore, turtles still face threats from
New World Pond Turtles 51

too much collecting for the pet trade or from car traffic on roads
they cross to reach a pond, nesting site, or other area.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), six
New World pond turtles are Endangered, meaning that they
face a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Seven species
are Vulnerable, meaning that there is a high risk that they will
become extinct in the wild, and fourteen are Near Threatened,
meaning that they are at risk of becoming threatened with ex-
tinction in the future. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists
the Alabama red-bellied turtle as Endangered and three other
species as Threatened. Pollution, collection for the pet trade,
and destruction of habitat, or the areas in which the turtles pre-
fer to live, are major reasons that the numbers of these turtles
are low. In addition, raccoons and other animals often dig up
nests and eat the turtle eggs.

Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)
SPECIES
PAINTED TURTLE ACCOUNTS
Chrysemys picta
Physical characteristics: The painted turtle is a medium-sized tur-

tle that is mostly olive or black on the legs, head, neck, and upper
shell. Adults can grow to 3.5–10 inches (9–26 centimeters). The head
has yellow stripes, and there are both red and yellow stripes on the
neck and legs and red striping around the edge of the upper shell,
the carapace. The bottom shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), is yellow or
tan, with a long, dark blotch running down the middle. Males and
females look very much alike, except that the females are larger and
the males have longer and thinner front claws. A large female’s cara-
pace can reach almost 10 inches (26 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: These turtles are found in Canada and the

United States.

Habitat: Painted turtles are mainly freshwater an-
imals, although a few live in saltier waters. They pre-
fer waters with little, if any current, or swift-moving
water. They live in southern Canada and mostly in
the far northern, central, and eastern United States,
though a few populations live in the southwestern
United States and just over the border in Mexico.
Diet: Painted turtles are not picky eaters. Their

meals consist of plants, insects, snails, leeches, tad-
poles, and small fishes that they find in the water.
They will also eat dead animals. Young turtles are
mainly meat eaters and then switch to eating more
and more plants as they grow older.
Painted turtles are mainly
freshwater animals, although a Behavior and reproduction: The painted turtle spends much time
few live in saltier waters. They sunbathing, or “basking,” on logs or rocks that poke up out of the
prefer waters with little, if any
current. (Illustration by Gillian
water. During the winter months, which can become quite cold in
Harris. Reproduced by the northern part of their range (the region where they roam and
permission.) feed), they bury themselves underwater in the muddy bottom and
wait for spring. If the winter day is warm enough, they may crawl
through a hole in the ice and bask before returning underwater. Males
and females mate in the fall or in the spring. The male attracts the
female by tickling the sides of her head with his long claws. The fe-
males leave the water from late spring to midsummer to nest on land,
usually somewhat near the water. The nest is a hole she digs in the
ground. She lays one to twenty eggs in each nest and typically makes
one or two nests a year. Nest temperature controls the number of
males and females in the clutch. The eggs hatch in seventy-two to
eighty days.
Painted turtles and people: Most people know these turtles as the
ones they see basking on logs in lakes and rivers. Some people col-
lect the turtles for the pet trade, and a few eat their meat.
Conservation status: Painted turtles are not threatened, but many

of them are killed every year by raccoons and other animals that dig
up their nests and eat the eggs or by cars that run over the turtles as
they attempt to cross roads. ■

Eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina)
EASTERN BOX TURTLE

Terrapene carolina
Physical characteristics: The eastern box turtle is a small- to

medium-sized turtle with a rounded upper shell. The adult’s lower
shell has two hinges. When the turtle is frightened, it can pull its
head, legs, and tail into the shell and use the hinges to close up the
lower shell. The carapace is black with a pattern of short yellow
stripes. Males have red eyes, a longer and thicker tail than that of the
females, and a lower shell that is indented rather than flat. Females
are larger than males and have carapaces that can reach 9 inches (23
centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: Theses turtles live in the United States and

Mexico.

Eastern box turtles live on land,
so they cannot swim away from
danger, and they are not fast
runners. To protect themselves
against predators the adults
tuck their legs, tails, and heads
inside their shells and use the
hinges in the upper shells to
close up tight. (Illustration by
Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.)
Habitat: This species lives in much of the eastern half of the United
States and parts of Mexico near the Gulf of Mexico. It is a land tur-
tle that roams forests and fields.
Diet: Eastern box turtles eat a variety of plants and animals, in-
cluding grasses, flowers, and berries as well as insects and earthworms.
Behavior and reproduction: These turtles live on land, so they can-

not swim away from danger, and they are not fast runners. To pro-
tect themselves against predators (PREH-duh-ters), or animals that
might want to eat them, the adults tuck their legs, tails, and heads
inside their shells and use the hinges in the upper shells to close up
tight. Predators cannot get through the sealed shell. Young turtles,
however, do not have hinges. Instead, they release a strong odor that
persuades predators to leave them alone. Like other members of this
family, eastern box turtles sunbathe to warm up. When the day gets
too hot, they hide just barely underground. In the winter months
these turtles bury themselves beneath a pile of leaves or just under
the soil and wait until spring. Sometimes, if the winter becomes par-
ticularly cold for a few days, a turtle will freeze, and its heart will
stop beating, but they do not die.
Males and females mate in the spring. The male attracts the female
by biting at her shell and sometimes her head and bumping into her.
Females lay their eggs from spring to midsummer, sometimes mak-
ing five nests a year, though most of them make just one or two. The

female lays one to eleven eggs in each nest, and the eggs hatch in
about two and a half months. The nest temperature controls the num-
ber of males and females in each nest. A warmer nest produces all
females, and a cooler nest produces all males.
Eastern box turtles and people: This turtle is popular in the pet
trade because of its size and friendly behavior. People rarely see them
live in the wild, except when the turtles attempt to cross a road—an
activity that too often results in death from a passing car.
Conservation status: According to the IUCN the eastern box tur-

tle is Near Threatened, meaning that it is at risk of becoming threat-
ened with extinction in the future. Habitat loss has caused some of
the drop in turtle numbers. ■
Books:
Amphibians: Eastern and Central North America. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1998.
Dodd, C. Kenneth, Jr. North American Box Turtles: A Natural History.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
Gibbons, J. Whitfield. Life History and Ecology of the Slider Turtle.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Harding, J. H. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.

EURASIAN POND AND RIVER
TURTLES AND NEOTROPICAL
WOOD TURTLES
Geoemydidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Geoemydidae
class Eurasian pond and river turtles and neotropical wood tur-
subclass tles are small to large turtles. The upper shell, or carapace
(KARE-a-pays), is bony. Most of these turtles have webbing be-
order tween their toes. Some of them have a side-to-side hinge in the
monotypic order bottom shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), which allows them to
close up tight if they feel threatened. In some species, the males
suborder
and females look quite different from each other. The male In-
▲ family dian tent turtle, for example, grows to only about a third of the
size of the female, which is typically 1 foot (30.5 centimeters)
long. The largest members of this family weigh 110 pounds
(50 kilograms) and have upper shells that can reach 32 inches
(81 centimeters) in length.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These turtles live in Eurasia, North Africa, Mexico, and Cen-
tral and South America.
HABITAT
The members of this family live in the saltwater of the ocean’s
coastline, in inland freshwater areas, or on land in forests. They
typically are found in the tropical areas of many countries, in-
cluding China and the nations of the East Indies and Europe.
They live from northern Mexico in North America to Ecuador
and Brazil in South America. They also live in regions bordering
the tropics, which are called “subtropical” regions.

DIET
Some Eurasian pond and river turtles and neotropical wood
turtles eat only meat, and some eat only plants; others will dine
on both meat and plants. In one species, called the Chinese
stripe-necked turtle, the juveniles (JOO-vuh-nuhls), or young
turtles, and the males eat mainly meat in the form of insects,
but the females are primarily vegetarians and eat mostly leaves,
seeds, and roots from the shoreline plants.

Just as the habitat, or the natural living area, differs from
species to species in this family, so, too, does their behavior
and method of reproduction. Some of them hardly ever leave
the water, but others live on land. Many of them are active all
year long, but others become inactive during the winter months
or during dry spells. Some, such as the Chinese stripe-necked
turtle, sunbathe, or “bask,” onshore to warm their bodies.
Although scientists know few details about many of these tur-
tles, they have noted that the adult male of some species will bite
or bump up against a female to persuade her to mate. Also, the
heads and legs of a few species will become more brightly col-
ored during mating season, probably to attract a mate. Male
painted terrapins, for example, normally have gray heads, but their
heads become white with a red stripe during mating season.
Females of the larger species lay the most eggs—up to thirty-
five eggs at a time. The smallest species may lay just a single
egg. Female painted terrapins travel as far as 31 miles (50 kilo-
meters) to reach a good nesting site and then lay their eggs at
night. They lay eggs about five times a year. In many cases, the
temperature of the nest does not affect the sex of the newly
hatched young turtles. In other species, however, a particularly
warm nest temperature produces all females, and a cool one
produces males. In at least one species, the eggs may also be-
come females if the nest temperature is especially cold.
Eggs hatch in sixty to 272 days. In some species, males can
become parents when they reach three or four years old, but
females must wait until they are five to eight years old. Some-
times two different species of Eurasian pond and river turtles
and neotropical wood turtles mate with each other and pro-
duce young turtles. This can happen often when two turtles
from different species of this family are put together in one
aquarium, but it may not happen as often in the wild.
Eurasian Pond and River Turtles and Neotropical Wood Turtles 59

EURASIAN POND AND RIVER TURTLES AND NEOTROPICAL
WOOD TURTLES AND PEOPLE
Some people who live near these turtles collect them to eat
their meat or to use them in making medicines. They are also
popular in the pet trade. The painted terrapin, for example, is
especially popular, because some people believe that this tur-
tle brings good luck.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) eleven
species are Vulnerable, meaning that there is a high risk that
they will become extinct in the wild. Eighteen species are En-
dangered, or facing a very high risk of extinction, and thirteen
are Critically Endangered, or facing an extremely high risk of
extinction. One species is Extinct; there is no longer any liv-
ing turtle in the species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service de-
scribes the Indian sawback turtle and river terrapin as
Endangered. Turtle declines can be traced to too much col-
lecting and to loss of their habitat. Efforts are under way to
breed some of the most threatened species in captivity to in-
crease their numbers.

Yellow-margined box turtle (Cistoclemmys flavomarginata)
SPECIES
YELLOW-MARGINED BOX TURTLE ACCOUNT
Cistoclemmys flavomarginata
Physical characteristics: The yellow-margined box turtle has a

bright yellow stripe down its upper shell and another yellow stripe
that runs from behind the eye onto the neck. The upper shell is arched
and rounded, and the lower shell is large, with a side-to-side hinge
that allows the turtle to tightly close it. In this small turtle, the up-
per shell measures just 7 inches (17.8 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: This turtle is found in China, Taiwan, and the

Ryukyu Islands of Japan.
Habitat: Yellow-margined box turtles mainly live in the warm-

weather forests of southern China, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu Islands.

Yellow-margined box turtles
mainly live in the warm-weather
forests of southern China,
Taiwan, and the Ryukyu Islands.
(Lief Linder/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permisson.)
They sometimes travel into rice paddies and freshwater ponds and
streams. Some of them only rarely, if ever, leave the forests.
Diet: Some members of this turtle group eat only plants, some eat
only meat, and others eat both plants and meat.
Behavior and reproduction: Since they live on land, the yellow-

margined box turtles must be able to defend themselves against
animals that might attack and kill them. These predators (PREH-duh-
ters) can easily outrun them, but they can protect themselves by tuck-
ing in their heads, legs, and tails and then using the hinges on their
lower shells to seal shut the shells and keep the predators from reach-
ing their soft flesh. If the weather turns particularly hot, the turtles
may also hide inside the sealed shell so they do not dry out. When
the cooler winter months arrive, the turtles bury themselves under
leaves or hide under a log or inside another animal’s underground
burrow and wait for warmer weather.
During mating season, the male runs at and bumps against the fe-
male to encourage her to mate with him. Depending on where she
lives, the female may nest from May or June through July, August, or
September. Some nest only every other year, but they may make one
to three nests in a single season. The female picks a spot in an open
area at the edge of a forest, digs a shallow hole, and lays one to four
eggs, ranging in length from 1.6 to 2.1 inches (40–53 millimeters)
and in width from 0.9 to 1.1 inches (23–28 millimeters). An egg can
weigh 0.4–1.0 ounces (11.3–28.3 grams). The eggs hatch in about

two months. The young cannot mate until they are twelve to thirteen
years old.
Yellow-margined box turtles and people: Many local people eat

this turtle or collect and kill it to make medicines. It is also popular
in the pet trade.
Conservation status: According to the World Conservation Union,

this species is Endangered. Threats to its survival include too much
collection and the destruction of the forests where it lives. ■
Books:
Liat, Lim Boo, and Indraneil Das. Turtles of Borneo and Peninsular
Malaysia. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia: Natural History Publications (Borneo),
1999.
Zhou, J., and T. Zhou. Chinese Chelonians Illustrated. Nanjing, China:
Jiangsu Science and Technology Publishing House, 1992.

AMERICAN MUD AND
MUSK TURTLES
Kinosternidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Kinosternidae
class American mud and musk turtles have glands, or sacs, along
their sides that produce a musky substance that smells like the
subclass spray of a skunk. The upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays),
order is rather tall, giving each turtle the outline of half a flattened
monotypic order ball when viewed from the side. The lower shell, or plastron
(PLAS-trun), looks different in separate species. In some species
suborder the plastron has one or two hinges reaching from the left to the
▲ family right side of the shell, but in others the shell has no hinges.
The hinges allow the plastron and carapace to pull tight against
one another after the turtle pulls its head, neck, legs, and tail
into the shell. Some mud and musk turtles have a plastron that
covers only part of the lower body, while others have a quite
large plastron that almost entirely conceals the undersides.
All of these small to medium-sized turtles have barbels (BAR-
buhls), which are small bits of flesh that dangle from the chin.
A few have very large heads. Most of the species in this family
have a carapace that is less than 8 inches (20 centimeters) long
and in some cases grows to just 4 inches (10 centimeters) in
length. The largest species, called the Mexican giant musk tur-
tle, has a carapace that reaches 15 inches (38 centimeters) long.
Males and females look quite similar. Males, however, usually
have thicker and longer tails that are tipped with a spine. Males
also have two rough, scaly patches on each hind leg.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Members of the American mud and musk turtle family live
in North and South America.

HABITAT
American mud and musk turtles are fresh-
water species. Most live in still or slow-mov-
ing waters and prefer lakes and ponds that
are filled with water all year long. A few make
their homes in shallow, seasonal ponds,
which have water only a few months a year, THE LONG SLEEP
usually during the spring season. American The yellow mud turtle holds the record
mud and musk turtles are found mainly in among turtles for the amount of time it
eastern and southern North America and as spends in a deep sleep every year. In very
far south as Argentina in South America. dry years this small, yellow-throated reptile
buries itself in the ground and waits for the
DIET rains to come, even if that means the turtle
American mud and musk turtles are has to stay underground up to ten months
mainly meat eaters. They eat snails, clams, in- of the year. While underground the turtle
sects, worms, leeches, and sometimes freshly enters a deep sleep. Usually this period of
killed fishes they come across. Turtles that inactivity is called estivation if it occurs
have large heads typically prefer snails and during the summer and hibernation if it
clams, which the turtle can easily open with occurs in the winter. Yellow mud turtles,
its massive jaws. Turtles in seasonal ponds however, are inactive from summer
may also eat a large number of seeds. through fall and winter to the following
spring. In other words, they both estivate
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION and hibernate. When the spring rains flood
Although most American mud and musk the ground, the turtles crawl out of their
turtles stay in the water for most of their slumber to mate, eat, and prepare for
lives, these turtles are only fair swimmers and another long sleep.
move rather slowly. In the rainy season, some
turtles may crawl onto land and look for food
there, but for the most part, most of the trips to land are for
nesting. Some turtles are active only during the day, and some
only at night. Others may be up and about at any time of day
or night. Those that live in warm, wet climates are active all
year. In areas with cold winters and in deserts with long
stretches of dry weather, the turtles may be active only a few
months a year and spend the rest of the year underground,
where they wait for better conditions. This period of inactivity
in the winter is called hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun). A pe-
riod of inactivity in dry summers is called estivation (es-tuh-
VAY-shun). In both cases, the turtle enters a state of deep sleep.
During breeding season, males and females have no real
courtship, or mating, rituals. They mate in the water. The
females scramble onto land to make their nests. Some dig holes,
American Mud and Musk Turtles 65

lay their eggs at the bottom, and then bury them. Others bury
themselves first and then dig a deeper hole for their eggs. Still
other species skip the hole and simply lay their eggs among
leaves on the surface of the ground. Females usually lay three
to six eggs in each clutch, or group of eggs, although some
clutches have as few as one egg or as many as twelve eggs. The
female may lay up to six clutches a year. The oblong eggs range
from 0.9 to 1.7 inches (2.3–4.3 centimeters) long and from 0.6
to 1.0 inches (1.5–2.5 centimeters) wide. The eggs hatch
seventy-five days to a year after being laid. The nest tempera-
ture controls whether the eggs in most species hatch into males
or females. Very warm or very cold temperatures produce
females, and medium temperatures produce males. In a few
species, such as the Mexican giant musk turtle and Pacific Coast
giant musk turtle, the nest temperature has no effect on whether
the eggs become males or females.
AMERICAN MUD AND MUSK TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Other than once in a while collecting a turtle for the pet trade
or for its meat value, people generally leave mud and musk tur-
tles alone.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Most species of American mud and musk turtles are quite
common in their habitats, but according to the World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN), four species are Vulnerable, which means
they face a high risk of extinction in the wild. Three of the four
live in very small areas, and the fourth lives in a disappearing
habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists one species, the
flattened musk turtle, as Threatened, or likely to become en-
dangered in the near future.

Stinkpot (Sternotherus odoratus)
SPECIES
STINKPOT ACCOUNT
Sternotherus odoratus
Physical characteristics: As its name says, the stinkpot can give

off quite an odor. This odor comes from a substance known as musk,
which comes from sacs, or glands, on the sides of the turtle’s body.
The stinkpot is small, has a somewhat rounded upper shell, or cara-
pace, and a small lower shell, or plastron, that covers only the cen-
ter of its underside. The plastron has one side-to-side hinge near the
front. The turtle’s head typically has two yellow stripes on each side
that run backward from a pointy snout. The stinkpot also has at least
two barbels, or bits of hanging flesh, on its chin and neck. Stinkpots,
which are also known as common musk turtles, grow to about 5.4
inches (13.7 centimeters) in carapace length, although some adults
only reach about 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) long.

Geographic range: Stinkpots are found in
Canada and the United States.
Habitat: The stinkpot is a small freshwater tur-

tle most at home in mud-bottomed, weedy lakes
and ponds in southeastern Canada and through
much of the eastern half of the United States.
Diet: Stinkpots eat a variety of animals and

plants. Their diet includes worms, snails, clams,
crayfish, insects, tadpoles, fishes and their eggs,
and even bites of flesh they take from dead ani-
mals. Stinkpots are also fond of seeds, tiny aquatic
plantlike growths called algae (AL-jee), and pieces
The stinkpot is a small of plants that grow in the water.
freshwater turtle most at home
in mud-bottomed, weedy lakes Behavior and reproduction: Like other members of their family,
and ponds in southeastern stinkpots stay in the water much of their lives but are poor swimmers
Canada and through much of and often simply walk along the water bottom looking for food. Al-
the eastern half of the United
States. (Henri Janssen. though they are small, stinkpots can put up quite a fight if an animal
Reproduced by permission.) attacks them or if a human tries to pick one up. Often a turtle that
feels threatened ducks its head, legs, and tail as far as possible into
the shell. At other times, however, the stinkpot snaps out with its
mouth wide open, sometimes taking a firm bite at the attacker.
Stinkpots sometimes sunbathe, or bask, on land. Turtles that live
in a warmer area may stay active all year long. Turtles that live in an
area that has cold winters may hibernate for a few months.
Most musk turtles mate in the spring or fall, but some mate at other
times of the year. The male may try to attract the female by biting at
her shell or nudging her, but these turtles often mate without much
fuss. The females lay their eggs from spring to midsummer, sometimes
as early as February in warmer areas. Some female stinkpots simply drop
their eggs among leaves, but others dig a hole, lay the eggs inside, and
then bury them. The white, oblong eggs range from 0.9 to 1.2 inches
(2.3–3.0 centimeters) long and from 0.5 to 0.7 inches (1.3–1.8 cen-
timeters) wide. The female usually lays a clutch, or group, of two to five
eggs at a time but sometimes lay as few as one or as many as nine eggs.
The stinkpot may lay one or two clutches a year in colder areas and up
to four clutches a year in southern climates. The eggs hatch in about
sixty-five to eighty-five days. Very warm and very cool nest tempera-
tures produce females, and temperatures in between produce males.
Stinkpots and people: Some people collect stinkpots for the pet
trade, but this practice is not very common.

Conservation status: Neither the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) nor the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service consider the stinkpot
threatened. ■
Books:
Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. 3rd ed. Boston:

AFRICAN SIDE-NECKED
TURTLES
Pelomedusidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Pelomedusidae
class African side-necked turtles are small- to medium-sized tur-
tles that fold their necks sideways under their shells, rather than
subclass
pulling them straight back into the shell, along with their heads.
order They have five claws on each hind foot. The upper shell, or
monotypic order carapace (KARE-a-pays), of adults usually is less than 1 foot
(30.5 centimeters) long, but the length of shells can range from
suborder about 4 to 21.6 inches (10–55 centimeters). The turtle has a
▲ family large lower shell, or plastron (PLAS-trun), that covers much of
the chest and belly. Sometimes the plastron has a hinge that al-
lows the animal to pull its lower shell quite tight against the
upper shell and offers protection from predators (PREH-duh-
ters), or animals that seek these turtles out as a source of food.
In addition, the turtles have glands, or special organs, along the
sides of their bodies that give off a musky, or earthy, smell to
ward off attackers.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
African side-necked turtles live in Africa, Madagascar, and
the Seychelles Islands, which are northeast of Madagascar.
HABITAT
These turtles often are seen in freshwater lakes and rivers
that hold water all year long, but they also are found in tem-
porary freshwater ponds, which lose their water during the dry
season. Some side-necked turtles, including those that are called
“mud turtles,” spend much of their time in soft-bottomed ponds
that are filled with water for only a few weeks every year.

DIET
African side-necked turtles are mainly
meat eaters, although a few will eat plants.
The main items in their diet are worms; clams
and other mollusks, or soft-bodied animals
covered by shells; shrimp and other crus-
taceans (krus-TAY-shuns), or animals with a THE TURTLE–RHINO CONNECTION
soft, segmented body covered by shells; in- Although few people would think that
sects; fish; frogs and other amphibians (am- turtles get much of their food from
FIB-ee-uns), or animals that spend part of rhinoceroses, several African side-necked
their lives in water and part on land. These turtles do rely on the large mammals for
turtles also eat whatever dead animal matter some of their food. The turtles do not eat
they can find. Those that eat plants prefer wa- the rhinos but rather wait for them to wade
ter lettuce and grasses that grow in lakes, into a water hole and then swim up to nibble
ponds, and streams and various fruits that off the ticks that cling to their hides. Rhinos
drop into the water from overhanging trees. are not the only buffet table for the turtles.
They will do the same with other large
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION herding animals that stop by for a drink.
Although these side-necked turtles can be
quite noticeable in their habitat, scientists
know very little about their behavior. The turtles bask, spend-
ing warm days sunning themselves near the shoreline. They are
especially active during the wet season, when they may roam
over land. When the weather turns dry, many side-necked tur-
tles seek shelter underground. Those that live in the cool, mild
climate of the far south of Africa may hibernate, or become in-
active, on land or under water through the winter months.
These turtles breed during late spring or summer, with the
females laying six to four dozen oblong-shaped eggs. Scientists
suspect that the turtles may have more than one set of young
every year. The outside temperature controls how many eggs
in a clutch, or group, will develop into males and how many
will develop into females. Scientists call this “temperature-
dependent sex determination,” or TDSD. If the weather is con-
stantly warm or especially cool, most of the young are females.
If the weather is more temperate, or mild, most are males.
AFRICAN SIDE-NECKED TURTLES AND PEOPLE

African side-neced turtles are unpopular as pets and as food,
but people occasionally eat them. One reason for their lack of
popularity is their smell. The musk glands are very powerful
weapons against predators, including humans. Pet owners who
African Side-necked Turtles 71

keep African side-necked turtles often find that they are un-
friendly and can be aggressive; they will bite at other turtles in
the same aquarium and will nip at humans who put their hands
too close.
CONSERVATION STATUS
In 2003 the World Conservation Union (IUCN) listed one
species, the Seychelles mud turtle, as Extinct; none of these tur-
tles is still alive. In addition, it listed the Magdalena river tur-
tle and the Madagascar big-headed turtle as Endangered,
meaning that it faces a very high threat of extinction in the
wild. Five species are Vulnerable, which means that there is a
high threat of their extinction, and one is Near Threatened,
meaning that it is at risk of becoming threatened with extinc-
tion soon. Many of these species live in very small areas, so
even slight disturbances can kill populations and possibly the
entire species. For example, the Broadley’s mud turtle, which
is listed as Vulnerable, is found only in Lake Rudolph (also
known as Lake Turkana) in Kenya.

Helmeted turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa)
SPECIES
HELMETED TURTLE ACCOUNT
Pelomedusa subrufa
Physical characteristics: Adult helmeted turtles have upper shells

that reach 13 inches (33 centimeters) in length. The brown to green-
ish-brown upper shell is fairly flat. The lower shell is usually yellow
or cream-colored, sometimes with dark seams or large, dark smudges.
The lower neck is also yellow or cream-colored. These turtles have a
rather pointed face with a mouth that looks as if it is set in a
permanent grin. Males and females look alike, except that males
have longer tails and concave, or indented, lower shells. Males may
have red spots or white coloration on their heads during mating
season.

Helmeted turtles are mostly
meat eaters, feeding on worms,
snails and clams, insects and
other small invertebrates, fishes,
frogs, and whatever dead
animals they can find.
(Illustration by Barbara
Duperron. Reproduced by
permission.)
Geographic range: Helmeted turtles inhabit Madagascar, southern

Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and central to southern Africa.
Habitat: Helmeted turtles can be found in various water bodies, in-

cluding ponds, marshes, and streams that are filled with water all year
long and temporary ponds that dry up from time to time. They move
from water site to water site during the year, so they are often seen
on land.
Diet: Like other side-necked turtles, helmeted turtles are mostly

meat eaters, feeding on worms; snails and clams; insects and other
small invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts), or animals without back-
bones; fishes; frogs; and whatever dead animals they can find. They
also eat small reptiles and mammals. They are some of the only rep-
tiles that will band together and hunt as a pack to catch, drown, and
tear apart birds, mammals, and other reptiles. An occasional piece of
fruit or water-living plant rounds out the diet.
Behavior and reproduction: Except those individuals that live in the

hottest of climates, these turtles spend much of the day basking near
the shoreline. They are also noticeable when they are moving from
water body to water body. The young will eat all day long and into
the night, but the adults tend to feed only in the early morning or
early evening hours. When the weather is too dry, they will bury them-
selves in the mud until the rains come. This period of inactivity in dry
weather, which is called estivation (es-tuh-VAY-shun), can last for
months. In the cooler areas where they live, they hibernate by finding
a spot under leaves or below ground to wait out the winter.

Mating usually happens in the spring. During courtship, a male will
chase a female, touching and sometimes nipping at her back legs and
tail; bob his head from side to side; and shoot water out of his nos-
trils. The females lay one set of thirteen to forty eggs every year (fewer
than twenty eggs is typical) in a nest that is sometimes set among
rocks. The outside temperature determines the number of male and
female young in the clutch. Especially warm or cool temperatures will
produce more females, while moderate temperatures yield males.
Helmeted turtles and people: Although people frequently see this

common turtle, it does not usually notice or mind their presence,
even sometimes entering and making good use of man-made ponds.
Some people eat helmeted turtles or drain their blood for folk medi-
cines; a few become pets. These practices have not affected the sur-
vival of the species.
Conservation status: The helmeted turtle is not threatened. ■
Books:
Boycott, R. C., and O. Bourquin. The Southern African Tortoise Book: A
Guide to Southern African Tortoises, Terrapins and Turtles. KwaZulu-
Natal, South Africa: privately printed, 2000.
Branch, B. Field Guide to the Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern
Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik Publishers, 1998.
Spawls, S., K. Howell, R. Drewes, and J. Ashe. A Field Guide to the Rep-
tiles of East Africa. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002.
Web sites:
“Pelomedusa subrufa.” ETI—Turtles of the World. http://www.eti.uva.nl/
Turtles/Turtles3a.html (accessed on July 27, 2004).

BIG-HEADED TURTLE
Platysternidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Platysternidae
One species: Big-headed turtle
(Platysternon
megacephalum)
class The family Platysternidae has only one member, the big-
headed turtle, which has the scientific name Platysternon mega-
subclass
cephalum. This small to medium-sized turtle is most known for
order its huge head, which is about half as wide as the upper shell.
monotypic order The head is shaped like a triangle and covered with a single,
large, hard scale, known as a scute (SCOOT). The upper shell,
suborder or carapace (KARE-a-pays), is quite flat and sometimes has a
▲ family single ridge running down the middle from front to back. The
carapace is yellow to dark-brown and may have a pattern on
it. A few big-headed turtles have red or pink markings on the
carapace. Like that of many other turtles, the lower shell, or
plastron (PLAS-trun), of the big-headed turtle is yellow and
covers most of the underside. Unlike those of many other tur-
tles, the upper and lower shells of the big-headed turtle are not
connected by a bony bridge, but by softer, more flexible tissue,
called ligaments (LIH-guh-ments). The upper jaw, also known
as the beak, comes to a sharp point in the front. The big-headed
turtle has a scaly tail that is nearly as long as the upper shell.
The feet have obvious claws and just a bit of webbing between
the toes. Turtle size is measured by the length of the carapace.
The carapace length of the big-headed turtle reaches about 8
inches (20 centimeters). Males and females are similar, but the
males have a more indented plastron.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The big-headed turtle lives in China, Laos, Myanmar,
Thailand, and Vietnam.

HABITAT
The big-headed turtle is rare and has been
found only in small mountain streams from
southern China to Thailand and southern
Myanmar. These turtles appear to be very
particular about the type of stream, living
only in rock-bottomed, cool waters and only CHANGES IN CLOSEST RELATIVES
in mountainous regions up to 6,600 feet Big-headed turtles are the only species
(2,000 meters). in the family Platysternidae. Scientists once
believed these turtles were most closely
DIET related to New World pond turtles, including
Because the big-headed turtle is so rare, the painted turtles that are common in
scientists have been able to learn about its much of North America. That idea has
diet only by observing captive, rather than faded, however. Now many people believe
wild, turtles. In captivity, the turtles eat meat, the closest relatives are the snapping
fish, and insects. The big-headed turtle is turtles, which are in the family Chelydridae,
probably a meat-eater in the wild and may eat or possibly the Eurasian pond and river
no plants at all. The turtle most likely gets turtles and neotropical wood turtles of the
most of its meals by gathering insects, mol- family Geoemydidae. A few scientists
lusks, crustaceans, and other small inverte- believe the big-headed turtles should be
brates from the stream bottom, but it also may included in the snapping turtle family, but
crawl out of the water onto shore and search most argue that these turtles are different
for food on land. Invertebrates (in-VER-teh- enough to be in a separate family.
brehts) are animals without backbones. Both
mollusks (MAH-lusks) and crustaceans
(krus-TAY-shuns) are invertebrates with
shells. Mollusks, such as snails and clams, have an unsegmented
body, and crustaceans, such as crayfish and shrimp, have a seg-
mented body.

All turtles fall into one of two groups: the Cryptodira or the
Pleurodira. The difference between the two is the way each
pulls its neck and head back toward or into the shell. The Cryp-
todira, also known as hidden-necked turtles, can pull their
heads and necks straight back and are usually able to tuck both
into the shell. The Pleurodira, also known as side-necked tur-
tles, can only pull their necks sideways rather than straight
back, so most tuck their head and neck along the side of the
shell. The big-headed turtle is unusual because it is a Cryp-
todira in that it can pull its neck backward, but it cannot draw
its head into the shell because its head is so large.
Big-headed Turtle 77
Big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum)
Most hidden-necked turtles are shy animals that pull their

heads, limbs, and tails into the shell whenever they feel threat-
ened. Attacking animals, called predators (PREH-duh-ters), find
it difficult, if not impossible, to get past the shell, and the turtle
usually survives with little if any injury. The big-headed turtle
cannot hide this way and instead defends itself by drawing its
legs and tail into the shell and then ducking down its head so
that the chin is on the ground and only the hard top shows.
Sometimes the turtle may lash out with a quick bite. It may con-
tinue biting, and biting quite hard, until the predator leaves. Cap-
tive turtles also squeal when threatened. In addition, this turtle
has glands, or sacs, on the sides of the shell that squirt out a bad-
smelling musk, which may be used to scare off predators.
The big-headed turtle is a surprisingly good climber and uses
its long tail for balance. The turtle may also use its beak to grab
vertical surfaces when climbing. When placed in a fenced-in,
indoor area, the turtle is able not only to climb over the fence

The big-headed turtle is most
known for its huge head, which
is about half as wide as the
upper shell. The head is shaped
like a triangle and covered with
a single, large, hard scale,
known as a scute. (©Tom
McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
but also to grab onto window curtains and scramble all the way
to the ceiling. In the wild, the turtles likely put this climbing
ability to good use for crawling over rocky stream bottoms and
against fast current. Some people report seeing the turtles
climbing trees and bushes in the wild.
Big-headed turtles appear to be nocturnal (nahk-TER-nuhl)
and crepuscular (kreh-PUS-kyuh-lur) in the wild. Nocturnal
means they are active at night, and crepuscular means they are
active at dusk and dawn. During the day, these turtles take
cover and relax underwater beneath logs or rocks and wedged
into cracks in boulders. Big-headed turtles that live in colder
waters disappear in the winter. Although no one knows where
the turtles go, scientists believe they probably hibernate (HIGH-
bur-nayt), which means they enter a deep sleep. Some people
think the turtles may hibernate in a protected spot on land.
Little is known about the courtship, or mate-attracting ac-
tivities, of big-headed turtles or about their mating and nesting
behaviors. In the wild the females probably nest sometime from
May to August. The only egg ever seen hatching did so in cap-
tivity, and it hatched in September. In each clutch, or nest of
eggs, females lay one or two eggs, sometimes as many as four.
The eggs are 1.5–1.7 inches (3.8–4.3 centimeters) long and are
about 0.9 inches (2.3 centimeters) wide. The eggs are quite
large considering that the turtle’s carapace length only reaches
8 inches (20 centimeters). No one knows whether the turtle
Big-headed Turtle 79
lays one or more than one clutch a year. In captivity these tur-
tles can live to be as old as twenty-five years.
BIG-HEADED TURTLES AND PEOPLE

Some people consider the meat of the big-headed turtle a
delicacy, so the turtles face threats from hunters. Other people
collect the turtles for use in folk medicines. Despite their ten-
dency to bite, these turtles are fairly popular pets.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) the big-
headed turtle is Endangered because of overcollection. Endan-
gered means that this species is facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild in the near future.
Books:
Guide to the World’s Wildlife. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
Web sites:
Kirkpatrick, David T. “The Big-headed Turtle, Platysternon mega-
cephalum.” www.unc.edu/dtkirkpa/stuff/bigheads.html (accessed on
August 6, 2004).

AFRO-AMERICAN RIVER
TURTLES
Podocnemididae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Podocnemididae
The Afro-American river turtle is described as a “side-necked” class
turtle because it cannot pull its neck and head straight back into
subclass
the shell. Instead, it folds its neck sideways under its shell. The
largest member of this family has an upper shell, or carapace order
(KARE-a-pays), that reaches 42 inches (107 centimeters) in monotypic order
length. Afro-American river turtles have only four toes on their
hind feet. Some species also have barbells (BAR-buhls), which suborder
are bits of flesh that dangle from their chins. Some scientists be- ▲ family
lieve that these turtles should be grouped with similar turtles in
the family Pelomedusidae, which live in mainly in Africa.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Afro-American river turtles are found in Madagascar and
northern South America.
HABITAT
Many of these freshwater turtles live on riverbanks and in
large lakes, but some also live in streams and swamps, wetlands
partly covered with water. Sometimes they move into flooded
forests. Their range, or the area in which they live and feed, in-
cludes Madagascar, which lies off the eastern coast of southern
Africa, and northern South America.
DIET
Afro-American river turtles are mainly plant eaters; they are
especially fond of fruits that drop off the trees on the shore and
fall into the water. They also eat stems, leaves, and grasses.
Afro-American River Turtles 81

They dine on meat once in a while, and when
they do, they eat insects, fishes, or other
freshwater animals.

These turtles’ behavior depends on where
THE LARGEST TURTLE EVER
they live. Some of them hardly ever leave
Afro-American river turtles live only in their river homes. In these species, the fe-
South America and thousands of miles away male often makes the only trips on land. To
in Madagascar, but it was not always that lay her eggs, she crawls up onto a sandbar,
way. Scientists have found fossils (FAH- a ridge of sand built up by currents in the
suhls), or the dead remains, of these turtles water. Besides those turtles that live only in
on every continent except Australia and rivers, other species live in calm pockets of
Antarctica. Although the river turtles live only water along the river, sometimes in flooded
in freshwater rivers, ponds, and streams, the forest pools, and the females lay their eggs
fossils show that the turtles once also lived on riverbanks. Still other species of these tur-
in saltwater and on land. One of the species tles also make their homes in small streams
in this family was the largest turtle that ever and ponds, and the females make long trips
lived. This turtle, known as Stupendemys over land to nest. When the dry season emp-
geographicus, had an upper shell that ties the stream or pond, they crawl under-
measured 7.5 feet (2.3 meters) in length and ground, become inactive, and wait for the
might have weighed 4,000–5,000 pounds rains to return. The Madagascan big-headed
(1,814–2,268 kilograms). turtle, for example, spends the dry season
buried in the mud. Scientists know few de-
tails about the activities of the Afro-Ameri-
can river turtles, including whether the males “court” the
females to attract them or how they mate.
Nesting time is tied to the rainy season. As the rainy season
ends, the females typically start to sunbathe in the early morn-
ing and late afternoon. She then begins her migration to a nest-
ing site, which can take a very long time. Many Afro-American
river turtles nest in large groups. Each female of the group digs
her own hole, where she lays and buries her eggs. The females
of some species are known to use only their hind legs in dig-
ging the nest and covering up their eggs. Different species lay
varying numbers of eggs in their nests. The smaller river tur-
tles, for instance, lay about five to twenty eggs per nest, while
the largest species can lay up to 156 eggs. In all species except
the South American river turtle, the eggs are longer than they
are wide. The South American river turtle has round eggs. Some
species make one nest a year, and others make two or more.
Female Madagascan big-headed turtles skip a year between

nestings. Nest temperature controls the number of males and
females in the nest, with very warm and sometimes particularly
cold temperatures producing females, and more moderate, or
mild, temperatures producing males. The eggs hatch in forty to
149 days.
AFRO-AMERICAN RIVER TURTLES AND PEOPLE

People hunt these turtles for their meat and their eggs.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), seven
of the eight species face some threat of survival. Two species
are Endangered, meaning that there is a very high risk that they
will become extinct in the wild soon. Four species are Vulner-
able, facing a high risk of extinction. One species is listed as
Lower Risk: Conservation Dependent, meaning that its survival
depends on conservation measures. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service lists two species as Endangered. Much of the decline in
this family of turtles can be traced to too much hunting of adults
and collecting of their eggs. Efforts are under way to protect
the turtles’ nesting areas, so that the females have a safe place
to lay their eggs.

South American river turtle (Podocnemis expansa)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SOUTH AMERICAN RIVER TURTLE
Podocnemis expansa
Physical characteristics: Also known as the arrau or tartaruga, the

South American river turtle sometimes is described as “giant” because
it is so large. The upper shell can measure more than 3.5 feet (1 me-
ter) in length. The carapace is rather flat and a bit wider at the rear
than it is at the front. It is typically dark brown, but in spots it may
be worn away to a paler, almost orange color in older turtles. The
head is dark on top and down the cheeks but pale yellowish-tan on
the bottom and on the neck. Two barbels hang from its chin. Young

Also known as the arrau or
tartaruga, the South American
river turtle sometimes is
described as “giant” because it
is so large. The upper shell can
measure more than 3.5 feet (1
meter) in length. (Illustration by
Jonathan Higgins. Reproduced
by permission.)
turtles have a more patterned head with yellow blotches outlined or

spotted in black.
Geographic range: These turtles live in northern South America.
Habitat: These freshwater turtles live in large river branches in the

Orinoco and Amazon river systems of northern South America. If the
water rises high enough and overflows into areas next to the rivers,
they may move into these flooded areas, too.
Diet: This species eats plants, insects, and sponges, but it prefers
the fruits of riverside trees.
Behavior and reproduction: Nesting begins shortly after the rainy

season ends. During the nesting period, which may last ten to sixty
days, the female travels upstream or downstream to reach a nesting
site, which she shares with other females. Late at night the females
climb onto a sandbar, and each one uses both her front and hind legs
to dig a hole more than 1 yard (1 meter) around and 1.5 feet (0.5
meters) deep. At the bottom of the hole, the female uses only her
hind legs to continue digging another pit, where she lays her eggs.
Unlike other members of the family, which lay oblong eggs, the South
American river turtle lays round eggs. Most of the eggs are about 1.6
inches (4 centimeters) across, but one or two may have a diameter
twice that size. A typical nest holds about eighty eggs, but it contain
as few as forty-eight eggs or as many as 156 eggs.
The females make only one nest per year. After laying her eggs,
the female covers up at least the bottom hole, containing the eggs,
and sometimes also the hole above it. The eggs hatch in about a month

and a half; within a couple of days after hatching, the young make
their way out of the nest. The sex of the hatchlings, or young turtles,
depends on the temperature of the nest: extremely warm or very cool
temperatures produce females, whereas temperatures that are more
moderate, or mild, produce males. Scientists know few details about
other activities of these large turtles.
South American river turtles and people Although it is now illegal

to do so, some people still hunt and kill adults and sometimes even
baby turtles for their meat and collect eggs for the oil they contain.
Conservation status The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists this
turtle as Endangered, which means that it is facing a risk of extinc-
tion in the wild. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists it as
Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent, which means that its survival
relies on sound conservation efforts. These listings result from the
fact that humans have killed adults and destroyed their eggs over
many decades. The turtle’s range became smaller and smaller as the
hunting and collecting continued. Efforts are under way to protect
their nesting areas and to prevent further collecting of turtles or their
eggs. ■
Books:
Web sites:
Pecor, Keith. “Pelomedusidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Pelomedusidae.html (accessed on August 6, 2004).

TORTOISES
Testudinidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Testudinidae
Number of species: About 47
species
Tortoises are small- to large-sized, land-living turtles. Most class
of them have a tall upper shell, or carapace (KARE-a-pays). Their
subclass
back legs are thick and somewhat resemble the legs of an ele-
phant. The front legs, on the other hand, are rather flat and cov- order
ered with large scales. Their toes have no webbing between monotypic order
them, and many species have five claws on each front foot. The
largest members of this family can weigh as much as 562 pounds suborder
(255 kilograms) and have upper shells that grow to 4 feet 7 ▲ family
inches (1.4 meters) long. Some of them have a hinge in the
carapace or in the lower shell, which is called the plastron
(PLAS-trun).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tortoises exist on all large islands and continents, except
Australia and Antarctica.
HABITAT
Tortoises live in many habitats, including deserts, grasslands,
shrubby areas, and forests. Most live in warmer climates in
North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and many
make their homes on large islands in the ocean.
DIET
The tortoises are mainly plant-eaters, eating everything from
grasses, flowers, and leaves to fruits and seeds. If they come
across them, a few tortoises will also eat insects, worms, or
other living or dead animals.
Tortoises 87
Tortoises are known for their slow, lum-
bering movements on land. The males often
fight among themselves, either by ramming
their shells against one another or by biting
at each other’s legs. A male will also do the
TORTOISES AND BIRDS same things to a female in an attempt to con-
Galápagos tortoises have an unusual vince her to mate with him. In addition, he
relationship with small birds, known as will bob his head at her and chase her. Fe-
Darwin’s finches. Ticks and other small males lay from one to 51 eggs at a time. Each
biting insects often hitch a ride on a of the round or oblong eggs is about 1 to 2
tortoise’s skin, but the tortoise frequently inches (3 to 6 centimeters) in diameter and
cannot reach them to remove them. The is typically quite brittle, or easily broken.
birds feed on these same organisms. Some females may not nest every year, but
Darwin’s finches and Galápagos tortoises when they do, they may have more than one
seem to have struck a deal. When the clutch, or nest of eggs, per season. Although
finches fly in, the tortoises stand up as tall scientists have not tested all of the species,
as they can and stretch out their necks, so the eggs in most become males or females
the birds can pick off the insects and mites based on the temperature of the nest. A par-
from every nook and cranny on their skin. ticularly warm nest produces mostly females,
Both the birds and the tortoises benefit: and an especially cool one produces males.
The bird gets an easy meal, and the tortoise The eggs typically hatch in 100 to 160 days,
gets some needed relief. but one species’ eggs hatch only after 18
months. Some species may live 200 years or
more.
Many tortoises become inactive in the summer when the
weather is very dry. Many simply hide during the day in a shady
spot, but some will dig a hole, or burrow, and spend the hottest
part of the day there. On cooler days, some of these tortoises
will seek out a warm spot and sunbathe, or bask, to increase
their body temperature. Those species that live in colder cli-
mates may become inactive in the winter months.
TORTOISES AND PEOPLE

People hunt these tortoises for food and traditional medi-
cines and collect them for the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), one
species is Critically Endangered or facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild, seven are Endangered or facing a very
high risk of extinction in the wild, and sixteen are Vulnerable

or facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service lists two U.S. species as Threatened or likely to
become endangered in the near future and five foreign species
as Endangered, or in danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of their range. Although most countries make
collecting illegal, it still continues. People find these land-living
turtles easy to find and collect.
Tortoises 89
Galápagos tortoise (Geochelone nigra)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS GALÁPAGOS TORTOISE
Geochelone nigra
Physical characteristics: This large, bulky tortoise usually has a tall

and rounded, dark-colored upper shell that may be black, gray, or
brown. Sometimes the upper shell, or carapace, is saddle-shaped. The
carapace can measure up to 51 inches (130 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: They only live on the Galápagos Islands.
Habitat: This species lives on the volcanic Galápagos Islands in the
Pacific Ocean, west of Ecuador in South America. They make their
homes anywhere from rather dry to moist areas.

The Galápagos tortoise has
become a prized tourist
attraction on the Galápagos
Islands. (Illustration by Joseph E.
Trumpey. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: The Galápagos tortoise eats almost nothing but plants, in-
cluding grasses, cacti, fruits, and leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: Active during the day, they spend their
nights sleeping among plants or rocks. Males of this species, like the
males of some other species, fight one another by ramming their shells
together. Males do the same thing to females during mating season,
which runs from December to August. During mating, he will make
roaring noises. The female lays up to four sets, or clutches, of eggs from
late June to December. She digs a hole, drops in two to nineteen eggs,
and then buries them. She provides no other care for the eggs or young.
The round eggs measure 2.2 to 2.6 inches (56 to 65 millimeters) in
diameter. The eggs hatch eighty-five to two hundred days later.
Galápagos tortoises and people: Rarely collected for its food, this
tortoise has become a prized tourist attraction on the Galápagos Islands.
Conservation status: According to the World Conservation Union

(IUCN), the Galápagos tortoise is Vulnerable, which means it faces a
high risk of extinction in the wild. Certain populations of this tor-
toise have disappeared completely. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice lists the tortoise as Endangered, or in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Many of them die
from attacks by cats, rats, dogs, and pigs. ■
Tortoises 91
Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)
DESERT TORTOISE
Gopherus agassizii
Physical characteristics: This medium-sized tortoise has a tall,

dome-shaped upper shell, or carapace, and flat front legs. The cara-
pace can reach up to 19 inches (49 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: Desert tortoises live in the United States and

Mexico.
Habitat: Found in the southwestern United States and northwest-

ern Mexico, this species makes its home in cactus deserts and spots
with thorny shrubs.
Diet: The desert tortoise eats mostly plants, including grasses, cacti,
and flowers.

The desert tortoise makes its
home in cactus deserts and
places with thorny shrubs. (©Tim
Davis/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Behavior and reproduction: The desert tortoise is unusual in that it

makes burrows into which it crawls to escape attackers and hot, dry
weather. In some cases, the burrow is barely big enough for the tor-
toise to fit inside, but in others, it can be up to 33 feet (10 meters)
long. In especially cold weather, the tortoises will crawl to the deep-
est part of the burrow and enter a deep sleep, called hibernation (high-
bur-NAY-shun). When they are active, desert tortoises notice and
interact with one another. When two meet each other, they bob their
heads back and forth. During mating season, which runs from spring
to fall, a male will try to convince a female to pair with him by biting
at her legs, bobbing his head at her, and occasionally by ramming into
her shell with his. A male frequently will ram shells with other males,
too. He often hisses or grunts while mating with a female. The female
lays eggs one to three times a year, usually laying five or six eggs at a
time, although she may lay as few as two or as many as fifteen. Some-
times, she skips an entire year. The eggs range from 1.6 to 1.8 inches
(4.0 to 4.5 centimeters) long and 1.3 to 1.5 inches (34 to 38 cen-
timeters) wide. They hatch in about three to four months.
Desert tortoises and people: People hunt these tortoises for their
meat, which is often shipped to Asian food markets located in the
western United States.
Conservation status: According to the World Conservation Union

(IUCN), the desert tortoise is Vulnerable, which means that it faces
Tortoises 93
a high risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice lists the tortoise as Threatened, or likely to become endangered
in the foreseeable future. The danger to the tortoises comes from both
loss of their habitat and a dangerous bacterial infection. ■
Books
Ballasina, D., ed. Red Data Book on Mediterranean Chelonians. Bologna,
Italy: Edagricole, 1995.
Guide to the World’s Wildlife. United Kingdom: DK Publishing Inc., 2001.
Athens, OH: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles; Oxford,
OH, 1984.

SOFTSHELL TURTLES
Trionychidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Trionychidae
From above, softshell turtles look almost like rubber dinner class
plates swimming through the water. Although the turtles ac-
subclass
tually have a bony upper shell, it is completely covered by leath-
ery skin, which usually reaches out past the edge of the bone order
and overlaps the tail and feet. The upper shell, or carapace monotypic order
(KARE-a-pays), is flat and often round. The turtles also have a
tube-like snout and a long neck that they can pull in or extend suborder
out. Their webbed front feet each have three claws. A few ▲ family
species have flap-like hinges on the lower shell, or plastron
(PLAS-trun), below the hind legs. Softshell turtles can be big
or small, depending on the species. The smallest has a carapace
that only measures up to 5 inches (12 centimeters) long, while
the largest has a carapace ten times that length and sometimes
more. In addition, most of them have a one-color carapace, but
a few have stripes or spots. Sometimes, young turtles are more
colorful. Usually, the males have longer tails than the females
do. In some species, the males are smaller than the females,
and/or more colorful.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Members of this family live in North America, Africa, and Asia.
HABITAT
These water-loving turtles live in all types of year-round fresh
water, occasionally in ponds that dry up for part of the year. A
few can swim into somewhat salty water for a brief time, but
only one species, the Asian giant softshell, actually lives in the
Softshell Turtles 95
saltier waters of the coast. Overall, members
of this family live east of the Rocky Moun-
tains in North America and in mainly warmer
climates in northern Africa, southern Asia,
and the Indo-Australian archipelago, which
is near Australia. They have also been intro-
FLAPS FOR PROTECTION duced elsewhere, including Hawaii.
Some species of softshell turtles have
DIET
flaps near the hind legs that they can use
to shield themselves from the glaring sun Most of these turtles are almost completely
during dry spells. One species, called the meat-eaters, and they eat anything they hap-
Indian flapshell turtle, buries itself in the pen to come across, whether it is alive or
mud, pulls its legs inside its shell, covers dead. Once in a while, they will eat plants.
up the hind legs with the flaps, and stays A few species hunt by ambush, which means
inside the shell in a state of deep sleep that the softshell turtle waits in hiding
until the rains come. This period of deep underwater — usually buried just under the
sleep, which can last up to 160 days in this bottom — for a fish or other water-living an-
turtle, is called estivation (es-tih-VAY-shun). imal to swim by and then juts out its long
Estivation is similar to the inactive period neck and quickly grabs it with its mouth.
known as hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun),
but hibernation occurs over the wintertime. BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
For the most part, these turtles remain
hidden for much of the day. They fall to the
bottom of the lake, pond, or other watering hole where they
live and wiggle their bodies back and forth until they are buried.
When they move about in the water, they are excellent swim-
mers. Many species sunbathe, or bask, to warm their bodies.
Some spend several hours a day basking on logs that stick up
out of the water or on the shoreline, but they typically dash
back into the water at even the slightest disturbance. Some pre-
fer to sunbathe by simply floating in the top layer of water.
They can breathe through the nose, but they can also get oxy-
gen directly from the water, so they can stay below the surface
for long periods of time. Those that live in colder areas enter
a state of deep sleep, or hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun), in
the winter. During this period, which may last several months,
they bury themselves in the sand or mud at the water bottom
to wait for spring and warmer temperatures to come.
Softshell turtles usually mate each spring, although females
can actually mate one year and have young from that single
mating for several years. In some species, the male attracts the
female by rubbing his chin on her carapace and bobbing his

head at her. The female lays her round eggs in sandy, dry spots
on shore. Depending on the species, a female may lay three to
one hundred eggs at a time and have more than one clutch a
year. The nests contain both male and female hatchlings, re-
gardless of the nest temperature. In many other turtles, nest
temperature controls the number of eggs that become male or
female, but this is not known to occur in softshell turtles.
SOFTSHELL TURTLES AND PEOPLE

People hunt softshell turtles for food and to make traditional
medicines. While many countries now have laws to protect at
least some species, illegal hunting continues.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), more
than half of the family’s 25 species are at risk. Five species are
Critically Endangered, which means that they are facing an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. In addition, five are
Endangered and face a very high risk of extinction in the wild,
and six are Vulnerable and at high risk of extinction in the wild.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also lists four non-U.S.
species as Endangered, or in danger of extinction throughout
all or a significant portion of their range. Softshells are coping
with overhunting, polluted waters that can weaken and/or kill
the animals, and loss of their habitat.
Spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SPINY SOFTSHELL
Apalone spinifera
Physical characteristics: Also known as a gooseneck turtle or

leatherback turtle, the spiny softshell is a medium-sized turtle with a
long neck and a rubbery upper shell, or carapace, with tiny spines at
the front edge. Its flat carapace is mostly brownish green, but it has black
spots and circles in both males and young turtles. The plastron is white
or yellowish white. The turtles also have webbed feet, greenish legs usu-
ally mottled with black, and typically two yellow stripes on each side of
the head. The carapace in females, which are about twice as large as the
males, can reach up to 18.9 inches (48 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: They live in Mexico, the United States, and

Canada.

The spiny softshell is also known as a gooseneck turtle or leatherback turtle.
(©Steve & Dave Maslowski/Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Habitat: Spiny softshells live in year-round, sandy- or muddy-bot-

tomed bodies of fresh water, such as large lakes and ponds, as well
as in shallow rivers and streams. They live in northeastern Mexico,
the eastern half of the United States plus a few spots in western states,
and into southeastern Canada.
Diet: Spiny softshells mostly eat meat in the form of just about any-
thing they can find, including crayfish, fishes, and insects that live in
the water. They will also eat acorns and leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: This turtle will bask on shore, but it

quickly retreats at the slightest movement, so people rarely see them.
Larger turtles especially also bask in the upper level of water. Usu-
ally, however, this turtle spends the majority of its days buried in the
muddy or sandy bottom of its watery home. From this well-hidden
spot, a turtle can keep an eye out for passing fishes or insects and
dart out its long neck to grab the unsuspecting animal with its jaws
for a quick meal. Because it can get oxygen directly from the water,
the spiny softshell can stay underwater for long periods without
drowning. Those that live in colder areas hibernate from fall to spring
by burying themselves in the mud or sand beneath the water and re-
maining inactive.
Spiny softshells mate in the spring in deep waters. Scientists know
little about their courtship or mating behaviors. In June and July, the
female crawls on shore and then quickly digs a hole, drops the eggs
inside, and covers it up. She provides no additional care for the eggs
or the young turtles. She may lay two clutches a year. Each clutch con-
tains four to thirty-two round eggs, each of which measures about 1.1
inches (2.8 centimeters) in diameter. They hatch in about fifty-five to
eighty-five days. When the males reach four to five years old and the
females reach eight to ten years old, they are ready to mate and be-
come parents themselves. They live to be fifty years old or more.
Spiny softshells and people: People hunt this turtle for food, ei-
ther to eat themselves or to ship overseas to meat markets in Asia.
Some people also collect spiny softshells for the pet trade.
Conservation status: This species is not listed as endangered or

threatened, although many of its nests are destroyed each year by rac-
coons and other animals that eat the eggs. ■
Books
Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Third Edition Ex-
panded. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998.
Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1990.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1985.

CROCODILES, ALLIGATORS,
CAIMANS, AND GHARIALS
Crocodylia
●
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodylia
Number of families: 3 families
order C H A P T E R
The order Crocodylia, also known as the crocodilians, in- class
cludes 23 species of the most feared and most fascinating ani-
subclass
mals on the planet. They include 14 species of crocodiles and
false gharials in the family Crocodylidae; eight species of alli- ● order
gators and caimans in the family Alligatoridae; and one species monotypic order
of gharial (GUR-ee-ul) in the family Gavialidae.
suborder
The crocodilians look somewhat like large lizards, but with
thick and scaly skin, exceptionally strong tails, and large teeth- family
filled jaws. The scales on the upper surface, including the back
and top of the tail, are large and rectangular in shape and have
bony plates, called osteoderms (OSS-tee-oh-durms), just under
the surface. Rows of these scales, which often have knobs or
ridges, run from the rear of the head to the tail. On the legs
and the sides of the body, the scales are smaller. Belly scales,
which may also contain osteoderms, are large and smooth.
Crocodilian tails are usually about as long as or a bit longer
than the body, and in some species, like the Nile crocodile, the
tails have a tall ridge of scales down the center.
The jaws contain large teeth, many of which show outside
the mouth even when it is closed. People often describe the
“grin” of a crocodilian. Of course, the animals are not actually
smiling, but a slight upturn in the back of the jaw line of most
species makes them look as if they are. Most, but not all, croc-
odilians have wide jaws. The Indian gharial is one species with-
out a wide jaw. Instead, it has a very long and exceptionally thin
pair of jaws filled with razor-sharp teeth. The false gharial, which
Crocodiles, Alligators, Caimans, and Gharials 101

looks much like an Indian gharial, has jaws that are only slightly
wider and shorter than those of the Indian gharial.
The crocodilian body comes in shades of brown or gray,
sometimes with a greenish or reddish tint. The upper surface
is typically much darker than the belly, which is usually white
to yellow. Bellies of dwarf caimans and dwarf crocodiles, how-
ever, are almost black. Many species have patterns of dark
brown to black bands or blotches on the back and tail, and of-
ten these are most noticeable in youngsters.
The crocodilians are medium- to large-sized species. Cuvier’s
dwarf caiman is the smallest, with male adults reaching 5 feet
(1.5 meters) long and females growing to 4 feet (1.2 meters)
long. The largest species include the Indian gharial and the salt-
water crocodile. Males of each species commonly grow to 16
feet (4.9 meters) and sometimes, although very rarely, reach 20
feet (6.1 meters). As with other crocodilians, the females are
smaller overall than the males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Most members of the family Alligatoridae live in Central
America, Mexico, the southeastern United States, and South
America. One species, the Chinese alligator, makes its home in
eastern China. The Indian gharial, the lone species in the fam-
ily Gavialidae, lives in scattered places within India, Nepal, and
Pakistan and rarely Bangladesh and Bhutan. The crocodiles and
false gharials in the family Crocodylidae live over the largest
area of the three families. At least one species lives in Africa,
Asia, Australia, North America, and South America.
HABITAT
Most crocodilians live in tropical or subtropical regions. The
American alligator, which can be found in the United States as
far north as North Carolina, and the Chinese alligator live in
the coolest climates of all the crocodilians and sometimes have
to survive freezing temperatures. These two species spend the
coldest parts of the year in underground burrows, in deep wa-
ter, or lying in shallow water with just the nose poking above
the sometimes ice-covered water surface.
Alligators, caimans, and gharials need freshwater habitat, but
crocodiles and false gharials can survive in freshwater or salt-
water. Crocodiles usually stay out of the open oceans, however,
and instead make their homes in saltwater marshes or creeks.

None of the crocodilians stray very far
from the water. The gharials are perhaps
most tied to the water. They spend their en-
tire lives either in or within a few feet of the
water.
DIET A FOSSIL GIANT

Crocodilians are meat-eaters, or carni- About 110 million years ago, a massive
vores (KAR-nih-voars), and most are not beast roamed the waters of Earth. The
picky about their prey. Youngsters usually head of this creature, an ancient relative
eat insects, spiders, and other invertebrates of modern-day crocodilians, was 5 feet (1.5
(in-VER-teh-brehts), or animals without meters) long, and its body grew to a
backbones, as well fishes and other small whopping 39 feet (12 meters). A team of
vertebrates (VER-teh-brehts), which are an- scientists found the remains of five of the
imals with backbones. As they grow older, animals, named Sarcosuchus imperator or
they begin taking larger and larger prey. The “emperor of the flesh-eating crocodiles,” in
typical adult crocodilian eats everything 2000. From the fossil skulls, they
from clams to frogs, and birds to mammals. determined that its diet consisted of large
Some, such as the Indian gharial, have jaws animals, which it hunted by ambush.
that are well-suited to catching fish, and they
stick to a mainly fish diet. At the end of its
thin jaw, the gharial has a number of very sharp teeth that jut
out almost sideways in a pincushion fashion. To catch a fish,
the gharial lies still, waits for a fish to come close, and then
swishes its jaw sideways to skewer the fish on its teeth. With
a flick of its head, the gharial tosses the fish off its teeth and
down its throat.
Other crocodiles also use the sit-and-wait style of hunting,
which is known as ambush hunting. Alligators and caimans
also often stalk (stawk) their prey by swimming up ever so
slowly, and then chomping on the surprised animal. Many croc-
odilians kill especially large prey by clamping on the animal
and dragging it underwater to drown. They then bite off pieces
to swallow. Sometimes, crocodilians work together when eat-
ing. Nile crocodiles, for example, will take turns holding onto
a large prey animal while others wrap their jaws around part
of the body and twist around to tear off pieces of flesh. For
smaller prey, however, a crocodilian will simply swallow it
whole. Crocodilian stomachs can digest almost anything, ex-
cept items like hair, nails or claws, and turtle shells. Just as a
cat coughs up hairballs, the crocodilian coughs up balls of this
undigested material and spits them out.

Crocodilians are often night hunters and
rest or sunbathe during the day. Unlike
mammals that use their own energy to keep
their bodies warm, crocodilians and other
reptiles get their heat from their environ-
A SENSITIVE SIDE ment. One of the best ways to warm up is by
Scientists in 2002 discovered that sunbathing, also known as basking. Croco-
crocodilians use tiny dots on the skin of their dilians may bask on dry land or along or just
faces to feel even the slightest of ripples in below the surface of the water. Some croco-
the water. These dots, called pressure dilians, like gharials, are very careful when
receptors, can even feel the ripple made by they bask on shore and will quickly retreat
a single raindrop. This ability helps to make to the water if they feel the least bit nervous.
them exceptional night hunters. They can Others, such as some large American alliga-
feel even small waves made by prey animals tors, will continue to bask even if approached
as they move through the water. quite closely. At a moment’s notice, however,
this peaceful-looking reptile can spring into
action with a swipe of its powerful tail or a
snap of its dangerous jaws. Most crocodilians are also quite fast
and are actually able to outrun a person over a short distance.
Crocodilians move in several ways. All are excellent swim-
mers, usually gliding through the water by simply swaying the
tail from side to side. Their tails are even strong enough to
shoot their bodies several feet straight up and out of the water.
On land, they often walk slowly, dragging the belly and tail on
the ground. If they want, however, most can do a “high walk,”
in which they lift up the body to walk much as a lizard does.
Many species live together in groups and get along well for
most of the year. During breeding season, however, the males
get into arguments, wrestling matches, and sometimes more vi-
olent fights. They may bellow back and forth, push one another
with their snouts, or bite each other. In some species, males try
to attract the females by bellowing, or by rippling their back mus-
cles so that water ripples over their scales. After mating, which
occurs in the water, the females of all species lay their eggs out
of the water. Some scrape leaves and often mud into a pile and
lay their eggs in the pile, and others dig a hole as their nest. De-
pending on the species, a female may lay fewer than a dozen or
many dozen eggs. As in some other reptiles, the temperature of
the nest may control the sex of the young. In crocodilians, for
example, a nest that is between 87.8 to 89.6°F (31 to 32°C) dur-
ing a critical time not long before hatching produces mainly

males, while an especially high or particularly low temperature
during this period produces mainly females. The mother typi-
cally remains close by as the eggs develop, often chasing off rac-
coons or other animals that would dig up her nest and eat her
eggs if given the chance.
When the eggs hatch, the mother helps her babies out of the
nest and often to the water. Despite her toothy jaws, the mother
can safely carry her babies either one or several at a time in her
mouth. The young usually stay with their mother, and occa-
sionally both parents, for a while. In most species, the young
remain with the family for a few weeks or months, but in the
American alligator, they may stay together for as long as two
years. During this time, the female may provide protection to
her young, may call to them when she finds food, or in some
species, may actually chew a prey animal a bit, which helps her
young tear off pieces to eat.
CROCODILIANS AND PEOPLE
Crocodilians, which are sometimes hunted for their meat or
skin, are perhaps best known as human killers. Death by this
reptile, however, is very rare among people who act carefully
and responsibly when they are in crocodilian habitat. As peo-
ple move closer and closer to their habitat, crocodilians may
make their presence known by plopping into a swimming pool
or eating a family pet.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), almost
one-third of the 23 crocodilian species are either Critically En-
dangered or Endangered. Critically Endangered species are
those that face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild,
while Endangered species face a very high risk. The other 16
species are currently doing quite well, thanks to numerous re-
covery efforts and anti-hunting regulations that have saved
them from the brink of extinction.
Books:
Alderton, D. Crocodiles and Alligators of the World. New York: Facts on
File, 1991.
Behler, J. L., and D. A. Behler. Alligators and Crocodiles. Stillwater, MN:
Voyager Press, 1998.

Cleaver, Andrew. Snakes and Reptiles: A Portrait of the Animal World.
Wigston, Leicester: Magna Books, 1994.
Irwin, Steve, and Terri Irwin. The Crocodile Hunter. New York: Penguin
Putnam, 1997.
Lamar, William. The World’s Most Spectacular Reptiles and Amphibians.
Tampa, FL: World Publications, 1997.
Ross, C. A., ed. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts on File, 1989.
Rue, Leonard Lee. Alligators and Crocodiles. Wigston, Leicester: Magna
Books, 1994.
Periodicals:
Barr, Alice. “Supercroc.” National Geographic World. January–February
2001, page 8.
Grant, Phoebe. “A Peep at the Alligator’s Mound.” Monkeyshines on
America. June 1990, page 19.
Perkins, Sid. “Fossils Indicate . . . Wow, What a Croc!” Science News.
October 27, 2001, volume 160, page 260.
Zackowitz, Margaret. “Dangerous Business: Photographing Crocodiles
and Hippos is a Creative Challenge.” National Geographic for Kids.
November 2001, page 26.
Web sites:
“All About Alligators.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/Alligator.shtml (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Alligator.” Everglades National Park. http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/
gator.htm (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Alligator.” World Almanac for Kids. http://www.worldalmanacforkids
.com/explore/animals/alligator.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Alligators and Crocodiles.” San Diego Zoo. http://www.sandiegozoo.org/
animalbytes/t-crocodile.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“American Crocodile.” Kids’ Planet, Defenders of Wildlife. http://www
.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/american_crocodile.html (accessed on Sep-
tember 21, 2004).
“Fathers and Sons.” Florida Museum of Natural History. http://www
.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/potm-oct00.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Gharial.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.si.edu/
Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/ Gharial.cfm (accessed on
September 21, 2004).
“Nile Crocodiles.” National Geographic. http://www.nationalgeographic
.com/kids/creature_feature/0107/crocodiles2.html (accessed on Sep-
tember 21, 2004).

“Saltwater Crocodile.” Australian Museum. http://www.amonline.net
.au/wild_kids/reptiles/crocodile.htm (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Spectacled Caiman.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearn-
ing.com/subjects/reptiles/caiman/Speccaiman.shtml (accessed on
“Wild Things: The Not-So-Friendly Caiman.” Kidzworld. http://www
.kidzworld.com/site/p483.htm (accessed on September 21, 2004).

GHARIAL
Gavialidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodylia
Family: Gavialidae
One species: Gharial
(Gavialis gangeticus)
class The lone species of gharial (GAR-ee-ul), also sometimes
subclass known as a gavial, looks much like a crocodile or alligator ex-
cept that a gharial has an extremely long and thin snout. The
order narrow jaws in both males and females are lined with more than
monotypic order 100 pinpoint-sharp teeth. The back of a gharial is covered with
tough scales, but these scales are not lumpy as they are in many
suborder
alligator and crocodile species. Gharial scales are very smooth.
▲ family Adults are dark brown or greenish brown on top and yellowish
white to white below. Young gharials have dark bands on the
body and tail. Adults also have bands, but they fade and become
less noticeable as the animal gets older. The name gharial comes
from the round knob that forms on the tip of the adult male’s
snout above the nostrils. This knob is called a ghara, because it
looks somewhat like an Indian pot of the same name.
Gharials are large reptiles. Males usually grow to 13 to 15
feet (4 to 4.5 meters) long and 350 to 400 pounds (181 kilo-
grams), although some can reach nearly 20 feet (6.1 meters).
Females are a bit smaller, usually reaching 11.5 to 13 feet (3.5
to 4 meters) in length. They have long and powerful tails. They
are so strong that the gharial need only sway its tail side to side
to glide through the water. While swimming, it usually holds
its legs back and alongside the body and does not move them.
People sometimes confuse the gharial with the false gharial.
Both are large animals with a similar shape. The false gharial,
also known as the Malayan gharial, has a long and thin snout,
but it is not quite as long and thin as that of the true gharial.

The false gharial also has a heavier-set body.
The false gharial is usually placed in the croc-
odile family, but a 2003 comparison of its
DNA now suggests that it should be consid-
ered part of the gharial family. Every cell in
the body contains DNA, which provides the
instructions for making a specific species of MORE THAN A LUMPY NOSE
animal. Scientists compare the DNA in dif-
Scientists have long wondered about the
ferent species, such as the false gharial and
round growth that appears on the nose of
the gharial, to help them decide which ani-
male gharials when they become adults.
mals are most closely related.
Many suspect that the growth, called a
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE ghara, may do more than allow the animal
to make its unusual buzzing sounds. Some
Gharial populations are scattered here and
researchers believe that the ghara helps the
there in India, Nepal, and Pakistan, and indi-
male to produce bubbles. Both the buzzing
viduals are sometimes spotted in Bangladesh
and the bubbles may help the males attract
and Bhutan.
females during the mating season. Other
HABITAT scientists guess that the gharials look for
Gharials live in clear, freshwater rivers with the ghara to tell quickly which individuals
swift currents but prefer river bends and other are males and which are females.
areas where the water is flowing more slowly
and is quite deep. They also seek out sand-
bars in the middle of the river and use them for sunbathing, or
basking, to warm their bodies. Strangely, this freshwater animal
has salt glands, which are found in animals that live in saltwa-
ter. The glands are small organs that get rid of extra salt. Scien-
tists suspect that the gharial once—perhaps millions of years
ago—could survive in saltwater and may have traveled across the
oceans.
DIET
As youngsters, gharials eat tadpoles, shrimp, insects, and fish
they find in the water. As they get older, they become more se-
lective and will eat almost nothing but fish. They usually hunt
by ambush, which means that they remain completely still and
wait for a fish to swim close. At that point, their unusual teeth
become useful. At the front of the lower jaw, a gharial’s teeth
face outward at such an angle that the tip of the mouth when
it is closed looks like a pin cushion. As the fish nears, the ghar-
ial snaps its jaws sideways at the prey and stabs it with these
very sharp teeth. With a upward jerk of its head, the reptile
flings the fish off of its teeth and into the back of its mouth.
Gharial 109
Like some of the other alligators and crocodiles, gharials usu-
ally get along quite well and live together in groups. They stay
in the water most of the time, coming out occasionally to bask
on shore. While they are excellent swimmers, they are slow on
land and must drag their bellies and tails on the ground when
they walk. They rarely wander too far from the water’s edge and,
at the slightest threat, will dive back into the safety of the river.
On especially warm days, they may open their mouths wide to
cool off. This serves the same purpose as panting does for a dog.
When mating season arrives in December and January, the
adult males begin fighting one another to set up and defend
territories in shallow water. Their fights look something like
wrestling matches. Two males lie side by side, lift their heads
out of the water, and begin pushing each other with their
snouts. The winner is the one that can topple over the other.
Sometimes, the wrestling matches become more violent, and
the two males hit each other with their snouts or bite each
other. A male with a good territory may be able to attract sev-
eral large females to mate with him. Scientists also believe that
the size of the male’s ghara may also be important during the
mating season. The males can use the ghara to produce a loud
buzz, which may be attractive to females. Males also will buzz
to warn other males to stay away.
After mating, a female will lay her eggs sometime from March
to May. She crawls up a steep bank at the riverside and begins
looking for a spot for her nest. She digs her nest in dry ground
at least 5 feet (1.5 meters) above water level. A female gharial
is very fussy about her nest and may change her mind several
times, even after starting to dig, before settling on the perfect
place to lay her eggs. The female becomes territorial and guards
her specific nest sites from other females, although she will
share the beach with many other females and their nests. After
digging a hole in the sand, she lays her eggs inside and care-
fully covers them. The smallest females lay as few as a dozen
eggs, and many first-time mothers lay eggs that never hatch at
all. The largest females, on the other hand, may lay almost 100
eggs. A typical gharial egg is 2.2 inches (5.5 centimeters) wide,
3.4 inches (8.6 centimeters) long, and weighs 5.5 ounces (156
grams). Females remain near their nests and will defend them
from predators, if necessary. The eggs hatch 53 to 92 days later,
with nests in warmest climates hatching out earliest and babies

Scientists suspect that the
gharial once — perhaps millions
of years ago — could survive in
saltwater and may have traveled
across the oceans. (Derek
Hall/FLPA/Bruce Coleman Inc.
in the coolest areas breaking out of their eggs last. The tem-
perature of the nest also controls the number of males and fe-
males. Especially warm nests produce more males, and cooler
ones produce more females.
The mother gharial helps her young out of the nest, and then
she and possibly the father watch over them. Despite this care,
many of a female’s young do not survive. Numerous animals,
including pigs, hyenas, monitor lizards, and some humans, are
fond of gharial eggs, while some birds and turtles often gobble
up babies. In addition, the babies are born during the monsoon
season and often drown in the floods that are common at this
time of year. Of those that do survive, the females are ready to
mate when they reach about 10 feet (3 meters) long and are at
least 8 years old. The males can mate once they are 15 years
old and about 11.5 feet (3.5 meters) long.
GHARIALS AND PEOPLE

Local people sometimes gather gharial eggs for food or hunt
the males for the ghara, which they use to make potions. Some
people fear gharials, but they do not attack or eat humans. This
reptile does, however, hold a place in Hindu legends of a river
goddess, named Ma Ganga, who rides on a gharial’s back.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service consider this species to be Endangered,
Gharial 111
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
which means that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the

wild and throughout all or a significant portion of its range. In
some areas, the gharial has already disappeared or is nearly
gone. The greatest threat to this species is habitat loss, often
caused when people clear land for farming or for firewood. Con-
servationists have raised and attempted to release young ghar-
ials into the wild. Some of these efforts have been successful,
and others have not, but the work to save this unusual species
is continuing.
Books:
Daniel, J. C. The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. New Delhi, In-
dia: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Ross, C. A., ed. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts on File Inc.,
1989.
Books, 1994.

Web sites:
“Alligators and Crocodiles.” San Diego Zoo. http://www.sandiegozoo
.org/animalbytes/t-crocodile.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“At the Zoo: Gharials Star in the Reptile Discovery Center and on Gharial
Cam.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.si.edu/
Publications/ZooGoer/2002/6/gharials.cfm (accessed on December 19,
2004).
“Gavialis gangeticus (GMELIN, 1789).” Florida Museum of Natural History.
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_ggan.htm
(accessed on December 19, 2004).
“Gharial.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.si
.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Gharial.cfm (ac-
cessed on September 21, 2004).
“The Gharial and the Monkey.” The Crocodile Files. http://www
.oneworldmagazine.org/tales/crocs/gharial.html (accessed on Decem-
ber 19, 2004).
Gharial 113
ALLIGATORS
AND CAIMANS
Alligatoridae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodylia
Suborder: Eusuchia
Family: Alligatoridae
class Like crocodiles, the alligators and caimans have a heavy body,
with the back and tail covered by armor-like scales. Crocodiles,
subclass
alligators, and caimans have a strong tail, which is at least as
order long as the rest of the body, and the back half of the tail often
monotypic order has a row of tall, ridged scales along the top. They also have a
long snout, hind limbs larger than the front legs, and large, pow-
suborder erful jaws filled with teeth. Alligators and crocodiles are, how-
▲ family ever, different. All of an alligator’s or caiman’s lower teeth are
hidden when its mouth is closed. In crocodiles, one lower tooth
remains outside the jaw, even when it is clamped shut.
When alligators are young, they often have dark bands on
their bodies, but these disappear as they get older. Adults may
be dark gray, brown, black, or a bit yellowish. The smallest
species is Cuvier’s dwarf caiman, which grows to about 4 feet
(1.2 meters). The largest is the American alligator, which can
reach 13 feet (4 meters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Depending on the species, alligators and caimans may live
in Central America, Mexico, the southeastern United States,
South America, and/or eastern China.
HABITAT
Alligators and caimans are freshwater species that prefer still
or slow-moving water, even if it is muddy or murky. Besides
lakes, rivers, and streams, they are often found in swamps,

marshes, and roadside ditches. Seven of the
eight species live in the New World, which
includes Central, South, and North America,
but only one lives in the United States. The
eighth species makes its home in a small area
of eastern China, which is part of the Old
World. A LONG WINTER
The Chinese alligator has only a short
DIET time to mate, have babies, and eat enough
Alligators are meat-eaters, though they are to survive the year. The reason is the
anything but fussy about their prey. Young- climate in which it lives. Chinese alligators
sters will dine on snails and other inverte- make their home in the Yangtze River basin
brates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are along China’s central Atlantic coastline, an
animals without backbones. As they grow, area that is cold much of the year. When
they switch to the adult diet, which includes temperatures drop in the late fall, the
fishes, birds, small mammals, and other ver- alligators slide into their winter burrows and
tebrates (VER-teh-brehts), which are animals stay there until the following April. They then
with backbones. They will also sometimes at- crawl out to soak up the sun and warm their
tack and devour smaller alligators and bodies. About a month later, the males
caimans. The larger species in this family begin to bellow, which starts the mating
are strong enough to kill a cow or deer for season. Females lay their eggs, which
dinner. usually hatch in September, not long before
Alligators hunt by ambush or by stalking. the temperatures again cool and announce
In ambush hunting, they remain still and the coming of another long winter period in
wait for a prey animal to wander by. Stalk- their burrows.
ing is usually done in the water. The alliga-
tor slowly and carefully swims closer and
closer to a prey animal, perhaps a deer drinking at a watering
hole, and then lunges forward to snap its jaws shut around the
animal.

A favorite daytime activity for alligators and caimans is sun-
bathing, or basking, on shore. They can also heat up their bod-
ies by floating in the warm, upper surface of the water. When
they need to cool off, they simply sink to colder, deeper water.
Some live where the weather is especially cold at times during
the year, but none of them actually hibernate (HIGH-bur-nayt),
or become inactive and enter a state of deep sleep. Instead, these
species either lie still in shallow water and breathe through the
nose, the only part of the body not underwater, or they retreat
into winter burrows to wait for spring.
Alligators and Caimans 115

Alligators and caimans appear very restful when they are
basking, but they are actually quite alert. With a quick swipe
of the tail, a swift turn of the head with jaws open, or a speedy
charge on their powerful legs, they can change from a quiet,
peaceful-looking reptile to a dangerous predator. Alligators and
caimans can move in several ways. In the water, they usually
swim by slowly swaying the tail from side to side. On land, they
may crawl along with the belly and tail dragging on the ground,
or they can do a “high walk” and run as a lizard does with the
body held above the ground.
Alligators and caimans often live in groups. They get along
well during most of the year, but during the spring breeding
season, the rules change. Adults begin slapping their heads on
the water surface or charging one another with their mouths
wide open, although they do not normally bite. By summer,
the females begin to scrape together piles of leaves on which
they lay their 12 to 60 eggs. The mother remains nearby, and
when the babies hatch one or two months later, she helps
them out of the nest and to the water. In some species, the
temperature of the nest decides the sex of the babies. Cool
temperatures produce all females, and warm temperatures pro-
duce all males. Temperatures in the middle turn out males
and females.
ALLIGATORS, CAIMANS, AND PEOPLE

People sometimes hunt alligators and caimans for their skin,
their meat, and sometimes for their organs, which are used to
make perfume. In Florida, Louisiana, and other places, they are
an important tourist attraction and help bring in money to the
local community.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers the Chi-
nese alligator to be Critically Endangered, which means that it
faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. It also
lists the black caiman as Conservation Dependent, which means
it still requires attention to make sure it survives. The U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service lists the American alligator, a U.S. species,
as Threatened, or likely to become endangered in the foresee-
able future. These and other alligators and caimans often suffer
from habitat loss and overhunting, and numerous conservation
efforts are under way to protect them.

American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)
SPECIES
AMERICAN ALLIGATOR ACCOUNTS
Alligator mississippiensis
Physical characteristics: A large reptile, the American alligator has

a black or dark grayish green back and tail with a white belly. Young
alligators have numerous yellow markings on the back and tail. Amer-
ican alligators are sometimes confused with American crocodiles, but
the crocodile has a snout that becomes thinner at the tip. The alliga-
tor’s snout remains wide. Adult American alligators usually grow to
8 to 13 feet (2.4 to 4 meters) long, but some giants may reach 19 feet
(5.8 meters) or more.
Geographic range: American alligators live in the United States

from North Carolina down to Florida and west to Texas.
Habitat: American alligators make their homes in still or slow-mov-

ing freshwater areas, including marshes and swamps, rivers, and lakes.

American alligators are sometimes confused with American crocodiles, but the crocodile has a snout that becomes thinner
at the tip. The alligator’s snout remains wide. (Illustration by Brian Cressman. Reproduced by permission.)
Occasionally, they make their way into the swimming pools of

people who live near their natural habitat.
Diet: Meat-eaters, they will dine on almost any animal they come
across, including turtles, fishes, mammals, and sometimes smaller al-
ligators. They swallow most smaller prey whole. For larger animals,
however, the alligators first drown the victim, then chomp off mouth-
fuls of flesh.
Behavior and reproduction: American alligators live in groups,

with great grandparents, grandparents, parents, and children often
sharing the same area. During the spring breeding season, the males
try to interest the females by bumping softly against them and call-
ing out with loud bellows. The females bellow, too, but much less of-
ten and not quite as loudly. After mating, the female lays 36 to 48
eggs, which hatch about two months later. She helps the young out
of the nest and to the water. The family stays together for two or three
months, and sometimes up to three years. The young alligators are
ready to become parents themselves when they reach about 10 years
old. American alligators live to be 50 years old or older.
American alligators and people: In many areas, people like alliga-

tors because they bring money to the community through tourism, but
at the same time dislike them because the reptiles sometimes eat pets
or have to be removed from golf courses and swimming pools. Now
that people have begun to move farther and farther into the alligators’

habitat, attacks on humans have also become much more common. Ac-
cording to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, al-
ligator attacks on humans in that state from 1948 to 2003 numbered
326 and resulted in 13 deaths.
Conservation status: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) does

not consider this species to be at risk, but the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service lists it as Threatened or likely to become endangered in the
foreseeable future. ■

Common caiman (Caiman crocodilus)
COMMON CAIMAN
Caiman crocodilus
Physical characteristics: Also known as the spectacled caiman, the

common caiman has a bony ridge and slightly lighter color around
each eye. Its body is greenish to brownish gray, sometimes with no-
ticeable dark bands on its tail and patches on its back. Adults usually
grow to 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 1.8 meters) long, but some can reach up to
10 feet (3 meters) from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail.
Geographic range: The common caiman lives from southern Mex-

ico to northern Argentina, on the islands of Trinidad and Tobago,
and in southern Florida. Cuba and Puerto Rico also have introduced
populations.
Habitat: It is found in calm freshwater lakes, rivers, and swamps,

as well as man-made roadside ditches.
Diet: From youngsters to adults, common caimans tend to eat

animals they find in the water. Although the youngest ones will eat
insects and other invertebrates they find on land, juveniles are fond
of snails, and adults mainly eat different types of fishes.

Common caimans live in groups quite peacefully for most of the year, but during the mating season, the males begin
bellowing and set up territories. (©Kevin Schafer/Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Common caimans live in groups quite

peacefully for most of the year, but during the mating season, the males
begin bellowing and set up territories. One male may mate with several
females. The female lays 12 to 36 eggs in a leafy nest she makes on land.
The male guards the nest until the babies hatch. The mother then car-
ries them to the water. The family stays together for about a year.
Common caimans and people: People sometimes hunt this reptile

for its meat and its skin.
Conservation status: This species is not considered endangered or

threatened. ■
Books:

Lockwood, C. C. The Alligator Book. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 2002.
Ross, C. A., ed. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1989.
Books, 1994.
Web sites:
“All About Alligators.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/Alligator.shtml (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Alligator.” Everglades National Park. http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/
gator.htm (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Alligator.” World Almanac for Kids. http://www.worldalmanacforkids
.com/explore/animals/alligator.html (accessed on September 21,
2004).
“Alligator mississippiensis (DAUDIN, 1801).” Florida Museum of Natural
History. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_amis.htm (accessed on
December 15, 2004).
“Alligators and Crocodiles.” San Diego Zoo. http://www.sandiegozoo
.org/animalbytes/t-crocodile.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Crocodilian Species List.” Florida Museum of Natural History. http://
www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csl.html (accessed on December 15, 2004).
“The Reptiles: Alligators and Crocodiles.” Nature. http://www.pbs.org/
wnet/nature/reptiles/ (accessed on December 15, 2004).
“Spectacled Caiman.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/reptiles/caiman/Speccaiman.shtml (accessed on Septem-
ber 21, 2004).
“Wild Things: The Not-So-Friendly Caiman.” Kidzworld. http://www
.kidzworld.com/site/p483.htm (accessed on September 21, 2004).

CROCODILES
AND FALSE GHARIALS
Crocodylidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodylia
Family: Crocodylidae
Fourteen species of crocodiles make up this family, includ- class
ing one called a false gharial. (An Indian gharial also exists, but
subclass
it is not a crocodile and is instead listed in its own separate
family.) The crocodiles are medium to large reptiles, with adults order
ranging from about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long in the smallest monotypic order
species to 20 feet (6.1 meters) long in the largest. Within
species, females are smaller overall. For example, female John- suborder
stone’s crocodiles typically grow to 5 feet (1.5 meters), while ▲ family
the average male is about 6.5 feet (2 meters) long. In all species,
the tail is about as long as the rest of the body.
Crocodiles, alligators, and caimans are often confused be-
cause they all have armor-like scales on the back and tail, a
powerful tail, a pair of back legs that are stronger and larger
than the front pair, and toes that are webbed on the back pair
of feet and unwebbed on the front pair. Perhaps most notice-
ably, they also all share a long snout filled with teeth. Croco-
diles, however, have something the others lack. Counting from
the front of the mouth, the large fourth tooth on each side of
a crocodile’s lower jaw shows outside of the mouth when the
jaw is closed. In other species, this large tooth is hidden, al-
though many other teeth on the upper jaw may be visible when
the mouth is clamped shut.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
At least one species of crocodiles lives in each of these conti-
nents: Africa, Asia, Australia, North America, and South America.
Crocodiles and False Gharials 123

HABITAT
Crocodiles spend their time in or near the water. Unlike al-
ligators and caimans that only live in freshwater habitats, croc-
odiles can survive in freshwater or saltwater. Crocodiles do not,
however, swim around in the open ocean. Instead, they live in
saltwater marshes or creeks. They have special organs, called
salt glands, that get rid of this extra salt so they can survive.
Without these organs, they could not live in saltwater. Croco-
diles make their homes in warm, tropical areas, although the
mugger crocodile and the American crocodile can survive in
subtropical regions that are slightly less warm. Those that live
in areas with periods of extremely dry weather sometimes
find that their watering holes disappear, and they must spend
the next few weeks buried deep underground until the rains
return.
DIET
Crocodiles are meat-eaters that shift from eating insects and
spiders as youngsters to larger and larger animals as they grow.
Adults of the largest crocodiles, like the Nile crocodile, eat an-
imals as big as warthogs, cows, and sometimes humans. They
are skilled hunters that sneak up on prey by ever so slowly
swimming closer and closer, and then lunging out with mouth
open to clamp down on the surprised animal. This method of
sneaking up on prey is called stalking. Once the jaw snaps shut,
the prey has little chance of escaping. With a captured mam-
mal, the crocodile typically pulls it underwater, and when the
animal drowns, tears off chunks to swallow. Crocodiles also
hunt for prey by ambush, which means that they stay still in
the water and wait for a prey animal to happen by. Besides live
meals, crocodiles will also eat the dead animals they find.

Crocodiles are most active at night, which is when they usu-
ally look for food. In the morning and evening, they frequently
crawl out of the water and lay quietly in an open area to sun-
bathe, or bask. This helps warm their bodies. Crocodiles are
excellent swimmers. By slowly swishing the strong tail from
side to side, they can push their bodies through the water with-
out having to paddle with their legs. They can also move well
on land. Usually, they walk slowly, dragging the tail behind
them, but when they are in a hurry, they run quite quickly

while swinging the tail back and forth in the
same motion they use when swimming.
Crocodiles usually get along fairly well
with one another, but during the mating sea-
son, males can become bad-tempered. Usu-
ally, a large male need only sound a loud
bellow or slap his head against the surface of ONE TON BEAST
the water to scare off a smaller male, but The saltwater crocodile is a huge
sometimes they fight by biting one another. animal. The largest species of all crocodiles
The bites are hard enough to cause wounds and alligators, it can grow to more than 20
that leave noticeable scars. Besides their bel- feet (6.1 meters) long and weigh 2,200
lows, crocodiles make other sounds, such as pounds (1 metric ton). Occasionally,
growls and hisses, when they feel threatened. humans tangle with these beasts and lose.
Male crocodiles may fight each other over One of the most often-told tales of human
the females during mating season, and one versus crocodile dates back to World War
male may have babies with several females in II, when hundreds of Japanese soldiers hid
a single year. All female crocodiles lay eggs in a swamp near Myanmar. A large group
rather than giving birth to babies. The females of saltwater crocodiles set upon the men
in some species use their back legs to dig a that night, killing all but 20 by morning.
hole on land, and they bury their eggs there.
These females lay their eggs in the dry sea-
son, and the eggs hatch when the rains come. In other species,
the females lay their eggs in a pile of rotting leaves and dirt that
they scrape together. The females lay their eggs at the beginning
of the rainy season, and the eggs hatch during the wettest time
of year. Depending on the species, females may lay 40 to 70 eggs
at a time, with hatching occurring two to three months later. If
the nest is especially warm, the eggs all hatch into males. If the
nest is particularly cool, the eggs all hatch into females. A mother
crocodile stays close to her nest until the eggs are ready to hatch.
The baby crocodiles begin to make soft quacking noises when
they are ready to break out of their eggs, and the mother rushes
to the nest to pick up and carry each of her babies to the wa-
ter. The mother, and sometimes the father, watches over the
young for several weeks, but despite this care, fewer than one
out of 10 babies escapes the many predators in their habitat.
Those that do survive to adulthood can look forward to a long
life. Crocodiles often live for 70 to 80 years in the wild.
CROCODILES, FALSE GHARIALS, AND PEOPLE

People have long been fascinated by crocodiles, which are
often mentioned in legends. Some people hunt these animals

for their meat or skin, and some collect and eat their eggs. Croc-
odiles are perhaps most known, however, as killers of humans.
Although death by crocodile is very rare, it does happen
occasionally, especially when humans who visit their habitat
are careless.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), nine
of the 14 species are at risk. This includes three listed as Crit-
ically Endangered, which means they face an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild; two as Endangered and facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild; three species as Vul-
nerable and under a high risk of extinction in the wild; and one
as Conservation Dependent, which means it could be at risk if
conservation efforts ceased. In addition, the IUCN describes
one species as Data Deficient, which means that scientists have
too little information to make a judgment about its threat of
extinction. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists 12 of the 14
species as Threatened, or likely to become endangered in the
foreseeable future, or Endangered, which means they are in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of
their range. Most of the species are at risk because of habitat
loss and overhunting. Several efforts are now under way to help
protect these animals.

American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus)
SPECIES
AMERICAN CROCODILE ACCOUNTS
Crocodylus acutus
Physical characteristics: The American crocodile is large, with the

males averaging 10 to 11 feet (3 to 3.5 meters) long and females usu-
ally 8 to 10 feet (2.5 to 3 meters) in length. The largest males, how-
ever, can reach a full 20 feet (6 meters), but such giants are extremely
rare. Its body is a bit thinner than most crocodiles, and its snout be-
comes narrower toward the tip. It also has a noticeable lump on its
snout in front of its eyes. Adults are usually dark brown to light
brownish gray with a white belly. Youngsters are yellow to greenish
gray with dark markings.
Geographic range: American crocodiles live in large groups in

southern Florida, southern Mexico, Central America, numerous
Caribbean islands, and northern South America.

American crocodiles live in large
groups in southern Florida,
southern Mexico, Central
America, numerous Caribbean
islands, and northern South
America. (Lynn M. Stone/Bruce
permission.)
Habitat: Also known as the American saltwater crocodile, this

species can survive in various habitats from freshwater canals to some-
what salty marshes near the ocean coast.
Diet: Young American crocodiles catch and eat insects, tadpoles and
frogs, crabs, and fish, and then switch to larger prey as they grow.
Adults are able to feed on animals as large as cows and, in very rare
cases, humans.
Behavior and reproduction: American crocodiles usually hunt at

night and spend most of their days resting in the water or basking or
sunbathing on shore, especially in the mornings and evenings. Dur-
ing very dry periods, they will dig a tunnel and remain inside until
the rains return. Males and females mate from March to May, and each
female lays 30 to 60 eggs in a hole that she digs. Sometimes, the mother
may lay her eggs in a pile of rotting leaves and dirt instead. She stays
nearby until the eggs hatch 80 to 90 days later. She then helps her ba-
bies out of the nest and watches over them for a few more days.
American crocodiles and people: This species very rarely attacks

humans. Some humans, however, raid the crocodiles’ nests to collect
their eggs for food.
Conservation status: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) con-

siders this species to be Vulnerable, or facing a high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designates it as
Endangered, or in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of its range. The primary threat to this animal comes from
habitat loss. ■

Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)
NILE CROCODILE
Crocodylus niloticus
Physical characteristics: A large and bulky-bodied species, the

Nile crocodile has a very lumpy, dark brown to gray back and a light
yellow, white, or gray belly. Youngsters are greenish brown to brown
with dark markings. Females usually reach about 8 feet (2.5 meters)
long, and males typically grow to about 11.5 feet (3.5 meters).
Geographic range: Nile crocodiles live in Africa south of the

Sahara Desert and on Madasgascar off Africa’s southeast coast.
Habitat: Nile crocodiles mainly live in freshwater habitats, includ-

ing marshes, lakes, and rivers.

Nile crocodiles spend much of their time in the water, either stalking prey or lying in wait for an animal to come close enough
to attack. (©Charles V. Angelo/The National Audubon Society Collection/Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: The adult diet is mostly fish, although Nile crocodiles will also
eat large mammals, such as warthogs and antelopes.
Behavior and reproduction: Nile crocodiles spend much of their

time in the water, either stalking prey or lying in wait for an animal
to come close enough to attack. With their powerful jaws, they can
clamp onto even large animals and drag them underwater. After the
animal drowns, the crocodile may twirl the animal in the water in an
attempt to tear off a chunk of flesh to eat. Nile crocodiles often live
in large groups and often bask together on the shoreline. During the
August-to-January mating season, however, males will fight one an-
other. After a male and female mate, the female goes off to dig a hole
high on shore and lay her 50 to 80 eggs inside. The mother remains
nearby, and 80 to 90 days later, she helps her now-hatched young
out of the nest and to the water. The young stay under their mother’s
watchful eye for another month or so, and then go off on their own.
Nile crocodiles and people: These animals occasionally attack and

kill ranchers’ cattle and other livestock, and very rarely, a person.
Some people hunt this reptile for its meat and skin.
Conservation status: Although it was once overhunted, the World

Conservation Union (IUCN) no longer considers this species to be at

risk. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, however, lists it as Threat-
ened, or likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. Nu-
merous guidelines are in place to help make sure the crocodile
survives into the future. ■
Books:
Daniel, J. C. The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. New Delhi,
India: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Irwin, Steve, and Terri Irwin. The Crocodile Hunter. New York: Penguin
Putnam, 1997.
Ross, C. A., ed. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1989.
Books, 1994.
Schmidt, K. P. A Check List of North American Amphibians and Reptiles.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953.
Smith, H. M., and E. H. Taylor. An Annotated Checklist and Key to the
Reptiles of Mexico Exclusive of Snakes. Washington, DC: Bulletin of the
U.S. National Museum, 1950.
Webb, G. J. W., and S. C. Manolis. Crocodiles of Australia. New South
Wales, Australia: Reed Books Pty, Ltd., 1989.
Web sites:
“Crocodilian Species List.” Florida Museum of Natural History.
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csl.html (accessed on December 15,
2004).
“Crocodylus niloticus (LAURENTI, 1768).” Florida Museum of Natural
History. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm (accessed on
December 15, 2004).
“The Reptiles: Alligators and Crocodiles.” Nature. http://www.pbs.org/
wnet/nature/reptiles/ (accessed on December 15, 2004).

TUATARA
Sphenodontidae
●
Class: Reptilia
▲
Order: Sphenodontia
Family: Sphenodontidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class At a glance, each of the two species of tuatara could be mis-
subclass taken for a lizard. A closer look, however, reveals how differ-
ent they really are. One difference is in their teeth. Tuataras
order have not one, but two rows of teeth lying side by side in the
●
▲ monotypic order upper jaw. When the mouth closes, the single row of teeth in
the lower jaw fits between the two upper rows. Tuataras have
suborder
ears as lizards do, but lizards have an ear opening on each side
family of the head and tuataras do not. Baby tuataras have another un-
usual feature. They have a pale patch on the top of the head,
which some people have called a “third eye.” The patch be-
comes covered with scales as the animal grows up. Scientists
are unsure of the patch’s purpose but believe it may allow the
reptile to see light from the sun. Such information about the
sun’s location may help the animal find its way.
A tuatara has a large head on a sturdy body that ends in a
thick tail. Its skin is wrinkly and covered with noticeable beady
scales. A white crest runs along the back of the head and down
the middle of the back. The tail also has a row of toothy spines
down its center. Males are larger and heavier than females, and
they also have larger crests on the head and back. The biggest
of the two species, the northern tuatara, can grow to more than
24 inches (61 centimeters) long from head to tail and weigh at
least 2 pounds (1 kilogram). The smaller females of the species
usually reach 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) and 1 pound (0.5
kilograms) at most. The other species, known as Brother Islands
tuatara, is slightly smaller.

The Brother Islands tuatara is often a bit greener in color
than the greenish brown northern tuatara, but both are some-
times reddish to almost black in color. The two species have
white and black blotches and spots, but the Brother Islands tu-
atara usually has more white spots. Young tuataras of both
species are commonly light grayish brown with light V-shaped
patterns running along the back and dark markings by the eyes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tuataras have a small range, living on about 30 tiny and
hard-to-reach islands off New Zealand’s shore.
HABITAT
Although neither species is widespread, the northern tuataras
make their homes over a bigger area than the Brother Islands tu-
ataras. The northern tuataras live on 26 islands off northeastern
North Island and on four islands of Cook Strait off the northern
coast of South Island. The Brother Islands tuatara lives only on
North Brother Island in Cook Strait. Both species are burrowers
and live in shady forests where the trees grow thick enough to
block the sun almost completely from reaching the ground.
DIET
Usually active at night, the tuataras often hunt by ambush,
which means that they sit still and wait for a prey animal to
come to them. They also forage (FOR-ej), which means that
they wander about looking for food. They use their sticky fat
tongues to catch and eat mainly non-flying grasshoppers, bee-
tles, and other crawling invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts),
which are animals without backbones. The unusual arrange-
ment of their teeth is not only excellent for crushing inverte-
brates but is also well-suited to the occasional meal of a seabird,
lizard, or perhaps a smaller tuatara. The younger tuataras are
more likely than the adults to hunt during the daytime. This
practice may help them avoid being eaten by adult tuataras.

Tuataras are most active at night, which is when they do the
majority of their hunting. During the daytime, each one lives
alone in its underground burrow, occasionally coming to the
burrow entrance to sunbathe, or bask, and warm their bodies.
Tuataras live on very small islands that may become rather
Tuatara 133
crowded, sometimes with tuatara burrows
less than 3 feet (0.9 meters) apart. In some
cases, 810 tuataras may share a single acre of
land (2,000 per hectare). They get along
quite well, but males will fight one another
for small territories, where they hope to at-
A VERY OLD REPTILE tract females for mating. The battles begin
The tuatara is the only descendant of an with two males lining up next to each other,
ancient group of reptiles that were with each facing in the opposite direction.
common in the late Triassic and Jurassic They then puff up the throat, stiffen the crest
periods about 180 to 220 million years spines on the back so they stand on end, open
ago. At that time, they were spread out over wide the mouth, and snap the jaws shut tight.
Europe, Africa, and North America. They Usually this display is enough for one of the
started to disappear during the dinosaurs’ two males to surrender and leave the area.
reign, and almost all of them were Occasionally, however, neither one retreats,
completely gone by the early Cretaceous and the two males engage in biting matches.
Period, which followed the Jurassic. A tiny
Females mate once every two to five years,
group, however, survived on a piece of land
but males mate every year. Males set up their
that broke off the mainland and eventually
territories in summer and fall and begin do-
formed the islands of New Zealand. This
group of animals, called a lineage (LIN-ee-
ing what is called a “proud walk” to catch a
ej) because it connects species through female’s eye. Doing some of the displays he
time to their ancestors, gave rise to the two does when battling males, he tries to attract
current-day tuatara species. a female by slowly strutting around her while
stiffening his back crest and puffing up his
throat. If she is interested, she stays. If not,
she simply walks away. After mating, a female must wait until
the following spring to lay her eggs. Most lay four to 13 eggs,
but the larger northern tuataras from Cook Strait often lay eight
to 15. Each female makes a hole that may be very shallow or
up to 20 inches (50 centimeters) deep, lays her eggs, and cov-
ers them loosely with dirt. The eggs do not hatch until 12 to
15 months later. As in many other reptiles, the temperature of
the nest controls whether the eggs hatch into males or females.
In the case of the Brother Islands tuatara, warmer nests pro-
duce mostly males, and cooler ones produce mostly females.
Tuataras cannot mate until they are up to 13 years old. They
live to be at least 60 and possibly much longer.
TUATARAS AND PEOPLE

The people of New Zealand hold the tuatara in high regard
and consider them to be living treasures. Tuataras have also

caught the eye of the science community. In the 1800s, for ex-
ample, so many scientific institutions wanted their own tuataras
to study that the local government in 1895 was forced to pro-
tect the reptile before its population dropped too low.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers the
Brother Islands tuatara to be Vulnerable, which means that it
faces a high risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service lists both species as Endangered or in danger
of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their
range. One of the greatest threats to the tuataras comes from
introduced species, especially rats, which attack and kill the
reptiles. Several programs are under way to remove the rats and
to prevent any other predators from reaching the islands; these
efforts are helping the tuataras to make a comeback. In addi-
tion, other programs are helping to return tuataras to those
places where they once lived but had disappeared.
Tuatara 135
Northern Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT NORTHERN TUATARA
Sphenodon punctatus
Physical characteristics: The northern tuatara is a beady-skinned,

lizard-looking animal with a crest on the back of its head and on its
back. Its color may be gray, greenish gray, red, or black. Males can
reach more than 24 inches (61 centimeters) long and 2 pounds
(1 kilogram). Females are smaller, usually growing to no more than
16 inches (40.6 centimeters) and 1 pound (0.5 kilograms).
Geographic range: The northern tuatara lives on about 30 islands

off New Zealand’s coast.
Habitat: Northern tuataras spend much of their lives in or around

their underground burrows.

Diet: Their diet is about 75 percent invertebrates,
especially beetles and grasshoppers. They occa-
sionally eat lizards, small birds, and other verte-
brates (VER-teh-brehts), which are animals with
backbones.
Behavior and reproduction: During the day,

northern tuataras remain in their burrows, occa-
sionally coming to the entrance to bask in the sun.
They do most of their hunting at night. Although
they get along quite well, considering that they may
sometimes live less than 3 feet apart, the males do
fight, especially during the breeding season. Males
mate every year, but females mate only once every
2 to 5 years.
The people of New Zealand hold
Northern Tuataras and people: Local people respect this reptile. the tuatara in high regard and
consider them to be living
The New Zealand government is very strict in its protection of the
treasures. (Illustration by Brian
tuataras, even limiting travel to the islands where the reptiles live. Cressman. Reproduced by
permission.)
Conservation status: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) does
not consider this species to be at risk, but the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service considers it to be Endangered or in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Efforts are under
way to remove introduced predators, especially rats, from the tuatara’s
islands. ■
Books:
Tesar, Jenny. What on Earth is a Tuatara? Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch
Press, 1994.
Periodicals:
“Quick Bits: Tuatara.” Ranger Rick. August 1999, vol. 33, page 12.
“Tuataras ‘The Living Fossil’ Explained.” Monkeyshines on Health &
Science. Spring 1998, page 14.
Web sites:
Musico, B. “Sphenodon punctatus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sphenodon_
punctatus.html (accessed on December 20, 2004).
“The Tuatara.” Kiwi Conservation Club. http://www.kcc.org.nz/animals/
tuatara.asp (accessed on December 20, 2004).
Tuatara 137
“Tuatara.” San Diego Zoo. http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/
t-tuatara.html (accessed on December 20, 2004).
“What Can You Tell Me About Tuatara?” Museum of New Zealand Te Papa
Tongarewa. http://www.tepapa.govt.nz/TePapa/English/CollectionsAnd
Research/FAQs/FAQs_NaturalEnvironment.htm#tuatara (accessed on
December 20, 2004).

SNAKES AND LIZARDS
Squamata
●
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Number of families: About 42
families
order C H A P T E R
The 7,200 species of snakes, lizards, and wormlizards all fall class
under the order Squamata and are therefore known as squa-
subclass
mates (SKWAH-mates). Perhaps the most noticeable difference
between the snakes and the lizards are the legs, or the lack of ● order
them. Most lizards, except for a few species, have working legs. monotypic order
Snakes are legless. The most noticeable feature of the worm
lizards is their earthworm-like body. While they have scales suborder
and earthworms do not, worm lizards’ scales are arranged in family
rings and separated with grooves to give them the appearance
of an earthworm’s ringed body. Most of the worm lizards are
legless, although a few have two front legs just behind the head.
Besides smelling with their noses and tasting with their
tongues, most squamates also smell with a special organ on the
roof of their mouths. They use it by first flicking or otherwise
picking up chemicals on the tongue. They then place the tongue
on the roof of the mouth at what is called the Jacobson’s or-
gan, which smells the chemicals. For hearing, many lizards have
ears that are visible as a hole on either side of the head. Nei-
ther the snakes nor the wormlizards have the openings for their
ears. Scientists believe that snakes can probably only hear very
low-pitched sounds, including ground vibrations that they
sense in the jaw and send to the ear.
In addition to the presence or absence of ear holes, known
as external ears, snakes and lizards have another obvious dif-
ference. The majority of lizards have eyelids that close and
open. Snakes, on the other hand, have a spectacle over their
Snakes and Lizards 139

eyes. A spectacle is a clear scale, which looks much like a con-
tact lens. In other words, a lizard noticeably blinks, but a snake
always appears to have its eyes open. Although most squamates
have obvious eyes, those species that spend most of their lives
underground often have very small eyes, which are sometimes
invisible under their scales.
The size of the squamate depends on the species. Among the
lizards, the heaviest is the Indonesian Komodo dragon, which
can grow to be at least 9.9 feet (3 meters) long and 330 pounds
(150 kilograms). Many people consider the crocodile monitor to
be the world’s longest lizard. It can reach 12 feet (nearly 3.7 me-
ters) long, although some reports claim that the lizards can reach
15 to 19 feet (4.6 to 5.8 meters) long. The smallest lizard, on the
other hand, is the jaragua lizard, also known as the dwarf gecko.
From one end to the other, adults of this recently discovered
species only reach about 1.2 inches (3.2 centimeters) long.
Snakes also come in different sizes. Some of the smallest are in
the blind snake and slender blind snake families, which include
species that only grow to 4 inches (10 centimeters) long and
weigh just 0.05 ounces (1.4 grams). This compares to the retic-
ulated python, which often reaches 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more.
The largest reticulated python ever discovered was killed in 1912
in Indonesia. This beast measured 33 feet (10.1 meters) in length.
The South American green anaconda is another enormous
species, often reaching 25 feet (7.7 meters) long and 300 pounds
(136 kilograms). Wormlizard adults range from 3.1 inches (8
centimeters) to more than 32 inches (81 centimeters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Besides the Arctic, Antarctic, and other very cold places,
squamates live almost the world over.
HABITAT
Squamates can live in many habitats, from the dry condi-
tions in the desert to the wet and warm rainforests. Many of
them, including numerous lizards and snakes, live above
ground on land. Some, such as the wormlizards, are fossorial
(foss-OR-ee-ul), which means that they remain underground
most of the time. Others, including many snakes, are arboreal
(ar-BOR-ee-ul), which means that they often live above the
ground among tree branches. Some, like the water snakes,
rarely leave their freshwater streams or ponds, while the sea
kraits are snakes that spend their lives in salt water.

DIET
Most of the squamates eat other animals.
Many of the lizards and the smaller snake
species eat insects or other invertebrates (in-
VER-teh-brehts), which are animals without
backbones. Even some of the medium-sized
snakes eat invertebrates. Eastern garter snakes, SHOWING OFF OR BLENDING IN?
for example, like to dine on earthworms. A The beautiful stripes, bands, and
large number of the medium- to large-sized blotches on many snakes and lizards may
snakes, however, eat other snakes, lizards, be helping the animal to blend into the
frogs and tadpoles, mammals and other verte- background or to show off to predators or
brates (VER-teh-brehts), which are animals to mates. Most of the time, the patterns
with backbones. Boa constrictors, pythons, camouflage the snake or lizard by breaking
and other very large snakes sometimes eat up its outline and making it difficult for
calves, deer, and other big mammals. Monitor predators to see where the animal’s body
lizards, which can grow to 12 feet (3.7 meters) begins and ends. A striped snake, for
or longer, can also capture, kill, and eat large example, may look quite noticeable on the
mammals, such as deer, monkeys, wild pigs, pavement but almost disappear when
and even buffalo. They are also known to eat placed on the many-colored forest floor
dead animals, or carrion (CARE-ee-yun), that where it lives. Some species, however,
they come across. Some species of squamates benefit from advertising themselves. The
eat plants either in addition to or instead of bright colors of numerous snakes warn
meat. Many of the iguanas, for instance, eat potential predators to stay away, and the
flowers, fruits, and leaves. brilliant hues in some male lizards attract
All squamates shed their skin—actually females during the mating season.
just the outer layer—once a year. If a snake
eats well and grows quickly, it may shed ad-
ditional times. The lizards typically shed in small pieces, while
the snakes usually shed in one piece that peels off inside out.
Often, a shed snake skin still shows enough of the animal’s pat-
terns for a careful observer to identify the species that left it.

Because they are ectothermic (ek-toe-THERM-ik), which
means that their body temperature changes based on the outside
temperature, many squamates sunbathe, or bask, to warm up.
Others, however, stay out of sight during the day. Some of the
fossorial species rarely come out of the ground at all. These
species will sometimes increase their body temperatures by mov-
ing to a warmer underground spot. For hunting, many of the
squamates actively walk or slither about looking for prey. Oth-
ers, however, hunt by ambush, which means that they sit still,

wait for a prey animal to come along, then
spring out to grab and eat it. Some snakes, in-
cluding the pit vipers and the boas, have a spe-
cial method of hunting. They can sense heat
through small holes, called pit organs, on the
face. Using these pit organs, they are able ac-
THE SHELL GAME tually to see the heat given off by an animal
in 3-D. These pit organs come in especially
When it comes to living on dry land, the
handy when hunting for food at night or in
snakes, lizards, and worm lizards, known
places where the snake has a limited view.
as squamates, have a big advantage over
the frogs and salamanders. Most Compared to mammals and birds, squa-
squamates lay eggs, just like the frogs and mates must have meals much less frequently.
salamanders do, but the squamate eggs Because they are ectothermic and do not have
have shells. Even though the shells may be to use their energy to keep up a constant
quite thin and often even flimsy, they help body temperature, as the mammals and birds
protect the eggs from drying out before do, they can get by on much less food. Some
they hatch. Without the shell, squamates of the large snakes can survive many months
would have to follow the pattern of the —even a full year—on one big meal.
frogs and salamanders and lay their eggs
in the water or some other wet spot. With
Depending on the species, a squamate fe-
the shell, however, the snakes, lizards, and
male may lay eggs or give birth to live young.
worm lizards can make their homes well
Many species lay their eggs in nests, which
away from the water. This has allowed
are little more than holes dug in moist
squamates to exist in nearly every habitat
ground. A few, like the wormlizards, lay their
around the world.
eggs inside ant or termite nests. Most squa-
mate mothers provide no care for their young
and leave almost immediately after they lay
their eggs or give birth. Some lizards and snakes are exceptions.
Many female skinks, for example, stay with the eggs until they
hatch.
While most species reproduce only after the male and female
mate, some species are parthenogenic (parth-enn-oh-GEN-ik),
which means that a female can produce young by herself. In
many of these species, such as the lizard known as the desert
grassland whiptail, only females exist. The female’s young are
all identical copies of herself. Besides this species in the whip-
tail family of lizards, seven other families of lizards and snakes
have some all-female species.
SQUAMATES AND PEOPLE

For the most part, squamates either freeze or flee when hu-
mans approach. If a person comes too close, however, many

will bite. Fortunately, most species are not venomous, and the
bite only serves to surprise the person rather than hurt him or
her. Some snakes, and two species of lizards, are venomous.
The lizards are the Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard.
Usually, quick medical attention can treat squamate bites.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists 265 species as
being at risk or as already extinct, which means they are no
longer in existence. Of these, 14 are Extinct, 36 are Critically
Endangered, and 31 are Endangered. Critically Endangered
means the species faces an extremely high risk of extinction in
the wild. Endangered means the species faces a very high risk
of extinction in the wild. Many of these species have been hurt
by habitat loss or by the introduction of new species, especially
predators, to their habitat.
Books:
Badger. D. Lizards: A Natural History of Some Uncommon Creatures —
Extraordinary Chameleons, Iguanas, Geckos, and More Stillwater, MN:
Voyageur Press, 2002.
Greene, Harry W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1997.
Mattison, Chris. Lizards of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1989.
Mattison, Chris. The Encyclopedia of Snakes. New York: DK Publishing,
1997.
McCarthy, Colin. Eyewitness: Reptile. New York: DK Publishing, 2000.
Montgomery, Sy. The Snake Scientist (Scientists in the Field). Boston:
O’Shea, Mark, and Tim Halliday. Smithsonian Handbooks: Reptiles and
Amphibians (Smithsonian Handbooks). New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Pianka, E. R. Ecology and Natural History of Desert Lizards: Analyses of
the Ecological Niche and Community Structure. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Pianka, E. R., and L. J. Vitt. Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.

Zug, George R., Laurie J. Vitt, and Janalee P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An
Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. 2nd edition. San Diego:
Academic Press, 2001.
Web sites:
“About Snakes.” Ohio Public Library Information Network. http://www
.oplin.lib.oh.us/snake/about/snakes.html (accessed on December 13,
2004).
“Herpetology Program.” Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. http://www
.uga.edu/srelherp/ (accessed on December 13, 2004).
Myers, P. 2001. “Reptilia.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Reptilia.html (accessed on
December 13, 2004).
“Reptiles.” San Diego Natural History Museum. http://www.sdnhm
.org/exhibits/reptiles/reptiles.html (accessed on December 13, 2004).

ANGLEHEADS, CALOTES,
DRAGON LIZARDS,
AND RELATIVES
Agamidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Agamidae
family C H A P T E R species
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION phylum
Agamids can be rather plain, or they can look quite strange class
and unusual. Their bodies may have crests, or ridges of large subclass
spines, on the back and tail. They may have neck frills and folds order
and body decorations, such as lumps and spines on the head.
Some agamids have dewlaps, or throat fans. monotypic order
suborder
Agamids come in many colors. Some are gray, brown, or
black, but they may also have more showy colors. The Thai wa- ▲ family
ter dragon is bright green with golden eyes. The rainbow lizard
is yellow or orange on top and blue on the bottom. Some
species, or types, can change color rapidly, depending on their
mood. Their lengths range from 10 inches (25.4 centimeters)
to 36 inches (91.4 centimeters). In many species, males look
different from females. They often have brighter colors, espe-
cially during the mating season, and bigger body parts, such as
heads. All agamids have four well-developed limbs, or legs.
There are usually five toes on each foot.
The head of an agamid is large and triangular, with a visible

neck area. They all have movable eyelids and a circular pupil.
In most agamids the ear opening is on the side of the head.
Body scales are rough or spiny in most species. Some agaminds
have a small or large crest, like a fin of scales, along their backs.
Unlike some other lizards, agamids never lose their long tails
when chased by a predator (PREH-duh-ter), or an animal that
hunts the agamid for food.
Angleheads, Calotes, Dragon Lizards, and Relatives 145

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Agamids are found in Europe and Africa
and throughout Southeast Asia, including
Indonesia and the Philippines. They also in-
habit New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and
Australia.
THE WEIRDEST LIZARD?
HABITAT
The thorny devil lizard of the Australian
desert certainly looks strange. It has horns, Agamids prefer to live in sandy and rocky
knobs, warts, and pointed armored scales deserts. They also may be found in dry for-
all over its 8-inch-long (20.3-centimeter- est habitats and dry scrub areas, which are
long) body. But it is a gentle creature that flat areas with small bushes. Flying lizards
feeds only on ants. This lizard can eat up are found in rainforests, areas with a great
to five thousand black ants at a single deal of rain and warm temperatures through-
meal! It laps the ants up with its sticky out the year. The Asian water dragon lives
tongue. This lizard changes its color to part of the time in trees near streams.
match its surroundings, and it also can
DIET
change its color pattern and body size.
When bothered, the thorny devil can take An agamid does not chase insects for food.
in air so that it puffs up to a larger size. Instead, it sits and waits in hiding until an
Thorny devils drink by collecting dew on insect comes by. Then out darts its sticky
their skin. Dew is made up of little drops of tongue to capture the insect and eat it. A few
water that gather on cool surfaces. The agamids, such as the Dabb spiny-tailed
lizard’s assorted skin bumps are arranged lizard, prefer plants for food.
so that dew flows through them toward the
corners of the mouth. BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Agamids are diurnal (die-UR-nuhl), or ac-
tive during the day. They spend a lot of time
basking, or resting, in the sun. Some species prefer to sun them-
selves on flat rocky areas, while others like to climb onto tree
trunks or shrubs to sunbathe. If the desert species get too hot,
they go into cooler underground burrows, or holes, to rest.
Agamids have different ways of protecting themselves against
predators. The bearded dragon lizard, for example, has spiny
body scales. Some agamids run underground or into a rock
crevice (KREH-vuhs), or crack. The Dabb spiny-tailed lizard
runs into its burrow and lets the spiny part of its long, thick tail
hang out. If the predator keeps pestering it, the lizard swishes
its tail from side to side, which discourages most predators.
Agamid males typically are very territorial, meaning that they
are protective of their living areas. A male agamid mates with
females inside his territory, where several females may live.

When challenging other males for a mate, an agamid may bob
its head, push up on rocks to make it look bigger, open and
close its mouth, and enlarge its dewlap, the expandable flap un-
der the chin. Some males become brightly colored during
courtship. The Indian bloodsucker agamid expands the dewlap
during courtship, and its head and throat turn bright red. That
color gives the “bloodsucker” its name.
Most agamid females lay soft-shelled eggs after mating. The
smaller agamid species lay a small number of eggs. The larger
species may lay up to two dozen eggs. There may be one egg
clutch, or group, per season or several throughout the year.
Eggs are usually buried in damp soil or in leaf litter. There are
some agamid species, such as the toad-headed lizards, that give
birth to live young.
AGAMIDS AND PEOPLE

Agamids do not normally interact with people. They eat
many insects, and so they are considered useful animals. A few
species are captured for the legal and illegal pet trade, and some
larger species are exhibited in zoos. A few larger species are
caught for food.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Most agamids are not threatened. The World Conservation
Union (IUCN) labels two species as Endangered, meaning that
they face a very high risk of extinction in the wild. One species
is listed as Near Threatened, meaning that it might soon face
serious threats. Habitat loss, or loss of their preferred living
area, is a major problem for agamids. The introduction of new
predators, such as cats and rats, to their living areas has also
harmed them.

Spiny agama (Agama hispida)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SPINY AGAMA
Agama hispida
Physical characteristics: Spiny agamas are medium-size lizards,

about 12 inches (30.5 centimeters) long. They are usually gray-brown
or bright green, but these colors can change. During the mating sea-
son, males have a blue head with a red throat and yellow shoulders.
Females are plainer, with orange, brown, and cream-colored blotches.
Spiny agamas have spines along their backs and two fanglike teeth in
the front of their mouths. These teeth are strong enough to pierce
tough insect shells and can give a painful bite.
Geographic range: The spiny agama lives in southern Africa.

Habitat: Spiny agamas live in and between sand
dunes, or hills of sand piled up by the wind, in
coastal areas and in dry semidesert areas, where
some water is available.
Diet: Spiny agamas eat ants, beetles, and termites.
Behavior and reproduction: Spiny agamas live

alone. They usually stay close to the ground, dig-
ging short tunnels at the base of bushes. They also
climb small upright items, such as fence posts.
Spiny agamas are sit-and-wait predators, meaning
that they do not chase after their insect food. They
wait until the insect wanders by and then catch
and eat it.
During the mating season, spiny agama males
become quite colorful. Males fight to defend their living and mating Spiny agamas live in and
territories. They will mate with several females within this area. Each between sand dunes. (Clem
Haager/Bruce Coleman Inc.
female will lay about forty-five groups of eggs, each containing about Reproduced by permission.)
thirteen eggs.
Spiny agamas and people: Spiny agamas do not interact with peo-
ple. There is a popular belief that these lizards climb trees to look
skyward to see if it will rain.
Conservation status: The spiny agama is not threatened. ■

Frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii)
FRILLED LIZARD
Chlamydosaurus kingii
Physical characteristics: The frilled lizard is large, with gray-brown

coloring. Its length ranges from 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91.4 centimeters).
Adult males weigh about 30 ounces (850 grams) and females about
14 ounces (397 grams). A frilled lizard has long legs and a medium-
long tail. It has a large neck frill, or neck folds, made of thin skin.
Most of the time, the frill is kept folded like a cape over the lizard’s
shoulders and back. The tongue and mouth lining are pink or yellow.
Geographic range: Frilled lizards are found in northern Australia

and southern New Guinea.
Habitat: Frilled lizards inhabit grassy woodlands and dry forests.

These tree-living lizards are seldom found very far away from trees.

Frilled lizards live in grassy
woodlands and dry forests. They
are seldom found very far away
from trees. (©Steve Cooper/Photo
permission.)
Diet: Frilled lizards eat cicadas (suh-KAY-duhs), ants, spiders, and

small lizards.
Behavior and reproduction: The frilled lizard spends most of its time
on tree trunks and low branches. It is active during the day and comes
down to the ground after it rains and to search for food. When it is
threatened or alarmed, the frilled lizard quickly enlarges the big, red-
dish-orange, fanlike frill around its neck. This frill can enlarge to a
size of 8 to 12 inches across (20.3 to 30.5 centimeters). The frill has
zigzag edges and red, blue, and brown spots. At rest, the folded frill
helps keep the lizard cool. It also acts as camouflage (KA-mah-flahzh),
a sort of disguise, allowing the lizard to look like a branch or bark.
If a predator threatens, at first the frilled lizard may hide, become
absolutely still, or run to the nearest tree. If cornered, the frilled lizard
faces the predator. It enlarges its frill and opens it brightly colored
mouth. Sometimes it hisses, stands up on its hind legs, or leaps at the
predator. If these actions do not work, frilled lizards can run on their
hind legs for short distances.
Frilled lizards mate during the wet season. Males are territorial,
protecting their living area. They may use their frills to attract mates.
Females lay a clutch or group of eight to fourteen eggs twice a year,
in spring and summer. Nests are made in flat, sandy soil, surrounded
by thin grass and leaf litter. They are not covered.
Frilled lizards and people: Frilled lizards are the reptile emblem of
Australia. They are shown on the Australian two-cent coin. There are

books for children about frilled lizards, and a frilled lizard was fea-
tured on one automobile commercial on television. Fire-prevention
road signs in Australia say, “We like our lizards frilled, not grilled.”
The frilled lizard is protected by law in Australia.
Conservation status: The frilled lizard is not threatened, but prob-

lems are expected. Toxic, or poisonous, cane toads have been intro-
duced to the areas in which they live. Thought to be helpful, these
toads instead have become pests, eating lizards and other small ani-
mals. In some areas, land clearing and the introduction of cats have
caused frilled lizard numbers to decline. ■

Flying lizard (Draco volans)
FLYING LIZARD
Draco volans
Physical characteristics: The flying lizard is a slender, long-legged,

small lizard. It measures 8 inches (20.3 centimeters) from head to tail
tip. It has winglike body parts formed from thin skin stretched over
extra-long ribs. When the lizard leaps from a tree, these body parts
are stretched out at right angles to the body, forming a pair of glid-
ing wings. At rest, these skin “sails” are folded along the body, keep-
ing the lizard’s appearance slim. The lizard’s body color is gray or
brown, but the wings are brightly colored. Male and female wing col-
ors differ.
Geographic range: The flying lizard lives in Indonesia, Thailand,

Malaysia, and the Philippines.

Biomes: Coniferous forest, deciduous forest,
rainforest
Habitat: Flying lizards live in open forests and

rainforests.
Diet: Flying lizards eat ants and other insects.
Behavior and reproduction: These small lizards

live in trees. On land they are clumsy and easy vic-
tims for predators. When scared, they run up a tree.
When threatened, they leap off the tree. With their
“wings” stretched out, these long-tailed, lightly
built agamid lizards glide gracefully. The wings act
These long-tailed, lightly built like parachutes. When gliding, these delicate, slender lizards use their
lizards glide gracefully, tails to steer and sometimes can travel as far as 55 yards (50.3 me-
sometimes as far as 55 yards
(50.3 meters). (©Stephen ters). They gently land on another tree, head up. When they land,
Dalton/Photo Researchers, Inc. they run up the tree, getting ready for their next flight.
During mating season, male flying lizards defend their territories.
They court females by displaying their bright yellow throat flap.
Females lay one to four eggs.
Flying lizards and people: Flying lizards do not interact with

people.
Conservation status: Flying lizards are not threatened. ■
Books:
Barrett, Norman S. Dragons and Lizards. Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts,
1991.
Capula, Massimo. Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1989.
Miller, Jake. The Bearded Dragon New York: PowerKids Press, 2003.
Robinson, Fay, and Jean Day Zallinger. Amazing Lizards New York:
Scholastic, 1999.
Uchiyama, Ryu. Reptiles and Amphibians. San Francisco: Chronicle
Books, 1999.
Zoffer, David. Agamid Lizards: Keeping and Breeding Them in Captivity.
Neptune City, NJ: T. F. H. Publications, 1996.

Periodicals:
“Australian Lizards: True Blue, Mate.” National Geographic (January
1998): Earth Almanac.
“Frilled Lizards.” Ranger Rick (September 1995): 44–45.
“Living Jewels.” National Geographic WORLD Magazine (June 1979):
30–31.
“Spiny Lizards.” Ranger Rick (May 1997): 44.
“Thorny Devil.” Ranger Rick (February 1996): 24–25.
“Tricks to Escape Predators.” Ranger Rick (September 1995): 40–48.
Web sites:
“Agamids of the Cederberg.” Cape Nature Conservation. http://www
.capenature.org.za/cederbergproject/html/agamids.html (accessed on
August 12, 2004).
“Chlamydosaurus kingii (Frillneck Lizard).” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chlamy-
dosaurus_kingii.html (accessed on August 12, 2004).
“Common Flying Dragon.” www.wildherps.com. http:/www.wildherps.com/
species/D.volans.html (accessed on August 14, 2004).
“Rainbow Lizard.” America Zoo. http://www.americazoo.com/goto/index/
reptiles/102.htm (accessed on August 12, 2004).

CHAMELEONS
Chamaeleonidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Chamaeleonidae
and
subspecies
class Chameleons (kuh-MEEL-yuns) are best known for their abil-
ity to change colors easily. Once, color change was thought to
subclass
serve as camouflage (KA-mah-flahzh), or a sort of disguise, al-
order lowing the chameleon to match or blend in to its surroundings.
monotypic order Scientists now believe that colors change in response to differ-
ences in temperature, light, and the chameleon’s mood. Colors
suborder may change in both males and females or only in males, de-
▲ family pending on the species, or type, of chameleon. Some species
can change color only into shades of brown. Others have a
wider color range, turning from pink to blue or green to red.
Varieties of color may be displayed on different body parts, such
as the throat, head, or legs. When the chameleon is excited,
stripes or patterns may appear. Sleeping or ill chameleons tend
to be pale.
Chameleons range in length from 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)
to 26.8 inches (68 centimeters). Males may be larger or smaller
than females. A chameleon’s body is flexible (FLEK-suh-buhl),
meaning that it can bend easily. It can be rather flat from side
to side and shaped somewhat like a leaf. This allows it to blend
better with leafy surroundings. A chameleon can also make its
body look longer, to seem more a part of a twig. If it is threat-
ened by a predator (PREH-duh-ter), or an animal that hunts it
for food, the chameleon can inflate, or puff up, its lungs and
make its rib cage expand, to appear larger.
Chameleons have long, slim legs, with four feet. There are
five toes on each foot. The toes are fused, or joined, in bundles

of two and three toes to form a pincer (PIN-
suhr), a kind of claw for grabbing and hold-
ing. Sharp claws on each toe aid in climbing.
The tail is formed in a way to help the
chameleon hold on to twigs and branches.
These animals have large eyes that pro-
trude, or stick out. Each eye can move inde- SUCCESSFUL HAWAIIAN
CHAMELEONS
pendently of the other, so the chameleon can
look in two directions at once. For this rea- There are no native American chameleons,
son, chameleons can look forward, sidewise, although there are many pet chameleons.
or backward without moving their heads, Normally, the survival rate of imported
and they can follow moving objects without chameleons is very low; they do not often live
changing their body position. If they see an long in captivity. In 1972, however, thirty-six
insect, they will focus both eyes on it to see Jackson’s chameleons were sent from
how far away it is. Kenya, in Africa, to a pet store owner in
A chameleon’s tongue can extend the Hawaii. Because the chameleons were so
length of its entire body, or even longer. The stressed from travel, the store owner
sticky tongue can flick out to full length released them. Some of these chameleons
within one-sixteenth of a second, fast enough survived and multiplied on the island of Oahu.
to catch a fly in midair. The tongue tip is like Jackson’s chameleons are quite unusual in
a wet suction cup that attaches to its prey, that they are the only chameleons in the
or an animal that it hunts for food. A United States that live and breed in the wild.
chameleon can capture and pull in prey There are now reports of wild populations in
weighing up to about half of its own body California, Texas, and parts of Florida.
weight. Then the chameleon relaxes its
tongue, with prey attached, and draws it
slowly back into its mouth. Chameleons also use their long
tongues to lap up water from leaves and other surfaces.
A chameleon’s head can be covered with many bumps and
bulges and other body structures that stick out. Scales on its
back can resemble small or large crests, or ridges. Some crests
are barely noticeable, but others are quite large. Body scales
also can be found on the throat and belly. On the sides of the
head there may be movable skin flaps. Bumps and growths of
differing sizes may be seen on the snout, or nose area. De-
pending on the species, chameleons also may have one to six
bony “horns,” of varying sizes and shapes, on their heads.
Although chameleons do not have vocal cords, or body parts
used to produce sound, some species can make a hissing or
squeaking noise by forcing air from their lungs. Others can
vibrate (VIE-brayt), moving back and forth rapidly to create
sound.
Chameleons 157
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Chameleons are found mainly in Madagascar and Africa, and
a few species live in southern Europe, Asia, the Seychelles and
the Comoros. No chameleons are native to the Americas, which
means that all of them were brought into the Americas. One
species is now found there in the wild.
HABITAT
Chameleons live in a variety of habitats, such as dry deserts;
tropical, rainy woodlands of evergreens; forests with trees that
lose their leaves in winter; thorn forests; grasslands; scrublands,
or land with low bushes and trees; and cloud forests, or wet,
tropical, mountain forests. They can be found from sea level
up to mountainous areas as high as 15,000 feet (4,572 meters).
DIET
Chameleons eat a variety of flying and crawling insects, in-
cluding butterflies; insect larvae (LAR-vee), or young; and
snails. The larger chameleons eat birds, smaller chameleons,
lizards, and sometimes snakes. Chameleons also eat plant mat-
ter, including leaves, flowers, and fruits. Some chameleons stay
within small areas for their food supply, but others travel long
distances seeking food. All chameleons need drinking water,
which they get from dew or rain.

Chameleons are cold-blooded animals, meaning that their
body temperature varies with the weather. After resting during
the night, they warm up in the daytime by basking, or resting,
in the sun. If they get too warm, they lower their body tem-
perature by resting in the shade. All their activities take place
during daylight hours.
Most chameleons prefer to live alone. Males are very terri-
torial, or protective of their living areas. Males and females tol-
erate each other only briefly, during the mating season. When
males with bony head horns fight over territory, one may lower
its head and attempt to ram the other with its horns. Usually
no harm is done, unless an eye or lung is damaged.
In the mating season, males try to attract females by bobbing
their heads, inflating their throats, puffing up their bodies, and
displaying their brightest colors. A female may accept or reject

the courting male. If she rejects him, she might run away or
she might face the male and hiss at him with an open mouth.
She might even attack and bite him. These bites can kill.
Most chameleon species lay eggs. Eggs are placed in tunnels
or pits in the ground or under rocks or leaves. This keeps them
cool and moist. After laying their eggs, females cover the area
with dirt to hide it from predators. Depending on the species,
young chameleons hatch one to eighteen months later. They
are independent at birth and must find their own food and shel-
ter. A few chameleon species give birth to live young, rather
than lay eggs. These species often live in areas where the
weather is very cold in winter and where eggs placed directly
on the ground might not hatch because of the cold.
CHAMELEONS AND PEOPLE

Chameleons do not normally interact with people. Wild
chameleons are sometimes caught and sold to tourists.
Chameleons are also taken from their habitats in the illegal pet
trade, and many die from stress or improper care. Habitat de-
struction, forest fires, and air and water pollution, or poison,
waste, or other material that makes the environment dirty and
harmful to health, are major problems.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists four chameleon
species as Vulnerable, meaning that they face a high risk of ex-
tinction in the wild. One is Endangered, meaning that it faces
a very high risk of extinction in the near future, and one is Crit-
ically Endangered, meaning that it faces an extremely high risk
of extinction.
Chameleons 159
Jackson’s chameleon (Chamaeleo jacksonii)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS JACKSON’S CHAMELEON
Chamaeleo jacksonii
Physical characteristics: The body color of Jackson’s chameleon

can be shades of green or brown, with dark red, yellow, or blue on
the head, sides, or tail. Males have three large, pointed, hornlike pro-
trusions on their heads, which are used in fights with other males.
Females may or may not have these “horns.” Adults grow to 14 inches
(35.6 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: Jackson’s chameleon is found mainly in the

lower mountain ranges of eastern Africa. There is a wild population
in Hawaii.

Jackson’s chameleons are
captured for the illegal and legal
pet trade, and they typically
do not survive well in captivity.
(©E. R. Degginger/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Habitat: Jackson’s chameleon lives in areas with warm days and cool
nights, including moist forests, crop plantations, and dense bushes.
Diet: Jackson’s chameleons feed on a wide variety of insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Jackson’s chameleons live in trees.

They are usually calm creatures, but during courtship the male is very
territorial and will fight to defend its living area or the female with
whom it wants to mate. These fights are shoving contests using the
horns. Males court females with their most brilliant colors and with
head bobbing. Females give birth to three to fifty live young. Young
are ready to reproduce at about six to ten months of age. In the wild
these chameleons may live two to four years.
Jackson’s chameleons and people: Jackson’s chameleons do not

interact with people in the wild. They are captured for the illegal and
legal pet trade, and they typically do not survive well in captivity.
Their living areas are suffering destruction.
Conservation status: Jackson’s chameleons are not threatened, but

they may become threatened unless their capture for the pet trade is
closely controlled. ■
Chameleons 161
Armored chameleon (Brookesia perarmata)
ARMORED CHAMELEON
Brookesia perarmata
Physical characteristics: The armored chameleon is reddish

brown, brown, and tan. It has a row of pointed scales projecting from
its spine, decreasing in size from the neck to the tail tip. The rest of
the body has many thorny scales, giving it an armored appearance.
Adults are 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) long.
Geographic range: Armored chameleons are found only in the

Tsingy de Bemaraha Nature Reserve in Madagascar.
Habitat: Armored chameleons inhabit bushes, shrubs, and leaf lit-

ter in or near dense, dry, deciduous (di-SID-joo-wus) forest, or forests
with trees that lose their leaves in cold weather.

Armored chameleons are rarely
seen; they hide and do not
interact with people in the wild.
(Illustration by Joseph E.
Trumpey. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: The armored chameleon feeds on insects and insect larvae.
Behavior and reproduction: The armored chameleon is calm and

secretive. It spends most of its life on the ground and does not move
about much. Little is known about its breeding habits.
Armored chameleons and people: Armored chameleons are rarely

seen; they hide and do not interact with people in the wild. They are
collected for the illegal pet trade, but few survive once they are cap-
tured.
Conservation status: As a result of habitat destruction and collec-

tion for the pet trade, the IUCN has listed the armored chameleon as
Vulnerable, meaning that it faces a high risk of extinction in the wild.
■
Chameleons 163
Common chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleon)
COMMON CHAMELEON
Chamaeleo chamaeleon
Physical characteristics: The colors of the common chameleon

vary widely; they include green, yellow, gray, and brown, with many
stripes and spots.
Geographic range: Common chameleons inhabit Europe, the Mid-

dle East, and northern Africa.
Habitat: Common chameleons are found in many different areas,

among them, semidesert scrubland, coastal scrubland, crop planta-
tions, and forested areas as high as 8,500 feet (2,591 meters).

The colors of the common
chameleon vary widely; they
include green, yellow, gray, and
brown, with many stripes and
spots. (J.C. Carton/Carto/Bruce
permission.)
Diet: Common chameleons eat insects, young birds, and small

reptiles.
Behavior and reproduction: Common chameleons living in areas

with very cold winters will lie dormant, slowing down or entirely
stopping most of their activities until the weather warms up. At the
onset of warm weather, mating begins. Females carry their young for
two months and then produce about sixty eggs. The young hatch in
six to eleven months.
Common chameleons and people: Common chameleons do not

interact with people in the wild. They are sometimes killed crossing
roadways. They are also captured for the illegal pet trade, but few
survive. Habitat destruction is another threat.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the common chameleon as

Vulnerable. Only in Greece are they strictly protected. ■
Books:
Bartlett, Richard D., and Patricia Bartlett. Jackson’s and Veiled
Chameleons. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series, 2001.
Darling, Kathy, and Tara Darling. Chameleons: On Location. New York:
HarperCollins, 1997.
Mara, W. P. Chameleons: Exotic Lizards. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press,
1996.
Chameleons 165
Miller, Jake. The Chameleon: Lizard Library. New York: PowerKids Press,
2003.
Schmidt, W., K. Tamm, and E. Wallikewitz. Chameleons: Basic Domestic
Reptile and Amphibian Library. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers,
1998.
Stefoff, Rebecca. Chameleon. New York: Benchmark Books, 1996.
Books, 1999.
Periodicals:
Cooper, Sharon Katz. “Chameleons and Other Quick- Change Artists.”
National Geographic Explorer (October 2002): 4–7.
“Chameleons’ Emotional Signals.” National Geographic (August 1993):
Earth Almanac.
“Panther Chameleons.” Ranger Rick (February 1998): 5–9.
Risley, T. “Chameleon Profile: Brookesia and Rampholeon. Chameleon
Information Network 31 (Spring 1999): 21–23.
Risley, T. “The Fate of Wild-Caught Chameleons Exported for the Pet
Trade.” Chameleon Information Network 42 (Winter 2001): 15–18.
Web sites:
Fry, Michael. “Introduction.” Chameleon Information Network. http://
www.animalarkshelter.org/cin/ (accessed on July 29, 2004).
Heying, Heather. “Family Chamaeleonidae.” Animal Diversity Web.
Chamaeleonidae.html (accessed on July 28, 2004).
Mayell, Hillary. “Evolutionary Oddities: Duck Sex Organs, Lizard Tongue.”
National Geographic News. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2001/10/1023_corkscrewduck.html (accessed on July 29, 2004).
Raxworthy, Christopher J. “A Truly Bizarre Lizard.” Madagascar—A World
Apart. http://www.pbs.org/edens/madagascar/creature3.htm (accessed
on July 29, 2004).
“Veiled Chameleon.” Reptiles & Amphibians: Smithsonian National
Zoological Park. http://national http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/
ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Veiledchameleon.cfm (accessed
on July 29, 2004).

ANOLES, IGUANAS,
AND RELATIVES
Iguanidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Iguanidae
species
Iguanids (ee-GWA-nids) range in size from 4 to 72 inches class
(10 centimeters to 2 meters). They have many different body
subclass
types. There are, for example, the squat, toadlike horned lizards
small enough to fit in the palm of a hand; the slim, long-tailed order
anoles (uh-NOH-lees); and the large marine iguanas. A typical monotypic order
iguanid has a long tail and four legs, with five-clawed toes on
each leg. Some have body colors or body patterns that match suborder
their surroundings. They may display bright colors during the ▲ family
mating season. Some iguanids have scales, throat fans, crests
along the back, and fringes on the toes. Certain iguanids have
the ability to lose the tail or part of the tail, to distract or fool
a predator (PREH-duh-ter), an animal that hunts them for food.
Their teeth are placed in grooves within the jaw, rather than
in sockets, or holes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Iguanid lizards are found in North America, Central Amer-
ica, South America, Fiji, the Galápagos Islands, Madagascar,
and the West Indies.
HABITAT
Iguanids live in a variety of habitats. They usually are ter-
restrial, living on land. A few are arboreal, living in trees. Many
prefer arid, or dry, areas. These desert dwellers often seek ter-
ritories, or home areas, with at least some vegetation, rocks, or
other cover to provide escape routes from predators, or animals
Anoles, Iguanas, and Relatives 167

that hunt them for food. Other iguanids seek
wooded areas, including rainforests. An un-
usual habitat is that of the marine iguana,
which lives by the ocean.
DIET
THIS LIZARD WALKS ON WATER Iguanids feed on insects, spiders, and
smaller lizards. A few species, such as the
Brown basilisk lizards are sometimes
desert iguana and the chuckwalla, eat leaves,
called “Jesus” lizards. When escaping a
fruits, and flowers. The marine lizard eats
predator, they may appear to walk upright
(AL-jee), plantlike organisms that live
on water. These lizards have a fringe of
mainly in water.
scales on their hind toes. These fringes
temporarily trap a bubble of air beneath the
lizards’ feet, which keeps them from BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
sinking if they run quickly enough across Iguanids are cold-blooded, which means
ponds or streams. that their body temperature varies with the
outside weather. At night, when it is cool,
many species sleep in burrows. In the morn-
ing, iguanids emerge from their burrows and rest in the sun to
warm up. They are often seen stretched out on a rock. It is nec-
essary for them to raise their body temperature to prepare for
the day’s activities of feeding, perhaps breeding, and escaping
ever-present predators. All iguanids are diurnal (die-UR-nuhl),
meaning that they are active during the daytime. If the tem-
perature grows too warm, these lizards find a shady spot so that
they do not become overheated.
Iguanids have many predators, among them, snakes, birds,
cats, rats, and wild dogs. When a predator approaches, some
species remain still and blend into the surroundings. Others are
quick runners and dash off almost immediately. They hide un-
der rocks or between thick leaves and bury themselves in sand.
A few species use special tactics to avoid their predators. The
common chuckwalla fixes itself into a crack between rocks and
then puffs up, making itself nearly impossible to remove.
Horned lizards puff up too, which makes their spines stand up
even higher. Biting predators will avoid the sharp spines. The
zebra-tailed lizard keeps changing direction when it runs, as a
way to confuse its pursuer. Other lizards squirm under the sand,
so they cannot be seen.
Iguanids have lively mating behavior. Body movements in-
clude head bobbing, pushups, and open-mouth displays. Some
species inflate their chests and throats and extend their dewlaps,

or throat flaps, showing bright colors. They might also curl
their tails or even show bright body colors.
After courtship, mating takes place. Most iguanids are
oviparous (oh-VIH-puh-rus), meaning that they lay eggs. From
one to sixty eggs may be laid at one time, and egg laying may
take place once or as many as four times a year. The young
hatch from the eggs in one to two months. A few iguanids, such
as the blue spiny lizard and the short-horned lizard, give birth
to live young. Usually, the parents do not care for them. The
young must find their own shelter and food immediately after
birth. A few species, such as the rhinoceros iguana, will pro-
tect their egg groups for a short while. They may guard the
nests with threatening body displays or even physical attacks.
IGUANIDS AND PEOPLE

Iguanids do not interact with people in the wild. Habitat de-
struction from the clearing of forests and commercial land de-
velopment can wipe out the places where the lizards hide and
breed. Too much collecting for the legal and illegal pet trade
causes problems for some species. Certain mammals (such as
dogs and cats) that enter their territory along with humans can
kill the lizards. In some areas people use larger lizards as food.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists two types of
iguanids as Extinct, meaning that none remains alive. Six
species are Critically Endangered, which means that they face
an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Four species
are Endangered, which means that they are less endangered but
still face a very high risk of extinction. These ten species might
soon disappear from Earth. Twelve iguanids are Vulnerable,
that is, they face threats that put them at high risk of extinc-
tion and they could vanish unless they are protected. One
iguanid is Near Threatened, meaning that there is a risk that
they will be threatened with extinction. There is not enough
information to judge the status of seventeen other species. At-
tempts are being made to gather the eggs of endangered and
threatened iguanids from the wild and raise the young in pro-
tected sites, such as zoos.

Cape spinytail iguana (Ctenosaura hemilopha)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS CAPE SPINYTAIL IGUANA
Ctenosaura hemilopha
Physical characteristics: Cape spinytail iguanas are gray-brown,

large, stocky, wrinkled lizards. They have a ridged, long tail and a
crest of scales along the top of the back. Males have a larger crest
than do females. An adult can reach 3 feet (1 meters) in length from
the head to the tip of the tail.
Geographic range: Cape spinytail iguanas are found in northwest-

ern Mexico, including the state of Sonora, and the islands of the Gulf
of California.
Habitat: Cape spinytail iguanas live in areas with many rocky

crevices, or cracks; these areas often also have trees.

Cape spinytail iguanas live in
areas with many rocky crevices,
often also with trees. (©Bud
Lehnhausen/Photo Researchers,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: Cape spinytail iguanas eat flowers, fruits, and leaves. They feed
only during the day.
Behavior and reproduction: Cape spinytail iguanas are territorial,

protecting their dwelling areas. If threatened, they usually run into
rocky crevices. If such a hiding place is not available, they can fight
with their jaws and legs. These lizards usually live in groups. Each
group has a dominant male, one who acts as leader. There are also
less-strong males and several females. After mating, females lay twenty-
four or more eggs in a group. The eggs hatch in about three months.
Cape spinytail iguanas and people: These iguanas are sold in the
pet trade.
Conservation status: Cape spinytail iguanas are not threatened.

■

Common chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus)
COMMON CHUCKWALLA
Sauromalus obesus
Physical characteristics: Chuckwallas are large, big-bellied lizards

that can weigh up to 2 pounds (1 kilograms) and can reach a length
of 16 inches (40.6 centimeters). They have a thick tail that is as long
as the head and body together. The tail narrows to a blunt point at
the end. Chuckwalla skin feels like sandpaper. There are folds of loose
skin on the sides of the neck and body. Adult males have a black
head, shoulders, and legs. The body color is red or gray, with yellow
toward tail. Females and young have gray and yellow bands.
Geographic range: Chuckwallas are found in the United States.
Habitat: Chuckwallas live in rocky deserts with plenty of hiding

places.

Diet: Chuckwallas feed on leaves, flowers, and
fruits.
Behavior and reproduction: The chuckwalla is

cold-blooded; their body temperature changes with
the environment. Chuckwallas spend cool desert
nights in burrows, which tend to remain warm. In
the morning, when the sun comes up, they come
out of their burrows. To warm up, chuckwallas
bask, or stretch out, in the sun. They place their
bodies sidewise to the sun, to warm them up more
quickly. They bask until they reach a temperature
of 100°F (38°C). Then they begin searching for
food. If the surrounding temperature becomes too
hot, chuckwallas hide under rocks or bushes until
the weather cools down.
When disturbed, the chuckwalla hides in a rock
crevice. It begins gulping air. The loose skin folds
around its neck and the sides of its body puff up,
until the chuckwalla becomes larger. For the mo-
ment, it is jammed in the rock crevice, and this
makes it almost impossible for a predator to pull it out. If, however, Chuckwallas are large, big-
a predator does manage to grab a chuckwalla by the tail, the tail sep- bellied lizards that can weigh up
to 2 pounds (1 kilograms). (Wai
arates from the body and wriggles. This distracts the predator, letting Ping Wu/Bruce Coleman Inc.
the chuckwalla escape. A new tail grows back. Reproduced by permission.)
Chuckwallas make a combination of movements to defend a ter-
ritory or attract a mate: head bobbing, open-mouth displays, and body
pushups. In the summer, females place five to ten eggs in rock
crevices. The eggs hatch two months later, in early fall.
Chuckwallas and people: Chuckwallas are sold in the pet trade and
sometimes are eaten as food.
Conservation status: Chuckwallas are not threatened with

extinction. ■

Green anole (Anolis carolinensis)
GREEN ANOLE
Anolis carolinensis
Physical characteristics: Green anoles are slim lizards with narrow,

pointed heads and long, thin tails that can be twice as long as the rest
of the animal. Body sizes range in length from 5 to 8 inches (12.7–20.3
centimeters). The body color can vary from shades of brown to shades
of green. Males are larger than females. Both males and females have
dewlaps, or throat fans, but the male dewlap is much larger. Dewlaps
can inflate, or enlarge. An inflated dewlap is reddish-pink. Green
anoles are sometimes called “chameleons” (kuh-MEEL-yuns), owing
to their ability to change color, but they are not true chameleons.
Geographic range: The green anole is the only anole that inhabits
the United States. These anoles are also found in Cuba and on
Caribbean islands.

Habitat: The green anole lives on the ground but
suns itself in small trees and shrubs, on vines and
tall grasses, and within palm fronds. It likes verti-
cal surfaces, or ones that stand upright, such as
fence posts and walls.
Diet: The green anole hunts and eats small in-

sects and spiders and laps water from leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: Green anoles are ac-

tive in the daytime. If they are grabbed or threat-
ened, their tails can fall off. A new tail will grow,
but the new tail usually does not match the previ-
ous one in color or size.
During the breeding, or mating, season, males

court females by facing them. They bob their heads
up and down, and expand, or make larger, the
bright pink dewlap under the throat. Next, the male may approach Green anoles are sometimes
the female with a stiff-legged walk. If the female accepts the male, she called “chameleons” owing to
their ability to change color, but
stays still and arches her neck. If she does not accept him, she runs
they are not true chameleons.
away. After mating, female lays single eggs every two weeks, for a to- (©David M. Schleser/Nature’s
tal of about ten eggs per breeding season. She places the eggs in warm, Images/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
moist spots, such as leaf litter. Young appear in five to seven weeks.
Green anoles and people: Green anoles are popular pets.
Conservation status: Green anoles are common in the southeast-

ern United States. ■
Books:
Arnosky, Jim. All about Lizards. New York: Scholastic, 2004.
Bartlett, Richard D., and Patricia Pope Bartlett. Lizard Care from A to Z.
Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series, 1997.
Bartlett, Richard D., and Patricia Bartlett. Anoles: Facts & Advice on Care
and Breeding. Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series, 2001.
Behler, John L. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American
Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.
Claybourne, Anna. The Secret World of Lizards. Chicago: Raintree
Publishers, 2003.
Conant, R., J. T. Collins, I. H. Conant, T. R. Johnson, and S. L. Collins.
A Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians of Eastern & Central North
America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.

Lamar, William. The World’s Most Spectacular Reptiles & Amphibians.
Books, 1999.
Periodicals:
“Amazing Lizards!” National Geographic (March 1978): 8–11.
“Color These Animals before They Change.” National Geographic (March
1980): 10–15.
Hazen-Hammond, S. “Horny Toads Enjoy a Special Place in Western
Hearts.” Smithsonian 25 (1994): 82–86.
Hughes, Catherine D. “Where Am I?” National Geographic Kids (July/
August 2004): 32–35.
“Iguanas.” Ranger Rick (August 1996): 8–9.
“Marine Iguanas.” Ranger Rick (November 2003): 18–20.
“Shrinking Iguanas.” National Geographic (September 2000).
Web sites:
“Anoles.” Melissa Kaplan’s Herp Care Collection. http://www.anapsid
.org/anole.html (accessed on July 31, 2004).
“Glossary of Iguana Terms.” Green Iguana Society. http://www
.greenigsociety.org/glossary.htm (accessed on August 3, 2004).
“Green Anole.” Texas Parks and Wildlife. http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/
nature/wild/reptiles/anole/ (accessed on July 31, 2004).
“Green Anole Care Sheet.” AOL Hometown. http://members.aol.com/
Mite37/TPFGA.html (accessed on July 31, 2004).
“Marine Iguanas.” Galápagos Geology on the Web. http://www.geo.cornell
.edu/geology/GalápagosWWW/MarineIguanas.html (accessed on August
3, 2004).

GECKOS AND PYGOPODS
Gekkonidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Gekkonidae
Number of species: 1,109 species
Geckos range in size from 0.67 inch (17 millimeters) to 14 class
inches (35.6 centimeters) in length. The smallest gecko weighs
subclass
about 0.07 ounce (1.98 grams). The largest gecko, which lives
in rainforests, can weigh up to 1.5 pounds (680 grams). While order
most geckos are brown, gray, or black, a few are yellow, red, monotypic order
blue, orange, or green. They may be plain, or they may have
stripes or spots. Colors on the head and neck may be different suborder
from the colors on the back. The nocturnal geckos, or those ▲ family
that are active at night, are plainer than the diurnal (die-UR-
nuhl) geckos, or those active in the daytime, which tend to
have brighter colors.
Geckos usually have flattened bodies and four short limbs,
or legs. Each limb has five toes. Some species have claws on
each foot. Other types of geckoes have widened toe pads. These
toe pads are made to allow the gecko to stick to smooth sur-
faces. Geckos have large eyes that are open all the time. Except
for a few species, the eyes do not have movable eyelids. Instead,
the eyes are protected by clear, see-through scales, or thin coat-
ings. Geckos clean these scales regularly with their long
tongues. Most geckos are nocturnal. These geckos have verti-
cal pupils (PYU-puhls), meaning that they are positioned
straight up and down, in the center of their eyes. Diurnal geckos
have round pupils in the center of their eyes. Pupils are parts
of the eye that allow light to enter.
Gecko skin is soft and loose and typically covered with gran-
ular, or grainy, scales that do not overlap. A few species have
Geckos and Pygopods 177

smooth skin. Gecko tails come in varied shapes. Many geckos
have tails shaped like carrots or turnips. Some have rounder
tails that are used to store food.
Pygopods (PIE-go-pods) are also called “snake lizards,” limb-
less lizards,” and “flap-footed lizards.” They range in length
from less than 8 inches (20.3 centimeters) to 2 feet (61 cen-
timeters). Their colors range from pale yellow to dark brown,
with or without a pattern of spots or stripes.
Pygopods have a narrow face and an almost snakelike ap-
pearance. The snout, or nose area, is pointed. The eyes are al-
ways open, protected by transparent, or clear, scales. Most
pygopods do not have an outside ear opening. They have no
front limbs and only flaplike hind limbs. Their long tails break
off easily.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pygopods are found in Australia and New Guinea. Geckos
are found in the tropics and subtropics, the warmer areas of
the world. These areas include India, Nepal, Burma, the
Malaysian peninsula, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, New
Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Central America, and South America.
Geckos and skinks are often the only land reptiles on remote
islands in the ocean. A few gecko species have been found in
southern Europe, southern Siberia, and the southwestern
United States.
HABITAT
Geckos live in a variety of habitats. Their preferred living ar-
eas include coniferous forests, with pine and other evergreen
trees, and deciduous forests, where trees, such as maples, lose
their leaves each year. They also live in rainforests, tropical
forests that get at least 100 inches of rain per year; this type of
forest has many very tall evergreen trees that form a thick um-
brella of leaves and branches overhead. Geckos also live in
deserts and in grassland, or meadows. Pygopods live in desert
and in grassland.
DIET
Nearly all geckos eat insects and spiders. A few larger species
eat small snakes, small lizards, and baby birds. In some habi-
tats, geckos also eat plant pollen and ripe fruit. Smaller py-
gopods are insect eaters, and larger ones eat snakes and lizards.

Most geckos are nocturnal. During the day
they typically hide under tree bark or in tree
hollows. In the early evening they come out to
feed and to look for mates. The diurnal species
are most active in the late morning and mid-
dle of the afternoon. In tropical areas, which WALKING UP WALLS
are warm throughout the year, geckos stay ac- Scientists have investigated how geckos
tive all the time. In other areas, geckos enter can walk up shiny walls and across ceilings.
burrows or rock cracks and remain there most They found that geckos have millions of tiny
of the time during the cool season. foot hairs, called “setae” (SEE-tee), on each
Geckos typically live by themselves; only toe pad. The tips of these setae are very
a few types live in groups. Some species are sticky. Geckos can hang from a wet or dry
seen around peoples’ homes. Males defend ceiling attached by just one toe. How do
their feeding and resting places by using they get their feet off the ceiling and move?
warning sounds, usually many clicks and Scientists think that they peel foot hairs off
chirps. Defense methods include running like tape.
away; squirting a sticky fluid at predators, or
animals that hunt them to eat them; biting;
and shedding their tails. A gecko’s tail will
continue to wriggle after it is shed, fooling the predator and al-
lowing the gecko to escape. Some gecko species also can shed
body skin if they are grabbed by other animals. This skin re-
grows, as do the tails.
Geckos are the most vocal lizards, meaning that they make
the most sounds. Most geckos make several different sounds,
including barking, croaking, squeaking, and chirping. The gi-
ant Asian Tokay gecko makes a loud noise that sounds to some
people like “geh-oh.” It is possibly from this sound that the
gecko gets its name.
During mating season, the males of some species have vio-
lent fights over females.
After mating, most gecko females lay a nest of two hard-shelled
or leathery eggs. Some tropical species lay eggs throughout the
year, and others have just one clutch, or nest of eggs. Some lay
several egg groups within a mating season. Eggs are placed un-
der loose bark or under a rock, where it is slightly damper than
it is in the open air. Hatching occurs in six to ten weeks. A few
species give birth to living young instead of laying eggs.
Because pygopods are secretive, not much is known about
them. They hide in rocky areas, in tall grass, and in burrows.

Some are active during the day. The desert species move about
at night. After mating, females lay two eggs per clutch.
GECKOS, PYGOPODS, AND PEOPLE

Pygopods seldom have anything to do with people. Some
gecko species live near human homes. They are valuable in
insect control, eating mosquitoes, flies, and cockroaches. In
some areas of the world, deforestation, or the cutting down of
trees, destroys their habitat. The killing of geckos by rats, cats,
and other predators has led to declines in the numbers of geckos
in some areas. In parts of Asia, geckos are used in medicines.
Geckos, especially the brightly colored ones, are collected for
the legal and illegal pet trade. A few species breed, or multiply,
readily in captivity and do well.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The conservation status of most species is unknown. Because
of illegal pet trade collection, the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) lists one brightly colored group of geckos as Endan-
gered and internationally protected.

Western banded gecko (Coleonyx variegatus)
SPECIES
WESTERN BANDED GECKO ACCOUNTS
Coleonyx variegatus
Physical characteristics: The western banded gecko, also known

as the banded gecko, is 4.5–6 inches long (11–15 centimeters) from
its head to the end of its tail. The skin on its back is made up of small,
grainy scales. The skin is delicate, soft, and loose. The gecko’s back
and tail are cream colored, with wide black or brown stripes that run
from side to side. The tail is long, and the head is somewhat large.
The eyes have eyelids that move, with pupils that are vertical.
Geographic range: Western banded geckos are found in the south-

western United States and northern Mexico.

Western banded geckos eat
insects and spiders. Surplus
food may be stored as fat in the
tail. (Illustration by Patricia
Ferrer. Reproduced by
permission.)
Habitat: Western banded geckos are found in dry desert dune, or

hill, areas; dry juniper-oak woodlands; desert areas with small shrubs;
and rocky desert sites.
Diet: Western banded geckos eat insects and spiders. Surplus, or

extra, food may be stored as fat in the tail.
Behavior and reproduction: Western banded geckos move about

only at night. They rest during the day under rocks or within the bur-
rows, or underground homes, of small animals. During the day these
areas are damper than areas above ground. Several of these geckos
may rest together in the burrows. If the burrow is disturbed, the west-
ern banded gecko may twitch its tail like a cat. If it is attacked, it runs
away quickly. It may leave its tail behind to distract the attacker.
During the mating season, western banded gecko males face each
other and make threatening movements. After mating, females lay two
or more egg groups, with two eggs in each group. Hatching takes
place in thirty to forty-five days.
Western banded geckos and people: Western banded geckos are

kept as pets, and they have been successfully bred in captivity. They
have no other human interaction.
Conservation status: The western banded gecko is not threatened.

■

House gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus)
HOUSE GECKO
Hemidactylus frenatus
Physical characteristics: The house gecko is grayish, pinkish, or

pale brown with darker flecks. The color may vary, depending on the
surrounding temperature. It also may vary depending on the surface
on which the gecko is resting; this gecko can blend with its back-
ground, such as a tree branch or a leafy area. The body is flattened.
This gecko grows to 2.6 inches (66 millimeters) in length, from the
head to the base of the tail. It has toe pads on each of its toes, and
the first toe is smaller than the rest.
Geographic range: House geckos exist in Southeast Asia, the Philip-

pines, Taiwan, and much of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. It
was introduced, or brought by people, into tropical Australia, eastern
Africa, Mexico, and the United States.
Habitat: These geckos live among many types of vegetation, or

greenery, including tropical rainforest and dry scrubland, or land cov-
ered with low trees and bushes. They are often found around human
homes and rubbish dumps.
Diet: House geckos eat insects.

A house gecko can blend with its
background, such as a tree
branch or a leafy area.
(Illustration by Patricia Ferrer.
Behavior and reproduction: This gecko is active at night, although

it may be seen outside on cloudy days. Male house geckos can be un-
friendly and mean. This is especially true when there are many of
them in one area and plenty of food. They can produce several types
of clicking sounds, including “chi-chak.”
After mating, females can store sperm (SPUHRM), the male re-
productive cells that fertilize the female’s eggs. The females lay groups
of hard-shelled eggs throughout the year, and the eggs hatch in forty-
five to seventy days.
House geckos and people: This species is often found in and

around people’s homes.
Conservation status: The species itself is not threatened, but it may

cause a decrease in native geckos in the areas where it is introduced.
House geckos are unfriendly and compete for the food supply of other
gecko species. ■
Books:
Bartlett, Richard D. Geckos: In Search of Reptiles and Amphibians. New
York: E. J. Brill, 1988.

Bartlett, R. D., and Patricia P. Bartlett. Geckos: Everything about Selection,
Care, Nutrition, Diseases, Breeding, and Behavior. Hauppauge, NY:
Barron’s Educational Series, 1995.
Behler, John L. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American
Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Knopf, 1979.
Capula, Massimo. Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1989.
Hernandez-Divers, Sonia. Geckos (Keeping Unusual Pets). Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann Library, 2002.
Mattison, Chris. The Care of Reptiles and Amphibians in Captivity.
London: Blandford Press, 1987.
Miller, Jake. The Leopard Gecko. New York, NY: PowerKids Press, 2003.
Sprackland, Robert G., Jr. All about Lizards. Neptune City, NJ: T. F. H.
Publications, 1977.
Books, 1999.
Periodicals
“At Home in the Rocks, a New Gecko Emerges.” National Geographic
(June 1997): Geographica.
“Barking Gecko.” National Geographic (October 1989): 26–29.
“Fat-Tailed Gecko.” Ranger Rick (May 1994): 14–15.
“Leopard Gecko.” Ranger Rick (November 1994): 4–7.
“Where’d the Gecko Go?” National Geographic World (July 1985): 38.
Web sites
Autumn, Kellar. “Gecko Story.” http://www.lclark.edu/autumn/dept/
geckostory.html (accessed on August 8, 2004).
Muir, Hazel. “Minute Gecko Matches Smallest Living Reptile Record.”
NewScientist.com. December 3, 2001. http://www.newscientist.com/
news/news.jsp?id=ns99991635&lpos;=related_article2 (accessed on
August 9, 2004).
Schweitzer, Sophia. “Guardian Geckos.” Coffee Times. http://www
.coffeetimes.com/geckos.htm (accessed on August 9, 2004).

BLINDSKINKS
Dibamidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Dibamidae
class Blindskinks (also called “blind lizards,” “blind skinks,” “leg-
less lizards,” and “wormlizards”) are small to medium-sized
subclass
lizards with a slim, snakelike form. They are fewer than 10
order inches (25.4 centimeters) long. Their body colors range from
monotypic order pale pink to light brown, with the under area, or belly, some-
times a bit paler. Their bodies are covered with shiny, smooth,
suborder and squarish overlapping scales. The scales on the head are
▲ family large and platelike, especially on the snout, or nose area, and
lower jaws.
The heads of these reptiles are blunt, not pointed. The
bones of the skull are fused, or firmly joined together. This
makes the head area very solid, which helps in burrowing,
or digging holes. Their tiny eyes look like dark specks and
have no lids. The eyes are hidden under a head scale that
does not move. The nostrils, or nose openings, are small and
placed at the tip of the snout. These lizards have no ear open-
ings that can be seen. Their ears are covered with scales.
There are only a few lower teeth, set in sockets, or hollow
openings. The teeth are small and pointed, curving backward.
The tongue is short and wide and is not divided at the tip.
The tip of the tongue does not retract, or pull back, com-
pletely.
The tails of blindskinks are very short and blunt. They are
able to break off at various places to deter predators (PREH-
duh-ters), or animals that hunt the blindskink for food. Blind-
skinks do not have any working limbs, or legs. Males have

small, flaplike hind limbs, or back legs. These
limbs may be used in mating. Females have
no limbs or flaps. Pectoral (PECK-ter-uhl),
or chest, bones are absent. The hip-bone area
is very small. These features give the blind-
skink its slim shape.
WHO ARE THE RELATIVES?
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE Scientists are still trying to find out more
The majority of blindskink species are about the blindskinks’ evolution (eh-vuh-LU-
found in eastern India; southern Thailand; shun), or the changes they have undergone
Borneo; Vietnam; Laos; Kampuchea; the to adapt to their environment over time.
Nicobar, Sunda, and Andaman Islands; These are very unusual lizards, both in
southern China; Sumatra; Malaysia; most of appearance and in living habits. Most
Indonesia; the Philippines; and westernmost species are known from fewer than 20
New Guinea. A single species is found in a specimens, or examples. Over the years
very small area of northeastern Mexico. scientists have proposed that blindskinks
are related closely to snakes; geckos;
HABITAT skinks; carnivorous (KAR-nih-vuh-rus), or
meat-eating, anguid lizards; and worm
Almost all blindskinks live in rainforests.
lizards, which look like earthworms. There is
Most species require damp humus (HYU-
still no definite answer.
mus) or broken up, loose, rotting plant ma-
terial. During the dry season these species of
blindskink burrow beneath rocks or logs.
The blindskink of northeastern Mexico has adapted to a wider
type of living area. It is found in semiarid deciduous (di-SID-
joo-wus) brushland and open scrubland, or areas with bushes
and small trees that lose their leaves in dry or cold weather.
This lizard also lives in desert areas, often near ant and termite
nests. It also inhabits pine-oak forests. It has been found be-
neath rocks, in or under rotting logs, in loose litter, and in the
decayed, or rotting, bases of yuccas, a treelike plant that grows
in dry areas.
DIET
Blindskinks feed on tiny insects, such as ants and termites
and possibly spiders.

Very little is known about the living habits of blindskinks.
They are secretive lizards, preferring to hide. Blindskinks live
on the forest floor, often underneath stones, but sometimes
Blindskinks 187
A blindskink on the forest floor
in Vietnam. (Robert W. Murphy.
underneath leaf litter or moving about underground. They en-

ter the earth through cracks in the soil or by way of tunnels
made by other animals. In soft, loose soils or rotting leaf lit-
ter their slim body shape and rigid head allow them to dig
their own tunnels. Blindskinks may take up residence in tun-
nels made by other insects or in the underground homes made
by insects that live in groups, such as termites.
Nothing is known of the mating or egg-laying habits of the
blindskinks living in Mexico. Little is known of the mating
habits of the rainforest species. It is believed that after mating,
the females lay just one egg. An egg may be laid more than
once a year. The eggs are soft and somewhat long. Later they
become harder and shaped more like eggs.
BLINDSKINKS AND PEOPLE

Blindskinks do not interact with people. Few people ever see
them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Blindskinks are not threatened. Many species suffer from loss
of their habitat, or their preferred living area, as the result of
movements of people, farming, tree removal, and pollution, or
poison, waste, or other material that makes the environment
dirty and harmful to health. There are no conservation efforts
under way to protect blindskinks.

Blindskink (Dibamus bourreti)

Books:
Arnosky, Jim. All about Lizards. New York: Scholastic, 2004.
Bartlett, Richard D. In Search of Reptiles and Amphibians. New York:
E. J. Brill, 1988.
Cogger, Harold, and Richard Zweifel, eds. Reptiles and Amphibians. San
Francisco: Weldon Owens, 1992.
Halliday, Tim, and Kraig Adler, eds. Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Amphibians. New York: Facts on File, 1986.
Pough, F. Harvey, Robin M. Andrews, John E. Cadle, Martha L. Crump,
Alan H. Savitzky, and Kentwood D. Wells. Herpetology. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
Riccuiti, Edward R. Reptiles. Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press, 1993.
Sprackland, Robert G., Jr. All about Lizards. Neptune City, NJ: T. F. H.
Publications, 1977.
Blindskinks 189
WORMLIZARDS
Amphisbaenidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Amphisbaenia
Family: Amphisbaenidae
class The members of this family, known simply as wormlizards,
subclass are long, thin, legless animals. Their scales are arranged in rings
around the body with each ring separated from the next by a
order shallow groove. This ring and groove pattern makes them look
monotypic order much like earthworms, even though the worms lack scales. In
suborder some species of wormlizard, the head is round. In others, it
may be shaped like a shovel, or in some cases the snout may
▲ family come to a point. They have no openings for their ears, as the
lizards do, and they have only the smallest of eyes showing be-
low a see-through scale, if they are visible at all. They have no
legs, but all species in this family have tiny bits of hip bones
inside their bodies. They do not, however, have a sternum
(STER-num), which is the bone at the front of the chest that
in most animal species connects to the ribs.
Most wormlizards reach about 10 to 16 inches (25 to 40 cen-
timeters) long as adults, but some species are much smaller or
much larger. The smallest species lives in Africa and only grows
to 4 inches (10 centimeters) long, while the largest, known as
the white-bellied wormlizard, can reach more than 32 inches
(80 centimeters). A wormlizard’s tail, which can look much like
the rest of the body, actually starts at the vent, a slit-like open-
ing on the underside of the animal. The tails in these animals
are very short, usually less than one-tenth of the overall body
length. The tails may be rounded, pointed at the end, or have a
flattened shape. Many of the 160 species of wormlizards have
about the same color: pale pink or pale orange-pink, sometimes

with a whitish belly. Some species, however,
are colored brown, yellow, purple, or gray,
and a few even have eye-catching black-and-
white patterns. The males and females of each
species look alike.
The wormlizards in this family have many IS IT A WORM OR A LIZARD?

of the same features of three other families
of animals: the mole-limbed wormlizards, Is a wormlizard more like a worm that
the Florida wormlizards, and the spade- looks like a lizard, or a lizard that looks
headed wormlizards. These four families all like a worm? Animals are split into two major
fall under the group called amphisbaenians groups: vertebrates, which have backbones,
(am-fizz-BAY-nee-ens). Like the worm- and invertebrates, which do not have
lizards in this family, many of them look backbones. Wormlizards and lizards have
much like earthworms, and all except the backbones, but earthworms do not, so
mole-limbed wormlizards are legless. Inter- wormlizards are more like lizards than
estingly, all wormlizards have only one lung, earthworms. In fact, both wormlizards and
or one large lung and one tiny lung, and one lizards are reptiles, but wormlizards are not
larger tooth in the middle of the upper jaw. true lizards. Instead, wormlizards are a
In those that have eyes, they have no eyelids. unique group of reptiles that mostly live
They also have a forked tongue and a thick, underground, have rings of scales separated
strong skull. They have an unusual hearing by shallow grooves, and have a number of
system that allows them to pick up even other characteristics that separate them
slight vibrations underground. In this sys- from the lizards.
tem, a little structure attaches the ear to tis-
sue on the side of the face. When they are
slithering about, they can feel vibrations through the ground
with the bottom of the face. The vibration then runs up the tis-
sue and to the ear, which hears it. This ability, which lets the
wormlizards hear even small movements made by other ani-
mals, comes in particularly handy when the wormlizards are
looking for ants and other insects to eat.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Wormlizards live in both the western and eastern hemi-
spheres, including South America, Central America, the West
Indies, Africa, Asia, and Europe. They tend to live in tropical
areas or in spots with a slightly less warm, subtropical climate.
HABITAT
Wormlizards stay out of sight most of the time, either re-
maining in their burrows or beneath rocks or leaf litter on the
ground. Some of them make themselves at home in the nests
Wormlizards 191
of ants or termites, possibly even laying their eggs or having
their young there. They will come out on the surface after par-
ticularly heavy rains that flood their underground homes.
DIET
Wild wormlizards eat mainly ants, termites, beetles, grubs
(young beetles), caterpillars, and cockroaches. In one study,
scientists looked inside the stomachs of wormlizards and found
that some were filled with fungi. In another study, they found
one wormlizard that had eaten a lizard, or at least its leg, and
another that had swallowed a burrowing snake—whole. In cap-
tivity, wormlizards will eat other large vertebrates (VER-teh-
brehts), which are animals with backbones, so some people
believe they may do the same in the wild.

Wormlizards are fossorial (foss-OR-ee-ul), which means that
stay underground most of the time. Depending on the shape of
the head, they dig their tunnels in different ways. Those with
a round head butt their heads straight into the dirt like a bat-
tering ram and move forward that way. Other species with
heads shaped like shovels, scoop up dirt onto the top of the
head and then press it into the roof of the tunnel. Those with
sideways-flattened heads, on the other hand, press the head and
the body side to side and force an opening through the soil.
No matter how they make their tunnels, they all use them to
hunt for animals to eat. They mostly hunt by using their ex-
cellent hearing and by smelling. Like other amphisbaenians,
wormlizards have forked tongues that pick up chemicals left
by prey animals. They then touch their tongues to a small open-
ing on the roof of the mouth that opens to a special organ. This
organ, called a Jacobson’s organ, can smell the chemicals.
Although wormlizards stay underground, which protects
them from most predators, they sometimes come under attack.
When this happens, most species can drop the tail, which can
confuse a predator (PREH-duh-ter) enough to give the worm-
lizard time to escape. Unlike many of the lizards that also drop
their tails, wormlizards cannot regrow theirs.
Scientists know little more about their behavior, courtship,
or mating. The females of most species lay eggs, but some give
birth to baby wormlizards. The number of eggs in each clutch
is typically between one and four, although a few species can

lay more than a dozen. Females sometimes lay their eggs inside
ant or termite nests.
WORMLIZARDS AND PEOPLE

Wormlizards and people rarely run across one another.
CONSERVATION STATUS
None of these species is considered endangered or threatened.
Wormlizards 193
White-bellied wormlizard (Amphisbaena alba)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT WHITE-BELLIED WORMLIZARD
Amphisbaena alba
Physical characteristics: Among the largest members of the fam-

ily, the white-bellied wormlizard can grow to 33.4 inches (85 cen-
timeters) long with a body that can reach up to 2 inches (25
centimeters) wide. Adults can, however, be much smaller, growing
to only half that size. Of their total length, only 6 percent is tail. Like
other wormlizards, their scales form rings around the body and give
the animal an earthworm-like appearance. The scales on their back
are small and square. They have a rounded head with one large tooth
and six smaller ones in the front of the upper jaw.

White-bellied wormlizards almost
always stay in underground
tunnels, buried under dead
leaves, or inside the nests of
leaf-cutter ants. (Illustration by
John Megahan. Reproduced by
permission.)
Geographic range: The white-bellied wormlizard lives in Panama,

which is in far southern Central America, in the West Indies, and in
South America east of the Andes Mountains.
Habitat: This burrowing animal almost always stays in its under-

ground tunnels, buried under dead leaves, or inside the nests of leaf-
cutter ants.
Diet: With its strong jaws, the white-bellied wormlizard can eat ani-
mals as large as mice and rats in a scientist’s laboratory. In the wild,
however, they are known only to eat smaller animals, such as ants, ter-
mites, crickets, and other insects, as well as spiders and other inverte-
brates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are animals without backbones.
Behavior and reproduction: Unlike other wormlizards that drop the

tail when they feel threatened, this species cannot. Instead, it curls
up its body so the head and tail are next to one another, and then
raises its head and opens wide its mouth while lifting up and sway-
ing its tail. This behavior makes the wormlizard almost look as if it
has two heads, and, in fact, some people call it a “two-headed snake.”
Females lay eight to 16 eggs at a time, probably once a year during
the dry season.
White-bellied wormlizards and people: White-bellied wormlizards

and people rarely run across one another.

threatened. ■
Wormlizards 195
Books:
Gans, C. Biomechanics: An Approach to Vertebrate Biology. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott Company, 1974.
Halliday, Tim, and Kraig Adler, eds. The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Schwenk, K. “Feeding in Lepidosaurs.” In Feeding: Form, Function, and
Evolution in Tetrapod Vertebrates. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.
Vanzolini, P. E. Evolution, Adaptation and Distribution of the Amphisbaenid
Lizards (Sauria: Amphisbaenidae). Ph.D. diss. Harvard University, 1951.
Web sites:
“Amphisbaenidae.” Innvista. http://www.innvista.com/science/zoology/
reptiles/amphisba.htm (accessed on December 9, 2004).
“Family Amphisbaenidae.” Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/classification/Amphisbaenidae.html (accessed on December
1, 2004).
“The Keeping and Maintenance of Amphisbaenians.” Cyberlizard (UK).
http://www.nafcon.dircon.co.uk/amphisb1.html (accessed on Decem-
ber 1, 2004).
“The ReptiPage: Amphisbaenia.” The ReptiPage. http://reptilis.net/
amphisbaenia/overview.html html (accessed on December 9, 2004).

MOLE-LIMBED
WORMLIZARDS
Bipedidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Bipedidae
The three species of mole-limbed wormlizards in this fam- class
ily are sometimes confused with earthworms, but they have subclass
scales and front legs. They are one of four families that fall into
the group known as wormlizards or amphisbaenians (am-fizz- order
BAY-nee-ens). In all amphisbaenians, small rectangular scales monotypic order
form circular rings around their long thin bodies. A worm has
rings around its body, too, but it has no scales and lacks most suborder
of the other features of wormlizards. Mole-limbed wormlizards, ▲ family
like other amphisbaenians, have one large tooth in the middle
of the upper jaw, a thick and strong skull, small and sometimes
invisible eyes, and a forked tongue. They do not, however, have
ear holes or eyelids, like most lizards do. The mole-limbed
wormlizards are different from other wormlizards, because they
have a pair of small but strong front legs right behind the short
rounded head. In addition, one of their clawed fingers has an
extra bony piece, compared to the fingers of other reptiles.
Mole-limbed wormlizards use their strong front legs, and prob-
ably this extra finger bone, to help them dig. Some scientists
believe that, because the mole-limbed wormlizards have front
legs, they are probably the most primitive of all the amphis-
baenians. Other scientists disagree. These questions will no
doubt continue, since no one has yet found a single fossil of
any member of this family. Although mole-limbed wormlizards
do not have hind legs, the skeleton still has some bits of hip
bone and a tiny nub of thigh bone.
Mole-limbed wormlizards grow to 4.5 to 9.4 inches (11.5 to
24 centimeters) long and at the middle of the body are about
Mole-limbed Wormlizards 197

0.27 to 0.39 inches (7 to 10 millimeters)
across. Only one-tenth to one-fifth of the
body length is tail. The body is very bland-
looking with no pattern and is colored pale
pink, sometimes with a slightly orange tint.
Individuals occasionally have a whiter belly.
WHAT DO THEY EAT? This animal sheds its skin (actually just the
outer layer of skin) once in a while. When it
In many cases, scientists learn about the
sheds, the skin layer comes off in a single
diets of animals by watching them eat. When
piece, just like it does in most snakes.
the animal eats at night or underground,
however, their food habits can remain a GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
mystery. This is true of the mole-limbed
The three species of mole-limbed worm-
wormlizards. Instead of trying to catch a peek
lizard, or ajolote (ah-joe-LOW-tay) as they are
of one of these hard-to-find animals dining
often called, live in western Mexico. Depend-
in the wild, scientists sometimes collect their
ing on the species, they may make their homes
droppings. Droppings, also called feces (FEE-
in Baja California, Guerro, or Michoacán.
sees), contain clues to the animal’s diet,
such as bits of food that the animal could HABITAT
not digest. If the wormlizard ate an insect,
Mole-limbed wormlizards are found along
for example, the droppings might contain a
the coast in deserts and dry shrubby areas,
little piece of the insect’s leg. In addition,
in dried streambeds, or in the shoreline soils
scientists sometimes find a dead animal in
of streams and rivers. They usually remain
the wild and cut open its stomach to see
in their underground burrows but sometimes
what is inside. Through these two methods,
crawl above ground, especially at night.
they can learn what even the shyest of
animals eat. DIET
Mole-limbed wormlizards are like many
other underground-living, or fossorial (foss-
OR-ee-ul), animals in that their diet is something of a mystery.
Scientists have not watched them feed but have occasionally
caught them and looked at what was in their stomachs. From
these scraps of partially digested food, they have learned that
the mole-limbed wormlizards will eat ants, termites, grubs, and
other invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are animals
without backbones. These species find their food underground
or beneath logs, rotting leaves, and other things that cover the
ground by following chemicals trails that the invertebrates leave
behind. Mole-limbed wormlizards pick up these chemicals with
the tongue. The tongue then places the chemical odors on a lit-
tle opening, or duct, on the roof of the mouth that connects to
a special organ. This organ, called a Jacobson’s organ, helps
them smell the chemicals.

These three species spend most of their time in the under-
ground tunnels that they dig. They dig their tunnels with their
front legs and with their heads, typically starting new tunnels
with their legs and then switching to their heads to make them
longer and deeper. When they are digging with their heads,
they lay the front legs along the sides of the body. Their tun-
nels can wander through the soil, sometimes opening under-
neath rocks or logs at the surface, scooting along less than an
inch (2.5 centimeters) underground, or dropping down to al-
most 8 inches (20 centimeters) deep. At night, they may leave
their tunnels and crawl about above ground, but they rarely
venture out during the daytime. By living underground, they
avoid most predators. If a predator (PREH-duh-ter) does man-
age to capture one, the mole-limbed wormlizard is able to drop
its tail. Unlike many other lizards, however, it does not regrow
its tail.
Females of all three species lay eggs, usually one to four at
a time. Some may only have young every other year. Females
in two of the three species lay their eggs in January, and the
eggs hatch three months later. Females of the third species lay
their eggs in July, and the eggs hatch two months later.
MOLE-LIMBED WORMLIZARDS AND PEOPLE

People rarely see these animals. Occasionally, a person may
turn over a rock or log and see a mole-limbed wormlizard for
a few seconds until it quickly slinks back into its tunnel and
disappears. Although people rarely think about them, the
wormlizards may be helpful to humans because they eat ter-
mites and other so-called pest animals.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Scientists still have much to learn about these animals; how-
ever, they are not now considered endangered or threatened.

Two-legged wormlizard (Bipes biporus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT TWO-LEGGED WORMLIZARD
Bipes biporus
Physical characteristics: Colored very pale pink or orangish-pink,

and sometimes with a whitish belly, the two-legged wormlizard has two
front legs, each with five claws. Adults can reach 7.5 to 8.3 inches (19
to 21 centimeters) long, including a short tail. The tail looks much like
the rest of the body but actually begins at the vent, a slit-like opening
on the underside of the animal. In this species, the tail is about one-
tenth as long as the rest of the body. In other words, a 7.5-inch-long
(19-centimeter-long) wormlizard has a tail about 0.75 inches (1.9 cen-
timeters) long. It is a thin animal, and at the middle of its body, it only
measures about one-quarter of an inch (6 to 7 millimeters) across.
Geographic range: It makes its home along the western side of the
Baja California peninsula in Mexico.

People rarely see these
wormlizards, unless they happen
to turn over a rock, a pile of
leaves, or some other hiding
spot where one is lying.
(Illustration by John Megahan.
Habitat: The two-legged wormlizard lives underground in sandy

soils usually around the roots of certain shrubs called mesquite (mess-
KEET). Their tunnels are usually very shallow—less than an inch (2.5
centimeters) deep—but they sometimes drop to about 6 inches (15
centimeters) under the surface.
Diet: They search underground for ants, termites, and the larvae
(LAR-vee) of insects to eat. Larvae are newly hatched insects that usu-
ally have soft bodies. Grubs, for example, are the larvae of beetles. At
night, they also look for food, including insects and spiders, above
ground.
Behavior and reproduction: These animals stay in their shallow

tunnels most of the time. In the mornings, they tend to move up to
shallower tunnels, then go deeper as the day warms up. Scientists be-
lieve that they also search for warm or cool spots underground by
moving into the open where the sun beats down to heat up the sand,
or under chillier shady areas beneath shrubs or trees. They will leave
their tunnels and come up to the surface sometimes, especially at
night, to hunt for invertebrates. They are not speedy, graceful ani-
mals. Rather, they move slowly and clumsily, sometimes swinging
around their front legs in an overhand swimming type of motion. Like
other members of this family, the two-legged wormlizard can drop its
tail if it is attacked. They squeeze muscles around a weak spot in the
tail bone, and the tail drops off. The wound heals, but the worm lizard
cannot grow a new tail.
The females lay one to four eggs in July, which is a very dry time
in their habitat. The eggs hatch about two months later, just as the

rainy season starts and food for the young becomes more plentiful.
In the summer after the females reach their fourth birthday, they are
old enough to have young of their own. Some scientists think that fe-
males may only have young once every other year. Only more re-
search will say for sure.
Two-legged wormlizards and people: People rarely see one of these

wormlizards, unless they happen to turn over a rock, a pile of leaves,
or some other hiding spot where one is lying. The wormlizard usually
responds by quickly slipping into a nearby tunnel and disappearing.

threatened. ■
Books:
Burnie, David, and Don Wilson, eds. The Definitive Visual Guide to the
World’s Wildlife. New York: DK Publishing, 2001.
Schwenk, K. Feeding: Form, Function, and Evolution in Tetrapod Verte-
brates. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.
Web sites:
“Family Bipedidae (two-legged worm lizards).” Animal Diversity Web. Uni-
versity of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz
.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Bipedidae.html (accessed on
December 1, 2004).

FLORIDA WORMLIZARD
Rhineuridae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Rhineuridae
One species: Florida worm lizard
(Rhineura floridana)
Florida wormlizards, the only living species in this family, class
are long and thin creatures without legs. They have thin rings subclass
circling their round bodies, no ear openings, and usually no
visible eyes. This combination of features makes many people order
confuse them with earthworms. Florida wormlizards, however, monotypic order
have scales, and worms do not. In fact, it is the scales on the
suborder
wormlizard’s head that cover its eyes. The head is hard and
somewhat flattened with a bladelike front edge, which helps ▲ family
the lizard to dig into the soil. The upper jaw sticks out farther
than the lower jaw, so the animal has an overbite of sorts. The
shape of the head has caused some people to call them shov-
elnose wormlizards. They are usually a pearly pinkish white
color, but some individuals may be tinted slightly orange-pink.
Their heads and tail tips are sometimes a bit darker. Like most
snakes, they shed their skin—actually just the top layer of
skin—in one piece.
Adults can grow to about one-half inch (1.2 centimeters)
around at the middle of the body and reach 9.5 to 11 inches (24
to 28 centimeters) long, including a short tail. The tail begins
at the vent, a slit-like opening on the underside of the animal,
and is only about one-tenth of the total length of the worm-
lizard. The tail, which is slightly flattened, is covered on top
with little cone-shaped bumps called tubercles (TOO-ber-kuls).
Inside the body, Florida wormlizards look much like
other types of wormlizards, which are all grouped together
under the name amphisbaenians (am-fizz-BAY-nee-ens). The
Florida Wormlizard 203

amphisbaenians include four different fami-
lies of wormlizards: the Rhineuridae, or
Florida wormlizards; the Bipedidae, or mole-
limbed wormlizards; the Trogonophidae, or
spade-headed wormlizards; and Amphis-
baenidae, which are known simply as worm
A GREATER PAST lizards. The Florida wormlizard is the only
amphisbaenian that naturally lives in the
The only species of the family Rhineuridae
United States. The others live in Africa, Cen-
makes its home in parts of Florida and in
tral and South America, and a few places in
southern Georgia, but this family once lived
Europe and Asia. All amphisbanians are long,
over a much larger area. Scientists have
thin reptiles that look much like worms, but
identified fossils from wormlizards in the
with scales. They have an odd ear set-up in
central and western United States. These
which parts of the ear attach to tissue on the
fossils, which date back as much as 60
sides of the face. When the ground vibrates,
million years ago, tell scientists that the
the tissue senses the vibrations and sends
wormlizards of the past looked quite similar
them on to the ear, so the animal can actu-
to the Florida wormlizard alive today. They
ally hear the ground move. In addition, am-
also were a little different. For example, while
phisbaenians have two lungs like almost all
they had the same flattened and somewhat
other vertebrates (pronounced VER-teh-
pointy skull that the current species has, the
brehts), which are animals with backbones,
fossil worm lizards also had at least one bony
but one of their lungs is either extremely
feature that Florida wormlizards lack. In their
small or missing altogether. This arrangement
skulls, the fossil wormlizards have orbit and
works well in these species, and indeed in
jugal (JEW-gul) bones, that form a complete
many snakes, that have very thin bodies with-
ring around the eye.
out room for two side-by-side lungs. They
also have a forked tongue, no visible ear
holes, and one center tooth in the front of the
upper jaw that is bigger than the other teeth. The Florida worm-
lizards sometimes have one little tooth on either side of the cen-
ter tooth. Florida wormlizards also have their nostrils toward
the bottom of the head rather than on the top as many other
reptiles do.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Once thought to live only in north-central and northeastern
Florida, scientists now know that it also exists in southern
Georgia.
HABITAT
Florida wormlizards make their homes in the sandy and loose
but rich soil of usually dry pine and broad-leaved forests. They

are burrowing animals and therefore spend
most of their time underground. When heavy
rains drench the forests, these worms often
leave their tunnels and venture out above
ground. Because people usually only see them
after a downpour, they sometimes call the an-
imals thunderworms.
DIET
Scientists are unsure exactly what Florida
wormlizards eat, but they believe they proba-
bly eat the same things that other amphisbae-
nians eat. Most amphisbaenians travel through
their underground burrows looking for and
dining on the ants, termites, and grubs that Florida wormlizards stay
they find there. The Florida wormlizards flick their forked underground most of the time.
tongues to pick up chemicals in the air and on the ground. (©Dave Norris/Photo
They then press the tongue on the roof of the mouth, where a permission.)
special organ, called a Jacobson’s organ, lies. This organ “tastes”
the chemicals to tell the wormlizard about the prey animals
that might be nearby. They also use their special ear set-ups to
“hear” even very faint vibrations in the ground. This super-
hearing ability probably helps the wormlizards to hear move-
ments made by even very small insects and therefore makes
them especially good hunters.

Florida wormlizards stay underground most of the time, al-
though they sometimes—and just for a moment—poke their
heads up and out of piles of leaves. Scientists call such under-
ground-living animals fossorial (faw-SOR-ee-ul). Florida worm-
lizards dig through the soil with their hard, shovel-shaped
heads. The snout is also very hard and forms a sharp edge for
tunneling. Although its tail is short, the Florida wormlizard
uses it well. As the wormlizard begins digging, its tail is often
exposed on top of the ground. Fortunately, dirt fits between
the cone-shaped bump on the top of the tail and helps to hides
it from the sight of passing predators (PREH-duh-ters), or an-
imals that might hunt it for food. If a predator comes too close,
the wormlizard quickly digs further into the soil and uses its
tail like a cork to plug the tunnel entrance. Unlike many lizards,
the Florida wormlizard cannot drop its tail.

Florida wormlizard (Rhineura floridana)
Female Florida wormlizards lay eggs, usually two at a time,

in their underground burrows. The eggs hatch into babies about
4 inches (10 centimeters) long. Scientists know little else about
their courtship, mating, or reproduction.
FLORIDA WORM LIZARDS AND PEOPLE

People rarely see these shy animals, but they may get some
benefits from the wormlizards. If they eat ants, termites, and
beetle grubs, the wormlizards may be helping to rid gardens
and parks of some of humankind’s pests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
This species is not considered endangered or threatened.
Books:
Behler, John, and F. Wayne King. “Worm Lizard (Rhineura floridana).”
National Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.

World’s Wildlife New York: DK Publishing, 2001.
Conant, Roger. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern/
Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1975.
Schwenk, K. In Feeding: Form, Function, and Evolution in Tetrapod Ver-
tebrates. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.
Vanzolini, P. E. Evolution, Adaptation and Distribution of the Amphis-
baenid Lizards (Sauria: Amphisbaenidae). Ph.D. diss. Harvard University,
1951.
Web sites:
“Animals of the Florida Scrub: Florida Worm Lizard.” Flori-Data. http://www
.floridata.com/tracks/scrub/animals/rhi_flor.htm (accessed on November
23, 2004).
“Suborder: Amphisbaenia.” Georgia Wildlife Web. http://museum.nhm
.uga.edu/gawildlife/reptiles/squamata/amphisbaenia.html (accessed
“Wildlife: Florida Worm lizard.” Native Florida. http://www.nsis.org/
gallery/wl-fl_worm_lizard.html (accessed on November 23, 2004).
“Worm lizard.” Fact Monster. http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/
sci/A0852748.html (accessed on November 23, 2004).

SPADE-HEADED
WORMLIZARDS
Trogonophidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Trogonophidae
class At first glance, the spade-headed wormlizards look like big
earthworms. Just as earthworms have rings around their bod-
subclass
ies, these wormlizards have thin rings from the back of the head
order to the tip of the tail. Such rings are called annuli (ANN-you-
monotypic order lie). In the spade-headed wormlizards, the rings are made of
tiny square-shaped scales that are the same size and shape from
suborder the belly to the back. Also like earthworms, the wormlizards
▲ family have no legs. Wormlizards, however, do still have tiny leftover
hip and shoulder bones inside their bodies.
The heads of spade-headed wormlizards are shaped like shov-
els, or spades, which gives them their name. Sometimes, people
also call them by another common name, short-headed worm-
lizards, because their heads are quite small and end quickly af-
ter the neck. The edges of the face are quite sharp, providing an
excellent digging tool for these burrowing animals. The body is
flattened into an upside down “U” shape, so that the wormlizard
has a rounded back and an inward-curved belly side. It has a
very short, sometimes ridged, or keeled, tail. The tail begins at
the vent, a slit-like opening on the underside of the animal.
Some spade-headed wormlizards are patterned with checks
and spots. They are rather small animals, with adults ranging
from 3.1 to 9.4 inches (8 to 24 centimeters) in length.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
They live in northern Africa, in eastern Somalia, and in
the Middle East from western Iran to the island of Socotra,

which lies east of Somalia and south of Saudi
Arabia.
HABITAT
Spade-headed wormlizards tunnel in loose
soils, which may be sandy or loamy. A loamy
soil is one that is not quite as grainy as sand LIZARD EARS
but still is quite loose.
On a person, a dog, or a cat, the ears
DIET are obvious. They are called “external” ears
Most of the spade-headed wormlizards eat because external means something that is
termites, grubs, and ants. Grubs are actually on the outside. Some animals, including
young beetles, which are also known as bee- many reptiles, have no external ears.
tle larvae (LAR-vee). When the grubs are old Instead, their ears are often little more than
enough, they go through another life stage holes on the sides of the head. Some
called pupae (PYU-pee) and then turn into species do not even have the holes. They
the adult crawling beetles familiar to most are covered with scales. Spade-headed
people. Wormlizards in captivity will also eat wormlizards are an example of reptiles
larger animals by biting off chunks and without external ear openings. They can,
chewing them up. Scientists are unsure if however, still hear and are especially good
they eat larger animals in the wild because at hearing vibrations in the soil. Such
they have never seen a wild wormlizard eat- vibrations could be made by a predator
ing a larger animal. On the rare occasions walking overhead or a prey animal moving
when they have been able to catch and cut about.
open a wild wormlizard to check its stomach
and see what it had been eating, scientists
have not found pieces of large animals inside. Until more stud-
ies on wormlizards are done, scientists cannot say for sure
whether they eat larger animals in the wild.

These wormlizards move oddly when they are tunneling. In-
stead of forcing their heads forward into the soil, they turn their
heads up on one side and then up on the other, scraping the
sharp sides of the face in this back-and-forth swiveling motion,
and scrape away dirt. Just as twisting an apple corer will cause
the corer to cut into and through an apple, swiveling the head
of one of these wormlizards slices into the soil to make a tun-
nel. This swiveling motion is known as oscillation (AH-sih-
LAY-shun). Besides cutting through the soil, the oscillation
packs the dirt against the sides of the tunnel to make it smooth
and rather strong. Although the head turns back and forth, the
rest of the wormlizard’s body does not. Its body’s upside down
Spade-headed Wormlizards 209

“U” shape helps the wormlizard grab hold of the soil with its
belly side and keep its body still. In addition, its very short tail
digs in to the bottom of the tunnel to hold the body in place
while the head swivels.
Because they have tiny eyes, if they have them at all, these
wormlizards do not rely on vision to find their prey. Instead,
they have excellent senses of hearing and smell. Although their
ears are hidden by scales, they can hear even small movements,
like a termite taking a few steps somewhere else in the soil.
They also stick out their forked tongues to pick up chemical
odors, then draw the tongue back inside the mouth to touch a
special organ on the roof of the mouth. This organ, called the
Jacobson’s organ, smells the chemical odor.
Their underground homes provide considerable protection
against predators (PREH-duh-ters), or animals that hunt other
animals for food. Sometimes, when they are on the surface,
however, they may face a predator. Unlike wormlizards in other
families, the spade-headed wormlizard cannot drop the tail, a
tactic that other species use to escape attackers. Instead, worm-
lizards roll over to be belly-up, and they stop moving. Preda-
tors may be surprised by the color or the belly or may lose
interest because the wormlizard is so still. Either way, this be-
havior apparently helps the wormlizard to live another day.
The females of some species of these wormlizards give birth
to about five baby wormlizards at a time. Scientists believe that
some other species lay eggs. Little else is known about the
courtship, mating, or reproduction of these animals.
SPADE-HEADED WORM LIZARDS AND PEOPLE

Although people rarely see these wormlizards, they may be
helpful to people because they eat pest insects such as ants and
termites that might damage the wood in buildings or cause
other problems for people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These species are not considered endangered or threatened,
but scientists know little about them in the wild.

Agamodon anguliceps
SPECIES
NO COMMON NAME ACCOUNT
Agamodon anguliceps
Physical characteristics: Agamodon anguliceps has a short shovel-

shaped head and a sharp-sided face. Its back is mottled with yellow
and dark brown to brownish purple blotches, and its underside is
pink to purplish pink. Its tiny squarish scales form rings around its
body. It grows to about 4 to 8 inches (10 to 18 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: This species lives in eastern Ethiopia and

Somalia along the eastern edge of central Africa.
Habitat: They tunnel in loose and sandy soils.

Agamodon anguliceps lives in
eastern Ethiopia and Somalia
along the eastern edge of
central Africa. (Illustration by
John Megahan. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: Scientists have not studied this animal in the wild, but they
suspect that it eats termites, grubs, and other invertebrates (in-VER-
teh-brehts), which are animals without backbones. In captivity, how-
ever, this wormlizard can also attack and kill larger vertebrate prey,
which they then eat by biting off and chewing up the pieces. Verte-
brates (VER-teh-brehts) are mammals and other animals that have
backbones.
Behavior and reproduction: Like other members of this family, this

species digs its tunnels by swiveling its head and using the sharp sides
of its face to slice through the soil. It appears to stay closer to the
surface of the ground during the night and move deeper into the soil
in the daytime. When it feels threatened, it flips onto its back to show
off its pink underside and then plays dead. Scientists know almost
nothing about its reproduction, but they believe that the females prob-
ably lay eggs.
Agamodon anguliceps and people: People and this wormlizard

rarely see one another.

threatened, but scientists know little about them in the wild.
Books:
Burnie, David, and Don Wilson eds. “Amphisbaenians.” The Definitive Vi-
sual Guide to the World’s Wildlife New York: DK Publishing, 2001.

Schwenk, K. Feeding: Form, Function, and Evolution in Tetrapod Verte-
brates. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000.
Web sites:
“Amphisbaenia.” Virtual Museum of Natural History. http://www.curator.
org/LegacyVMNH/WebOfLife/Kingdom/P_Chordata/ClassReptilia/
O_Squamata/InfraAmphisbaenia/amphisbaenia.htm (accessed on No-
vember 15, 2004).
“Family Trogonophidae (Shorthead Worm Lizards).” EMBL Reptile
Database. http://www.embl-heidelberg.de/uetz/families/Trogonophidae
.html (accessed on November 15, 2004).
“The Keeping and Maintenance of Amphisbaenians.” Cyberlizard.
http://www.nafcon.dircon.co.uk/amphisb1.html (accessed on Novem-
ber 15, 2004).
“Order Squamata, Suborder Amphisbaenia (worm-lizards).” San Fran-
cisco State University. http://online.sfsu.edu/uy/AnimDiv/lab/lab8/
Biol171Lab8.html. (accessed November on 15, 2004).

grzimek’s
••••
Reptiles
volume 2
Night lizards to Cobras, Kraits, and their Relatives
Leslie A. Mertz, PhD, author
Madeline S. Harris, project editor

Neil Schlager and Jayne Weisblatt, editors
NIGHT LIZARDS
Xantusiidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Scincomorpha
Family: Xantusiidae
The night lizards are mainly small lizards without the work- class
ing eyelids that many other species of lizards have. Instead, the
night lizards have a see-through scale covering the eye. This subclass
clear scale, which looks somewhat similar to a person’s contact order
lens, is called a spectacle. Beneath the spectacle, the eyes of
some species of night lizards have catlike pupils, but others monotypic order
have round pupils. The typical night lizard has a low flat body, suborder
which allows it to sneak easily into cracks of rocks or into nar-
▲ family
row openings between plant leaves.
The bodies of these lizards are covered with small scales, ex-
cept on the head and belly. The top of the head is covered with
large plates, and wide rectangular scales stretch across the belly.
Most have drab-colored bodies, usually brown or gray, but a few
have striking patterns. The granite night lizard, for example, has
a spotted leopard-style pattern of brown spots on an otherwise
yellowish body. Some have round and bumpy scales that give
the lizard’s back the look of a tiny beaded purse. Some night
lizards are quite small, reaching only 1.5 inches (3.7 centime-
ters) long from the tip of the snout to the vent, a slit-like open-
ing at the beginning of the tail and on the underside of the lizard.
Adults of the largest species, the yellow-spotted night lizard,
grow to more than three times that size, reaching 5 inches (12.7
centimeters) long from the snout to the vent. The typical night
lizard has a tail as long or slightly longer than its body.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Night lizards live in the United States, Cuba, and Mexico, as
well as in Central America as far south as Panama.
Night Lizards 215

HABITAT
Each night lizard species is very picky
about where it makes its home. Some species
live only in very dry areas, like rocky deserts.
Others only live in the rotting parts of cer-
tain types of plants or in the dead leaves or
NIGHT LIZARD CONFUSION decaying logs laying on the ground in a rain-
To figure out how closely some animals forest. Some night lizards even prefer life in
are related to other animals, scientists can a cave. Although members of the family live
look at a number of characteristics, such in North America, Central America, and
as certain bones that are alike or different. Cuba, they stay in small areas within that
Sometimes scientists find it difficult to range. For example, the only part of the
decide on the closest relatives of species, United States that is home to night lizards is
including the night lizards. The species in the Southwest, and the Cuban night lizard
this family have characteristics that are makes its home in a tiny part of Cuba, where
similar to four different families: the it lives under rocks or buried in soil in areas
geckos, the skinks, the whiptails and tegus, of dry warm forest.
and the wall and rock lizards. So far,
scientists have not decided for sure which DIET
family the night lizards are most like. They Many night lizards, like the Cuban night
do agree, however, that the night lizard lizard, eat insects and spiders. The yellow-
family is an ancient one that dates back spotted night lizard also eats scorpions and
more than fifty million years. other invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts),
which are animals without backbones. Oth-
ers, such as the island night lizard, eat at least
some seeds and other bits of plants. Scientists are unsure if any
species are strict vegetarians that eat only plants. Species in this
family search for food where they live. For example, a yellow-
spotted night lizard that lives in rotting logs usually looks there
for its next meal.

People rarely see night lizards during the daytime, but they
actually can be active both night and day, if the daytime tem-
peratures are not too hot. Even on the best of days, however,
they spend most of their time out of sight under dead leaves,
inside plants, or in the cracks of rocks. They are much more
likely to venture outside at night, when they may scramble
about under the cover of darkness. Scientists still know very
little about the behavior of night lizards.
Females of all night lizard species, except one, give birth to
baby lizards. The typical litter holds five to eight babies. The

Cuban night lizard is the only species in this family that lays
eggs. The female lays a single egg at a time, dropping it into a
hole. The egg hatches two months later.
In most lizard species, a female becomes pregnant only af-
ter she mates with a male. Some night lizards do not follow this
rule, and the females can become pregnant on their own.
Among female yellow-spotted night lizards, some mate with
males to become pregnant, but others may not even see males.
Some groups of yellow-spotted night lizards that live in Costa
Rica and Panama are made up of only females. With no males
in sight, the females are able to become pregnant themselves
and have perfectly healthy babies.
NIGHT LIZARDS AND PEOPLE

Although some people believe they are venomous, night
lizards are not. They are harmless to humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
species of night lizard is Vulnerable, which means that it faces
a high risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service lists the same species, the island night lizard, as Threat-
ened, which means that it is likely to become endangered in
the foreseeable future. The island night lizard is at risk because
people have brought pigs and goats to the three small Channel
Islands where the lizard lives. These much larger animals eat
the plants that the lizards use as their homes. Efforts are now
under way to remove pigs and goats from at least one of the
three islands. Although no other species have been named as
being at risk, many night lizards are threatened by habitat de-
struction. When humans cut down rainforests, remove plants,
or otherwise destroy the places where the lizards live, whole
populations of these animals can disappear.
Night Lizards 217

Desert night lizard (Xantusia vigilis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT DESERT NIGHT LIZARD
Xantusia vigilis
Physical characteristics: Among the smallest species in this fam-

ily, the desert night lizards grow to only 1.5 inches (3.7 centimeters)
long from the tip of the snout to the vent. Like other night lizards,
they have no working eyelids. This lizard usually has dark spots on
its brown back, although in some areas, the back may have a green,
yellow, or orange tint. Its skin is typically wrinkly on the neck and
along the sides of the body.
Geographic range: This species makes its home in small areas

within the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico.
Habitat: The desert night lizard also goes by the common name
yucca night lizard, because it spends much of its time in clumps of

Desert night lizards like to stay
hidden in yucca or agave plants.
(Illustration by John Megahan.
rotting yucca (YUCK-uh) plants. It also lives in old, dead agave

(uh-GA-vee) plants.
Diet: The desert night lizard eats ants and beetles and occasionally
some other insects that it finds in the plants where it lives.
Behavior and reproduction: This lizard likes to stay hidden in yucca

or agave plants. Males and females mate in late spring, and about
three months later, the females have their young. The typical brood
includes one to three baby lizards. Sometimes, if the weather is
especially dry, females may skip a year between births.
Desert night lizards and people: Although desert night lizards can be
very numerous in some places, with twelve thousand individuals in an
area of just one square mile (or four thousand in a square-kilometer
area), people rarely see this shy lizard. Humans can, however, harm the
lizard populations by cutting down and removing yucca and agave
plants, which often happens when they clear land to make way for
houses.

threatened. ■
Books:
Alvarez del Toro, M. Los reptiles de Chiapas. 3rd edition. Chiapas, Mexico:
Instituto de Historia Natural, Tuxtla Gutierrez, 1982.
Night Lizards 219

Behler, John, and F. Wayne King. “Night Lizards Family (Xantusidae)”
National Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.
Campbell, J. A. Amphibians and Reptiles of Northern Guatemala, the
Yucatan, and Belize. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
Estes, R. Sauria terrestria, Amphisbaenia. Vol. 10A, Handbuch der
Palaeoherpetologie. Stuttgart: Gustav Fisher Verlag, 1983.
Halliday, Tim, and Kraig Adler. The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Mautz, W. J. “Ecology and Energetics of the Island Night Lizard, Xantusia
riversiana, on San Clemente Island.” In Third California Islands Symposium:
Recent Advances in Research on the California Islands, edited by F. G.
Hochberg. Santa Barbara: Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, 1993.
Web sites:
“Family Xantusiidae (Night Lizards).” Animal Diversity Web. University of
Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/
site/accounts/classification/Xantusiidae.html (accessed on November
15, 2004).
“Granite Night Lizard.” Western Ecological Research Center, U.S.
Geological Survey Biological Resources Division. http://www.werc.usgs
.gov/fieldguide/xahe.htm (accessed on November 15, 2004).
“Island Night Lizard.” eNature. http://www.enature.com/fieldguide/
showSpeciesSH.asp?curGroupID=7&shapeID=1059&curPageNum=
50&recnum=AR0662 (accessed on November 16, 2004).
“Night Lizard.” Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Xantusiidae (accessed on November 15, 2004).

WALL LIZARDS, ROCK
LIZARDS, AND RELATIVES
Lacertidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Sauria
Family: Lacertidae
Number of species: at least 225

The wall and rock lizards, and their relatives, are small to class
medium-sized lizards with strong legs, especially the larger back
subclass
pair, and usually very long tails. The typical wall or rock lizard
has small beaded scales on its back and large square or rec- order
tangular scales on its belly. They come in many different col- monotypic order
ors and patterns from an almost entirely green or drab brown
body to a bluish body with black blotches, a body split into a suborder
red front and black-and-white speckled back, or a black and ▲ family
cream striped body and red legs. Some species have brightly
colored tails, which attract the attention of predators (PREH-
duh-ters), or animals that hunt them for food. Fortunately, the
lizards can easily drop their tails if they are attacked, allowing
the lizard, minus its tail, to escape. In many species, the males
have more spectacular colors than the females, and males in
some species become even more brilliantly hued during the
mating season.
The average adult grows to less than 8 inches (20 centime-
ters) long from head to tail, although a few species in this large
family can reach 20 inches (50 centimeters) in length. Of their
total length, much can be tail. In some species, such as the
oriental six-lined runner, three-quarters of their overall length
is tail.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Wall and rock lizards live in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the
East Indies.
Wall Lizards, Rock Lizards, and Relatives 221

HABITAT
Wall and rock lizards are very common in dry areas, such
as deserts, but some species make their homes in forests or in
very cold areas, such as grasslands high up in the mountains
or in far northern lands inside the Arctic Circle. They are also
found on some Atlantic Ocean islands, including the Canaries
off northern Africa, Sri Lanka (or Ceylon) off the southern tip
of India, and the British Isles.
DIET
The bellies of these lizards are usually filled with insects,
which they typically capture by sitting very still in one spot—
usually in the shade—until an insect wanders by. They then
spring out and grab the tasty morsel. This type of hunting is
called ambush. The western sandveld lizard is unusual because
while it eats some insects, its main diet is scorpions, which the
lizard finds by looking for their tunnel entrances and digging
them out of the ground. Some species in this lizard family also
eat seeds and fruit in addition to insects. A few, including the
adult giant lizards that live in the Canary Islands, are unique
in that they eat almost only plant material.

Active during the day, wall and rock lizards typically like to
sunbathe, or bask, to warm up their bodies. Most of them bask
out in the open on rocks or on the ground. Some, such as Asian
grass lizards, climb into plants and bushes and use their very
long tails to wrap around stalks and branches. A few species,
like the western sandveld lizard, stay in underground burrows
most of the time.
Usually the lizards are able to avoid predators by keeping care-
ful watch and running for cover before an attacker can come too
close. The shovel-snouted lizard is even able to dive into the sand
of its desert home and bury itself. This lizard scoots even deeper
when it wants to take a cool and safe nap. Young Kalahari sand
lizards have another defensive tactic. These baby lizards look so
much like a bad-tasting beetle, known as the oogpister, that
predators avoid them. Despite these behaviors, however, attack-
ers are sometimes able to approach wall and rock lizards closely
enough to attack them. When this happens, a wall or rock lizard
can drop its tail, leaving the tail for the predator while the lizard
escapes. A replacement tail grows, but it is usually much shorter.

Almost all the lizards in this family lay eggs
and usually fewer than ten at a time. A female
digs a hole in the ground and lays her eggs
there. In many cases, the mother digs the nest
under a rock that is out in the open and can
warm up in the sun. The underground soil
keeps the soft-shelled eggs moist. She then A LOSING TAIL
leaves the nest; the eggs hatch later, and the
Many lizards, including the wall and rock
young are on their own. The largest females
lizards of the family Lacertidae, can drop
lay the most eggs, with some female eyed
their tails when they are attacked. The
lizards giving birth to twenty eggs at a time.
dropped tail wiggles around on the ground
The females of a few members of this family
and draws the attention of the attacker
have baby lizards rather than eggs. This
while the lizard runs for its life. Wall and
includes the viviparous (vie-VIH-puh-rus)
rock lizards can drop their tails because
lizard, which lives in northern Europe. Fe-
their tails are made of a series of small
males of this species mate with the males in
bones that have weak points between
the spring to early summer and have four to
them. The lizard also has a ring of strong
eleven babies three or four months later. Seven
muscles around each weak point. When
species in this family are all females, but they
attacked, the lizard squeezes the ring of
can still have babies, which are also all females.
muscles so tightly that the weak point in
the tail snaps and the tail falls off. After it
WALL LIZARDS, ROCK LIZARDS, THEIR drops, nerves in the tail continue to work
RELATIVES, AND PEOPLE
sometimes for many minutes, and the tail
People usually leave these lizards alone, busily squirms along the ground.
but long ago, some humans hunted and ate Eventually, the tail stops moving, but by
the giant lizards of the Canary Islands. then, the lizard is long gone.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Si-
mony’s giant lizard is Critically Endangered, which means that
it faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. This
giant lizard is so rare that scientists actually thought it was ex-
tinct until a small population turned up in 1975 high in the
cliffs of El Hierro, one of the Canary Islands. Another species,
called the Gomeran giant lizard, was similarly thought to be
extinct until 2001 when a population was discovered in the Ca-
naries. It may be even more rare than Simony’s giant lizard, but
the IUCN has not yet listed it as being at risk. The greatest
predators to these lizards are cats and rats, which were both
brought to the islands by humans.
In addition to Simony’s giant lizard and the Gomeran giant
lizard, the IUCN has listed Clark’s lacerta as Endangered, which

means that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild,
and five others as Vulnerable, which means that they run a high
risk of extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice lists the Hierro giant lizard as Endangered, or in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range,
and the Ibiza wall lizard as Threatened, or likely to become en-
dangered in the foreseeable future.

Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis)
SPECIES
SAND LIZARD ACCOUNT
Lacerta agilis
Physical characteristics: One of the larger members of this family,

the biggest sand lizards can grow to almost 12 inches (30 centimeters)
long from the tip of the head to the end of their long tail. Most, how-
ever, reach only about 8 inches (20 centimeters) long. In the eastern
part of its range, the sand lizards may be greenish, but western lizards
are usually brown or gray with dark spots and/or stripes. Males of the
western sand lizards also show some green along their sides and on
their bellies and become brighter green during the mating season.
Geographic range: The sand lizard lives in spotty areas through-

out Europe and Asia, from the British Isles to China, and as far south
as Greece.
Habitat: The sand lizard is common in places with sandy soils, such
as sand dunes and brushy areas, but it can also make its home in clay-
type soils along forest edges and in fields and gardens.
Diet: It lives mostly on insects, which it hunts by looking for them

while skittering through cover in its habitat. It will also sometimes

This shy lizard often darts into
holes or tunnels it finds among
plant roots when it feels the
least bit threatened. (Illustration
by Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.)
eat worms and other invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are an-

imals without backbones, as well as fruit and flowers, and once in a
while even another sand lizard.
Behavior and reproduction: The sand lizard is active during the

day and will run through brush above ground or bask in warm spots,
but it usually stays out of sight. This shy lizard often darts into holes
or tunnels it finds among plant roots when it feels the least bit threat-
ened. Numerous sand lizards may live together in the same area. In
colder climates, they will hibernate from fall to early spring.
During the breeding season in the spring, the males turn into fight-
ers and will battle one another over the chance to mate with a female.
The fights usually involve the males grasping each other’s necks, and
then wrestling until one gives up and leaves. After mating with a male,
a female finds a sunny spot where she digs a hole and lays three to
fourteen eggs. She provides no care for the eggs or her young. In forty
to sixty days, the eggs hatch.
Sand lizards and people: Humans and this lizard rarely see one
another.
Conservation status: Although neither the IUCN nor the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service list this species as threatened, some populations
are at great risk because of the destruction of their habitat. In west-
ern Europe, the lizards typically live in heathlands, which are open
areas covered with low plants and shrubs. When the heathlands are
destroyed to make way for homes or other human development, the
lizards disappear. ■

Books:
Behler, John, and F. Wayne King. “Typical Old World Lizard Family
(Lacertidae),” National Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979.
Böhme, W., ed. Handbuch der Reptilien und Amphibien Europas. 2 vols.
Wiesbaden, Germany: AULA Verlag, 1984–1986.
Branch, B. Field Guide to the Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern
Africa. Capetown, South Africa: Struik Publishers, 1998.
World’s Wildlife New York: DK Publishing, 2001.
Halliday, Tim, and Kraig Adler. The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Valakos, E.D., W. Böhme, V. Perez-Mellado, and P. Maragou, eds.
Lacertids of the Mediterranean Region: A Biological Approach. Athens,
Greece: Hellenic Zoological Society, 1993.
Web sites:
“Common lizard, viviparous lizard.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/282.shtml (accessed on November 19, 2004).
“Lacerta agilis—Sand Lizard.” First Nature. http://www.first-nature
.com/reptiles/lacerta_vivipara.htm (accessed on November 19, 2004).
“Lacerta vivipara—Common Lizard.” First Nature. http://www.first-nature
.com/reptiles/lacerta_agilis.htm (accessed on November 19, 2004).
“Sand Lizard.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/
283.shtml (accessed on November 19, 2004).
“Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis).” ARKive. http://www.arkive.org/species/
ARK/reptiles/Lacerta_agilis/more_moving_images.html (accessed on
November 19, 2004).

MICROTEIIDS
Gymnophthalmidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Lacertiformes
Family: Gymnophthalmidae
Number of species: At least 175
species
class The microteiids are very small lizards, with adults usually
only growing to 2.3 inches (6 centimeters) long from the tip
subclass
of the snout to the vent, which is a slitlike opening between
order the two hind legs on the underside of the lizard. Their tails
monotypic order come in different lengths depending on the species, but they
are typically about one and one-half times the length of the
suborder body from snout to vent or longer. All species in this family
▲ family can easily break off the tail and grow a new one. Most, but
not all, have four working legs. The eighteen species in the
group, or genus (GEE-nus), called Bachia have tiny legs, and
those in the genus Calyptommatus have no legs at all. A genus
is a group of similar species. Although the microteiids
spend much of their time hidden in dark places, they have well-
formed eyes.
Many species in this family have small scales on their backs
and larger scales on their undersides. Some species have ridges,
or keels, on their back scales, and some have smooth unkeeled
scales. Many have backs in shades of brown or black, and some
have stripes or spots. In a few species, such as the golden spec-
tacled lizard of Costa Rica, the tail may be a different color than
the rest of the lizard.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Microteiids live in southern Mexico, in Central America, on
the Caribbean islands, and throughout much of South America,
where they reach as far south as north-central Argentina.

HABITAT
The microteiids live in tropical forests, of-
ten by water. They usually stay out of sight
under piles of leaves, beneath logs, or in
other hiding places and will often dive into
the water to escape predators (PREH-duh-
ters), or animals that hunt other animals for WHAT GOOD ARE THEY?
food. Scientists do not understand just how
important each individual species is to life
DIET on Earth. Over the years, the most-studied
These lizards are mainly active during the animals are those that humans find cute
day and spend much of their time rooting and/or want for pets, like dogs and cats; that
around in leaves and along the ground to find people find useful, like cows for meat and
their favorite food insects. They see and smell horses for farm chores; or bothersome, like
well and likely use these characteristics to mosquitoes that transmit disease. Scientists
help them find food and to escape predators. know much less about other species that
lack these traits and that stay out of sight.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION The microteiid lizards are an example. They
Although this family has at least 175 are small lizards that hide in piles of leaves
species, their small size and tendency to re- and rarely come across a person. Even these
main hidden has helped to keep much of species, however, are important to the web
their behavior a secret from scientists. Some of life on the planet. For example, numerous
have, however, been seen wandering along predator species probably eat them, and
the forest floor and along the shores of they in turn eat many different types of
streams and swamps looking for insects to insects, which eat other animals and plants,
eat. When they feel threatened by an at- and so on. If the microteiid lizards were to
tacker, they will run to the water, where they disappear, it is possible that the surrounding
dive in and swim off. Many have flattened environment would change so much that it
tails, which help them swim quickly through would cause harm to the other animals and
the water. Unlike most other lizards, which plants that live there. This is also true of
sunbathe, or bask, out in the open during the other species on Earth. No animal or plant
day to warm their bodies, the microteiid lives and dies without having an effect on
lizards apparently do not. Instead, some ap- some other living thing.
pear to heat up their bodies by finding a
sunny spot and crawling under leaves there.
Those species that have been studied are all egg layers, and
scientists believe that the females only have one or two young
at a time but lay eggs more than once a year. Some of the species
are all female, which means that they can and do have babies
without mating with males. Species that do this are called
parthenogenic (PAR-thih-no-JEH-nik). This is rather unusual
among lizards and among other vertebrates (VER-teh-brehts),
Microteiids 229
which are mammals, birds, and other animals with backbones.
Most vertebrates require that a female and male mate before
the female becomes pregnant. In the microteiid lizards, how-
ever, a female can become pregnant without ever seeing a male
and produces babies that are her exact duplicates. Such exact
duplicates are called clones.
MICROTEIIDS AND PEOPLE

People and microteiid lizards rarely come across one another.
Sometimes, however, people unknowingly dig in their habitat
and can harm the lizards.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These species are not considered endangered or threatened,
but scientists know little about them. Because they live along
the ground, however, and sometimes in very small areas, habi-
tat destruction can wipe out entire populations.

Bachia bresslaui
SPECIES
NO COMMON NAME ACCOUNT
Bachia bresslaui
Physical characteristics: This lizard is known only by its scientific

name of Bachia bresslaui. It has a long body and long tail but very tiny,
hardly noticeable legs. Its upper body is gray to brown, sometimes
with brown spots, and has a tan stripe down either side. It has a cream-
colored underside. Unlike many other lizards that have noticeable
Microteiids 231
Bachia bresslaui live in the
South American countries of
Paraguay and Brazil. (Illustration
by Barbara Duperron.
openings on the sides of the head for ears, this species has no such
openings. Of the few individuals that have ever been seen, the largest
of this rare species of lizards reached a size of 4.2 inches (10.6
centimeters) in length from the snout to the vent, plus a tail that mea-
sured more than 6.3 inches (16 centimeters) long.
Geographic range: They live in the South American countries of

Paraguay and Brazil.
Habitat: In their range, which includes the northeastern area of

Paraguay and central Brazil, these lizards have been found beneath
pastures inside tunnels in sandy soils. Scientists think they may live
in other types of soil, too.
Diet: Scientists have studied only five individuals from this species.
These five ate ants, scorpions, spiders, beetles, and beetle grubs.
Behavior and reproduction: Although very little is known about

Bachia bresslaui, scientists believe these lizards likely leave their below-
earth homes and search about above ground for insects and other things
to eat. They may walk with their small legs or slither like snakes. Sci-
entists also guess that the females lay eggs rather than have baby lizards,
but they have not yet found the eggs. They are also unsure about how
many eggs the lizards lay at a time.
Bachia bresslaui and people: People and this lizard rarely see
one another. Humans do, however, sometimes destroy their habitat
when they build on or otherwise change the areas where the
lizards live.

threatened. Scientists suspect that this species may actually live in ar-
eas other than northeastern Paraguay and central Brazil, but they do
not have proof as yet. ■
Books:
Avila-Pires, T. C. S. Lizards of Brazilian Amazonia (Reptilia: Squamata).
Leiden, Germany: Zoologische Verhandelingen, 1995.
Cogger, H. G., and R. G. Zweifel, eds. Encyclopedia of Reptiles and
Amphibians. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.
Dixon, J. R., and P. Soini. The Reptiles of the Upper Amazon River Basin,
Iquitos Region, Peru. 2nd rev. ed. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum,
1986.
Mattison, Chris. Lizards of the World. New York, NY: Facts on File, 1989.
Murphy, J. C. Amphibians and Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago. Malabar,
FL: Krieger, 1997.
Pianka, E. R., and L. J. Vitt. Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of
Diversity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
Pough, F. H., R. M. Andrews, J. E. Cadle, M. L. Crump, A. H. Savitzky, and K.
D. Wells. Herpetology. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Powell, R., and R. W. Henderson, eds. Contributions to West Indian
Herpetology: A Tribute to Albert Schwartz. Contributions to Herpetology,
Volume 12. Ithaca, NY: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Rep-
tiles, 1996.
Schwartz, A., and R. W. Henderson. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West
Indies: Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History. Gainesville, FL:
University of Florida Press, 1991.
Vitt, L. J., and S. de la Torre. A Research Guide to the Lizards of Cuyabeno.
Museo de Zoologia (QCAZ) Centro de Biodiversidad y Ambiente Pontificia
Universidad Catolica del Ecuador, 1996.
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. L. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory Bi-
ology of Amphibians and Reptiles. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press,
2001.
Web sites:
“A Brief Look at the Gymnophthalmidae Spectacled Lizards
and Microteiids.” Cyberlizard. http://www.nafcon.dircon.co.uk/
gymnophthalmidae. htm (accessed on November 12, 2004).
“Genus Bachia.” Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum
of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
classification/Bachia.html (accessed on November 15, 2004).
Microteiids 233
“Golden Spectacled Lizard (Gymnophthalmus speciosus),” Savannah
River Ecology Laboratory Herpetology Program. http://www.uga.edu/
srelherp/jd/jdweb/Herps/species/Forlizards/Gymspe.htm (accessed on
November 12, 2004).
“Gymnophthalmidae.” Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/classification/Gymnophthalmidae.html (accessed on Novem-
ber 15, 2004).

WHIPTAIL LIZARDS, TEGUS,
AND RELATIVES
Teiidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Lacertiformes
Family: Teiidae
The whiptail lizards, tegus, and other members of this fam- class
ily have long, thin bodies with long legs and narrow heads with
subclass
noticeable eyes and long, forked tongues. Their tails often
stretch one-and-a-half times as long as the rest of their bodies order
and sometimes more. Some are camouflaged in drab browns, monotypic order
but others are colored in bright greens, reds, and blues. Their
overall size may be small or large, depending on the species. In suborder
some, the adults are less than 5 inches (12 centimeters) long ▲ family
from the tip of the head to the end of the tail, while other species
when full-grown are 4 feet 3 inches (1.3 meters) long from head
to tail. In most cases, the males are a bit bigger than the females.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Species of this family live only in the Western Hemisphere,
from the United States south through Mexico and Central
America to South America. Some species also make their homes
on many islands of the Caribbean.
HABITAT
Whiptail lizards, tegus, and other members of this family tend
to live in places that have some open areas where they can sun-
bathe, or bask. Even those that live in seemingly thick forests
can find many openings in the tree cover and sit where the sun-
shine warms the ground. Usually, the larger species tend to make
their homes in shadier habitats, while their young and the smaller
species live in the sunniest, most open areas. When they aren’t
basking or looking for food, most species stay underground in
Whiptail Lizards, Tegus, and Relatives 235

burrows. Many make their own burrows, but
some move into other animals’ burrows in-
stead. A few species live near streams and wet-
lands and often go for a swim. The Paraguayan
caiman lizard, for instance, is an excellent
swimmer that glides through the water with
NO BOYS ALLOWED its powerful tail.
Some species, like the lizard known as
DIET
the desert grassland whiptail, are all
females. Scientists believe that these Most of the whiptails, tegus, and other
whiptail lizards actually came about when members of this family will eat nearly any
two different species mated and had young, type of insect they find, and some large
called hybrids (HIGH-brihds). The hybrids species will also eat fruit. The tegus eat fruit,
formed a new species of only females. In too, but will also eat eggs, as well as living or
other species, a female and male must dead animals. The Caiman lizards eat mostly
mate to produce young, but in all-female snails, which they find while swimming in
species, the female can produce young by streams and swamps. Larger species, such as
herself. This is called parthenogenesis (PAR- the giant ameivas that grow to be about 2 feet
thih-no-JEH-neh-sis). The mother’s babies (61 centimeters) long, will eat small verte-
are all identical copies, or clones, of herself. brates (VER-teh-brehts), which are animals
Besides the whiptail family of lizards, seven with backbones. They will also eat fruit that
other families of lizards and snakes have has fallen to the ground from plants and trees.
some all-female species. The lizards in this family usually hunt for
their food with their keen eyesight or with
their good sense of smell. Some species can
pick up odors especially well and can even find insects that are
buried underground.

The majority of these species spend their nights in burrows,
then crawl out on sunny mornings to bask. Once they are warm,
they begin running here and there looking for things to eat.
When they get too hot, they find some shade, and when they
start to get cold, they soak up the rays in a sunny spot. Often,
many individuals will live in the same area, and they usually
get along very well. When breeding season starts, however, the
males will fight over the females.
All of the females lay eggs, rather than giving birth to ba-
bies. Some species lay only one or two eggs, while others lay
thirty or more. The largest species have the most eggs, and the
smallest species, the least. In addition, the larger older females
usually lay more eggs than smaller younger females of the same

species. For instance, a female six-lined racerunner may lay
only one or two eggs her first year but three or four her sec-
ond year. Most females lay their eggs in underground burrows,
rotting logs, leaf piles, or some other slightly moist place. Some
species drag leaves and other plant bits into their burrows and
build nests for the eggs. The females stay with their eggs until
they hatch.
Some species in this family are all female—they have no
males and do not need them to have babies. The females give
birth to young that are clones, which are perfect copies, of
themselves.
WHIPTAIL LIZARDS, TEGUS, THEIR RELATIVES, AND PEOPLE

Some people hunt these lizards for their meat, fat, and/or
skin, and others capture them for the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), two
species are Extinct, which means they are no longer in exis-
tence. In addition, two are Critically Endangered and face an
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild, and one is Vul-
nerable and faces a high risk of extinction in the wild. The
IUCN also describes two species as Data Deficient, which means
that scientists do not have enough information to make a judg-
ment about the threat of extinction. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service also lists two species as Threatened or likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future. Many of the at-risk species
naturally have low numbers because they only live on small is-
lands. In this case, habitat destruction and/or collection can
wipe out whole populations and possibly entire species.

Six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SIX-LINED RACERUNNER
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus
Physical characteristics: The six-lined racerunner is a handsome

and speedy little lizard. Its body is brown to green and has six thin
yellow stripes that flow down the body from head to tail. Each stripe
is separated from the next with a wide brown to black band of color.
In addition, a lighter brown to gray stripe runs down the center of
its back. In some populations, the head and neck are brownish, but
in others they are yellowish green. Juveniles have blue or blue-green
tails. Adults reach about 2.1 to 2.9 inches (5.5 to 7.5 centimeters) in
length from their snout to the vent. Including the tail, they can grow
to 3.3 inches (8.5 centimeters) in length. Females are usually a bit
larger than males.

Six-lined racerunners are
extremely fast lizards for their
size and quickly dart into
burrows, clumps of grass,
shrubby undergrowth, or some
other hiding spot when they feel
even slightly threatened. (©Larry
Miller/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Geographic range: This lizard lives mainly in the southeastern

quarter of the United States but also in a few areas of northern mid-
western states.
Habitat: This lizard commonly makes its home in sandy areas that
have lots of sun but also some shady spots where it can cool off or
hide from predators (PREH-duh-ters), or animals that hunt it for food.
Diet: They eat a variety of insects, spiders, and land snails.
Behavior and reproduction: After spending the night in their bur-
rows, these lizards come out in the morning after the sun has warmed
the ground. They bask to heat up their bodies and then spend much
of the rest of the day looking for food. They are extremely fast lizards
for their size and quickly dart into burrows, clumps of grass, shrubby
undergrowth, or some other hiding spot when they feel even slightly
threatened. They can run almost 18 miles (28 kilometers) an hour.
During the breeding season, the chin and chest in some males (those
from the western part of the species’ range) turn a bluish white, while
the females’ undersides remain all white. They mate in spring to early
summer. Females usually lay one to six eggs, which hatch in early to
mid-summer. Some females have a second clutch, or batch of eggs,
later in the year. They provide no care for the eggs or the young.
Six-lined racerunners and people: Other than occasionally col-
lecting one for a pet, people generally leave this lizard alone.
threatened. ■

Crocodile tegu (Crocodilurus lacertinus)
CROCODILE TEGU
Crocodilurus lacertinus
Physical characteristics: The tail of a crocodile tegu is very long

and stretches twice as long as the rest of its body. It also has pointy
scales that stand up in a row like those on a crocodile’s tail. Adults
are mostly greenish brown or brown with a whitish or yellow un-
derside. Their legs have some orange spots. Adults grow to about 19.7
inches (50 centimeters) in length from head to tail.
Geographic range: They are found in South America in the area

surrounding the Amazon and Orinoco rivers.

With its crocodilelike tail, the
crocodile tegu is an excellent
swimmer. (©Jany Sauvanet/
Photo Researchers, Inc.
Habitat: Crocodile tegus wander in the woods and swim in streams.
Diet: They eat almost any insect or spider they can find on land or
in the water.
Behavior and reproduction: With its crocodilelike tail, the croco-

dile tegu is an excellent swimmer. Females lay eggs. Scientists know
little about its other behaviors or its reproduction.
Crocodile tegus and people: Humans and crocodile tegus rarely

see or bother one another in the wild.

threatened. ■
Books
Badger, D. Lizards: A Natural History of Some Uncommon Creatures—
Extraordinary Chameleons, Iguanas, Geckos, and More. Stillwater, MN:
Cogger, H. G., and R. G. Zweifel, eds. Reptiles and Amphibians. New
York: Smithmark, 1992.

Degenhardt, W. G., C. W. Painter, and A. H. Price. Amphibians and Reptiles
of New Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
Fitzgerald, L. A., J. M. Chani, and O. E. Donadio. “Tupinambis Lizards in
Argentina: Implementing Management of a Traditionally Exploited
Resource.” In Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation, edited by J. G.
Robinson and K. H. Redford. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
Harding, J., and J. Holman. Michigan Turtles and Lizards. Lansing: Michi-
gan State University Museum, 1990.
Lamar, W. The World’s Most Spectacular Reptiles and Amphibians.
Palmer, W. M., and A. L. Braswell. Reptiles of North Carolina. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
Pianka, E. R., and L. J. Vitt. Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of
Diversity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
K. D. Wells. Herpetology. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2001.
Wright, J. W., and L. J. Vitt. Biology of Whiptail Lizards, Genus
Cnemidophorus. Norman: Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, 1993.
Web sites
“Great Basin Whiptail.” California Living Museum. http://www.calmzoo
.org/stories/storyReader$81 (accessed on November 5, 2004).
“Lizards of Wisconsin: Special Tricks.” Environmental Education for Kids,
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. http://dnr.wi.gov/org/
caer/ce/eek/critter/reptile/lizardsOfWisconsin5.htm (accessed on
November 5, 2004).
McFarlane, B. “Cnemidophorus sexlineatus.” Animal Diversity Web,
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://animaldiversity.ummz
.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cnemidophorus_sexlineatus
.html (accessed on November 5, 2004).
“Prairie Racerunner.” Environmental Education for Kids, Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources. http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/
caer/ce/eek/critter/reptile/prairieracerunner.htm (accessed on Novem-
ber 5, 2004).
“Six-Lined Racerunner.” Davidson College Biology Department.
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Biology/herpcons/Herps_of_NC/lizards/
Cne_sex.html (accessed on November 5, 2004).
“Unisexual Whiptail Lizards.” American Museum of Natural History.
http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/expeditions/treasure_fossil/Treasures/
Unisexual_Whiptail_Lizards/lizards.html?50 (accessed on November 5,
2004).

GIRDLED AND PLATED
LIZARDS
Cordylidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Sauria
Family: Cordylidae
The plated lizards and the girdled lizards, which have often class
been separated into their own individual families, are heavy-
subclass
bodied lizards. The plated lizards have tails that are much longer
than the body and are covered with long, rectangular scales. Gir- order
dled lizards include the flat lizards, girdle-tailed lizards, and the monotypic order
grass and snake lizards. They have shorter tails that are only
about the same length as the rest of the body and are usually suborder
covered with spiny scales. The flat lizards have greatly flattened ▲ family
bodies and have few if any spiny scales. The grass and snake
lizards have tiny, barely usable limbs that look more like little
spines than arms and legs. These lizards slither like snakes.
Many species of plated and girdled lizards are drab-colored
and blend into the background. In others, the females and ju-
veniles are dull, but the adult males are brightly and beauti-
fully colored. The girdle-tailed and flat lizards range from 5 to
13 inches (13 to 33 centimeters) in length from head to tail tip;
adult grass lizards grow to about 22 inches (56 centimeters) in
length, and adult plated lizards reach from 6 to 28 inches (15
to 71 centimeters) in total length.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These lizards live in southern Africa and in Madagascar.
HABITAT
The flat and girdle-tailed lizards, along with many plated
lizards, typically make their homes in rocky, dry areas, although
Girdled and Plated Lizards 243

some girdle-tailed lizards live in forests
where they hide under tree bark or in tun-
nels. Grass lizards live in grasslands, and
plated lizards prefer more shrubby habitats.
One species of plated lizard even survives in
the sand dunes of a desert, while another
LIZARD DEFENSE lives on the banks of freshwater rivers.
Although lizards are very good at running DIET
away to a safe hiding place, predators (PREH-
The species in this family eat almost any-
duh-ters) or those animals that hunt them for
thing that they can find or catch. The flat and
food occasionally are able to capture one.
girdle-tailed lizards hunt by ambush, which
Many lizards defend themselves by losing
means that they lie in wait for an insect to
their tails — purposely dropping them — and
wander by. When the insect or other inver-
later growing a new one. Most lizards can
tebrate (in-VER-teh-breht), which is an ani-
still run very quickly without their tails and
mal without a backbone, comes close enough,
dash for cover while the predator snacks on
they rush out to nab it. They will also eat
the discarded tail. Snake and grass lizards
berries and leaves. The plated lizards are not
also drop their tails quickly when they are
ambush hunters. Instead, they root around
attacked, but then they have another
through the soil and piles of leaves to find
problem. Because these lizards do not have
their meals, which are usually invertebrates.
working arms and legs, and rely on the tail
Although they can be quite large animals, the
to slither around, they are quite helpless until
plated lizards move very slowly. Nonetheless,
the new tail grows in.
they are able to capture small snakes and
lizards occasionally for a bigger meal.

Girdle-tailed lizards, which are all active during the day, are
known for the way they defend themselves. When one feels
threatened, it scurries into a crack in a rock, blows up its body,
and wedges itself in so an attacker cannot reach it. All of the
girdle-tailed lizards have very thick scales. When one species,
known as the armadillo lizard, is caught too far from a hiding
place, it defends itself by rolling into a ball, even grabbing hold
of its tail with its teeth, so that the lizard becomes a difficult-
to-swallow, scale-covered ball.
When flat lizards feel threatened, their body shape allows them
to slide into very thin cracks in rocks and out of harm’s way.
Snake and grass lizards avoid predators with their speed. Although
they don’t have legs to help them run, they can move very quickly
through the grass, sometimes boosting themselves along by push-
ing off with their long tails. When an attacker grabs the tail, a
snake or grass lizard simply drops it and grows a new one.

One of the most unusual behaviors of the plated lizards is
that they sunbathe, or bask, in an odd position. They lay on
the belly with their arms and legs held up in the air. When
frightened, which happens quite often for this shy species, they
quickly run for cover under a bush or in some other hiding
place or bury themselves in loose soil by moving their arms
and legs as if they were swimming. Sometimes they will stay
underground for 24 hours before coming above ground again.
Many species of girdled lizards live in groups for much of
the year, but during the breeding season, adult males will set
up territories and fight to keep other males away. In many
species, these battles are little more than showdowns where the
males display their bright belly colors. Female girdle-tailed,
snake, and grass lizards give birth to baby lizards instead of lay-
ing eggs. Each year, the typical female has one to twelve young,
which are old enough to have young of their own when they
reach two to four years old. The flat lizards, on the other hand,
lay two eggs each year in a damp spot within a rock crack. Un-
like the girdled lizards, only a few species of plated lizards live
in small groups: Most live alone. Also unlike the girdled lizards,
the plated lizards are all egg-layers. Scientists still know little
about the details on most species of plated lizards.
GIRDLED AND PLATED LIZARDS AND PEOPLE

Many species are easily frightened and are therefore rarely
seen up close by humans. The less-shy lizards, especially the
groups of colorful flat lizards, however, make for excellent
viewing at parks and other spots in southern Africa.
CONSERVATION STATUS
species of plated lizard is Extinct, which means that it is no
longer in existence. Only two specimens of this lizard, called
the Eastwood’s long-tailed seps, are known. In addition, five
species of plated and girdled lizards are Vulnerable, which
means that they face a high risk of extinction in the wild, and
five species are Near Threatened, which means that they are
likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
Many of them live in tiny areas that are now being developed
for other uses. A number of the lizards are also very beautiful,
which has made them quite desirable for the pet trade.

Cape flat lizard (Platysaurus capensis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT CAPE FLAT LIZARD
Platysaurus capensis
Physical characteristics: True to their name, the cape flat lizards

are very flat animals. The females and juveniles both have a dark
brown back with three wide, whitish stripes that run from head to
tail. Their bellies are white with a black blotch in the middle. Adult
males are much different. The front half of the upper body is bright
blue, sometimes with pale spots or stripes, and the back half, in-
cluding the tail, is brick-red. On the underside, the throat is light
blue; the chest, dark blue, and the belly has a black center blotch.
Adults range from about 2.5 to 3.3 inches (6.4 to 8.4 centimeters)
from the tip of the snout to the vent, which is a slit-like opening on

Cape flat lizards are shy animals
that run for cover when humans
or other potential predators
come too close. (Bill Branch.
the underside of the lizard at the beginning of the tail. The tail dou-
bles the overall size, for a total length of about 5 to 6.6 inches (12.8
to 16.8 centimeters).
Geographic range: The cape flat lizard lives in the far southwest
portion of Africa, in both South Africa and Namibia.
Habitat: They live in those areas of desert that have many rocks.
Diet: This lizard hunts by ambush, laying in wait in a shady spot

under a rock until an insect happens by. At that point, it rushes out
to nab the insect for a meal. It also eats flowers and berries when they
are available.
Behavior and reproduction: Cape flat lizards are shy animals that
run for cover when humans or other potential predators come too
close. People usually see them from a distance on top of rocks, es-
pecially granite ledges. They may live in small groups. Females lay
eggs in November or December and sometimes again a couple of
months later. Each time, she lays two large eggs in moist soil beneath
or in the crack of a rock.
Cape flat lizards and people: Because they live in deserts away from
humans, lizards and humans rarely bother one another.

threatened. ■

Books
Extraordinary Chameleons, Iguanas, Geckos, and More. Stillwater. MN:
Branch, Bill. Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa.
South Africa: Struik Publishers, 1998.
Glaw, Frank, and Miguel Vences. Field Guide to the Amphibians and
Reptiles of Madagascar. 2nd ed. Privately printed, 1994.
Web sites
“Cordylids of the Cederberg.” Cape Nature Conservation. http://www
.capenature.org.za/cederbergproject/html/cordylids.html (accessed on
October 18, 2004).
“Cordylus spp.” Melissa Kaplan’s Herp Care Collection. http://www
.anapsid.org/cordylus.html (accessed on October 18, 2004).
“Plated lizards.” Melissa Kaplan’s Herp Care Collection. http://www
.anapsid.org/plated.html (accessed on October 18, 2004).
“Plated lizards of the Cederberg.” Cape Nature Conservation. http://
www.capenature.org.za/cederbergproject/html/platedlizards.html
(accessed on October 18, 2004).

SKINKS
Scincidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Sauria
Family: Scincidae
Number of species: About 1,400
species
With about 1,400 species, the skinks come in many different class
sizes, shapes, and colors, but they do share a few features. Mem-
subclass
bers of this family have large head scales, body scales that have
bony plates underneath them, and a roof of the mouth that is order
made of two, flat bony plates instead of one, as humans and monotypic order
other animals have. The bony plate is called a palate (PAL-iht).
suborder
The skinks are divided into four major groups or subfamilies.
The seventeen species in two of the subfamilies are legless, while ▲ family
the hundreds of species in the other two subfamilies have legs.
A few species, known as comb-eared skinks, have noticeable
scales that stick out near the ear opening on the side of the head.
Skinks, most of which have smooth scales, may be either
small or large. The smallest adults grow to just 0.9 inches (2.3
centimeters) long from the tip of the head to the vent, which
is a slit-like opening on the belly side of the lizard. If the lizard
has legs, the vent is located between them. The longest skink
is 20 times larger than the smallest, reaching 19.3 inches (49
centimeters) from the snout to the vent.
Color varies among the skinks, but many have rather drab,
brownish bodies. The males of numerous species, however, of-
ten develop colorful heads during the breeding season. In many
species, juveniles have bright blue, red, or yellow tails, which
are believed to help them escape attacks by predators (PREH-
dih-ters), or animals that hunt them for food. The predator
snaps at the colored tail, which the young skink drops before
running away. Adults are also able to lose their tails and survive.
Skinks 249
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
They live on land almost around the world, except for many
islands in the ocean and very cold places, such as Antarctica
and high up in mountains.
HABITAT
Many skinks live mostly underground, hidden beneath logs,
rocks, or among piles of leaves and twigs. Many of those that
live underground dig their own burrows. The night skink builds
a large tunnel system, which is marked by a large pile of sand
near the most-used entrance. This lizard often has to share its
tunnels with other animals that drop in day and night to sleep
or to escape the weather or a predator. Some other species of
skinks are good climbers and spend time on tree branches and
tree trunks. While most of them live on land, some do not mind
taking a dip in the water. Several species, like Gray’s water skink
and the eastern water skink, spend part of their time in ponds
or streams.
DIET
Most species enjoy insects. Some are rather picky eaters and
prefer to eat one kind of insect. Some of the underground-
living, legless skinks, for example, eat mostly termites. A few
species of skinks, including bobtails and sandfish, mix some
flowers and grains into their insect diets, and others, such as
the prehensile-tailed skink, are strictly vegetarian.

Many of the skinks are active during the day, spending much
of their days looking for food and sunbathing, or basking. Some
species, such as the well-named night skink, only come out in
the darkness. Most skinks are nervous animals that take cover
if they feel even slightly threatened. For this reason, people of-
ten have only short glimpses of them before the lizards dart
into a pile of brush or under a log. If an attacker is able to catch
a skink before it can take cover, many of the species drop the
tail, which continues to wiggle for several minutes. This draws
the attention of the attacker and allows the lizard to escape.
When the coast is clear, some skinks will return to whatever is
left of the tail and eat it themselves. The tail grows back, but
it is typically not as long as the original tail. The bobtail is un-
usual among skinks in that it does not immediately flee when

a predator arrives. Instead, this slow-moving
lizard stands its ground, opens wide its
mouth, and flaps its bright blue tongue.
Skinks do not pant as other lizards do, and
scientists think that their extra palate is the
reason why. Other lizards pant to cool off.
The air they draw in and breathe out when IN THE BLINK OF AN EYE
panting cools off the blood in blood vessels When a person blinks, the upper lid
along the roof of the mouth. The extra palate slides down over the eye. When a lizard
in skinks, however, may cover up the blood blinks its eye, only the lower eyelid moves.
vessels so much that the air cannot get close Skinks have a number of different lower
enough to cool the blood, making panting eyelids, including some see-through types.
useless. Instead, these lizards beat the heat These look rather like contact lenses that
by resting in a shady spot or cool under- slide up and cover the eye. In some skinks,
ground burrow. their lower eyelids always stay shut. These
During mating season, males of many eyelids have a clear area or are completely
species will fight, biting one another on the clear, so the skinks can see even though
head, neck, and tail until one gives up and their eyes are always closed.
leaves. In some species, male-female pairs re-
main together from year to year. Females of
some species lay eggs, but other females give birth to baby
skinks. Strangely, two species of skinks from Australia—
Bougainville’s skink and the three-toed skink—do both. Among
skinks, the number of young varies from species to species,
with some females having only one or two eggs or young at a
time, and others having up to sixty-seven. Although most fe-
males make their own individual nests, mothers in a few species
lay their eggs together in one big nest. Whether they nest to-
gether or alone, parents of many species provide some care to
their eggs and young.
SKINKS AND PEOPLE

Some people keep the larger species as pets, but this family’s
biggest contribution to people comes when they are left in the
wild. Skinks eat many insects, including those considered to be
pest species.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), three
species are Extinct, which means they are no longer in existence.
Twenty-six others are listed as Critically Endangered, Endan-
gered, or Vulnerable, which means they face an extremely high,
Skinks 251
very high, or high risk of extinction in the wild. Five are Near
Threatened and are likely to qualify for a threatened category in
the near future; and seven are Data Deficient, which means sci-
entists need more information before they can make a judgment
about the threat of extinction. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice lists three skinks as Threatened or likely to become endan-
gered in the foreseeable future: the Round Island, bluetail mole,
and sand skinks.

Prehensile-tailed skink (Corucia zebrata)
SPECIES
PREHENSILE-TAILED SKINK ACCOUNTS
Corucia zebrata
Physical characteristics: Large in size, the prehensile-tailed skink

can grow to 30 inches (76 centimeters) in length from head to tail.
A prehensile (pri-HEN-sihl) tail is one adapted for grasping like a
monkey’s tail. It has a muscular tail, a large head, and clawed legs on
a thick grayish to brownish green body. Its underside is lighter green.
The males usually are a bit thinner than the females and have a slightly
bigger head.
Geographic range: They live east of New Guinea on the Solomon

Islands.
Habitat: Prehensile-tailed skinks spend much of their days hidden

among the leaves high up in trees, especially the strangler fig tree, or
Skinks 253
Unlike the vast majority of other
skinks, the prehensile-tailed
skink is a strict vegetarian and
particularly likes leaves and
flowers it finds in the trees.
(Illustration by Barbara Duperron.
in holes in tree trunks or branches. They become active at night when

they look for food.
Diet: Unlike the vast majority of other skinks, this species is a strict
vegetarian and particularly likes leaves and flowers it finds in the trees.
Behavior and reproduction: Active at night, this skink usually

spends its time slowly and calmly climbing on tree branches. When
it feels threatened, it will hiss and even bite if necessary. Females usu-
ally give birth to just one baby at a time.
Prehensile-tailed skinks and people: Native people eat this skink.

Other people often see them in zoos or other lizard exhibits, and some
keep them as pets.
Conservation status: Although the prehensile-tailed skink is not

listed as endangered or threatened, it faces a serious threat from over-
collection by the pet trade. ■

Broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps)
BROAD-HEADED SKINK
Eumeces laticeps
Physical characteristics: Also known as the greater five-lined

skink, the broad-headed skink is a brown to brownish gray lizard with
darker, although often faint, stripes running from its wide head to
the tail. The head of males turns reddish during the mating season.
Adults grow to 9.8 inches (25 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: Broad-headed skinks live mainly in the south-

eastern quarter of the United States.
Habitat: An excellent climber, the broad-headed skink lives in a

variety of areas, including swamps, forests, and even near people, in
everything from farm buildings to trash-filled city lots.
Skinks 255
Female broad-headed skinks lay
six to ten eggs at a time under
leaves or in some other hiding
spot and stay with them until
they hatch. (©Larry L. Miller/
Photo Researchers, Inc.
Diet: They spend much of their time looking for insects and other
invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are animals without back-
bones, to eat.
Behavior and reproduction: When broad-headed skinks feel threat-

ened, which is quite often for these shy lizards, they quickly dart
away. During the breeding season, males jump at and bite each other
on the head, neck, or tail. Before long, one of the two fighting lizards
will surrender and leave, and the other is left to mate with a female.
Females lay six to ten eggs at a time under leaves or in some other
hiding spot and stay with them until they hatch.
Broad-headed skinks and people: Most people see these lizards

from a distance as they climb along fences or walk along tree branches.
They are very shy and run when approached, so people rarely get a
close look.

threatened. ■

Sandfish (Scincus scincus)
SANDFISH
Scincus scincus
Physical characteristics: Sandfish are light brown lizards with

slightly darker brown bands down the back. They have a pointed snout
and thin legs ending in fringed toes that help them run on shifting
sands. Adult sandfish usually reach about 8 inches (20.3 centimeters)
in length, including the short tail.
Geographic range: Sandfish can be found in northern Africa, Iraq,

Iran, Israel, and Jordan.
Habitat: Although they live in deserts, sandfish tend to live near a

moister area, such as an oasis, which has loose sand and many plants.
Skinks 257
When it feels threatened, the
sandfish dives headfirst into the
sandy ground and swims below
the surface of the sand.
permission.)
Diet: Sandfish eat insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates, and

an occasional small lizard. They move their arms and legs in a mo-
tion that allows them to “swim” through and just below the surface
of the sand. From this position, they snatch unsuspecting insects
walking on the ground above them. They also eat flowers and grains.
Behavior and reproduction: Active during the day, this lizard is

best known for the way it escapes attackers. When it feels threatened,
the sandfish dives headfirst into the sandy ground and swims below
the surface of the sand. After a June breeding season, female sandfish
lay about six eggs.
Sandfish and people: Native people hunt sandfish for their meat.
At one time, people believed that dead dried sandfish could cure var-
ious diseases.

threatened. ■
Books
Greer, Allen E. The Biology and Evolution of Australian Lizards. Chipping
Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 1989.
Hutchinson, M. N. “Family Scincidae.” In Fauna of Australia. Vol. 2A,
Amphibia and Reptilia, edited by C. J. Gasby, C. J. Ross, and P. L. Beesly.
Canberra: Australian Biological and Environmental Survey, 1993.

Pianka, E. R. Ecology and Natural History of Desert Lizards: Analyses of
the Ecological Niche and Community Structure. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Storr, G. M., L. A. Smith, and R. E. Johnstone. Lizards of Western
Australia. Vol. 1, Skinks. Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1999.
Periodicals
“Black Market Animals: The Stealing, Smuggling and Selling of Endan-
gered Species as Pets is a $10 Billion Illegal Business Worldwide.” Cur-
rent Events, a Weekly Reader publication (April 14, 1997): 2A.
Geschickter, Jacqueline. “Say Ahhhh!” National Geographic World
(November 2000): 31.
Thompson, Sharon. “Attention, Lizard Parents!” National Geographic
World (May 2002): 6.
Web sites
“Blue-tongued Skink.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearn
ing. com/subjects/reptiles/lizard/Bluetonguedskink.shtml (accessed on
November 3, 2004).
“Eastern Water Skink.” Australian Museum. http://www.amonline.net
.au/wild_kids/freshwater/water_skink.htm (accessed on November 3,
2004).
“Many-lined Skink.” Yahooligans! Animals. http://yahooligans.yahoo.
com/content/animals/species/4414.html (accessed on November 3,
2004).
Vanwormer, E. 2002. “Eumeces fasciatus (five-lined skink).” Animal
Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eumeces_
fasciatus.html (accessed on November 03, 2004).
Other sources
McCoy, Mike. Reptiles of the Solomon Islands. CD-ROM. Kuranda,
Australia: ZooGraphics, 2000.
Skinks 259
ALLIGATOR LIZARDS,
GALLIWASPS, AND
RELATIVES
Anguidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Sauria
Family: Anguidae
Number of species: 112 species family C H A P T E R
class This family contains four groups of lizards: the glass lizards
subclass and slowworms, the legless lizards, the galliwasps, and the al-
ligator lizards. Many of these species in the Anguidae family
order have bodies that are nearly all brown, but some are green, and
monotypic order others have stripes or bands. The glass lizards have especially
suborder shiny scales. In a few species, the males are more brightly col-
ored than the females. Among alligator lizards that live in
▲ family mountainous areas, for example, the females and the juveniles
are a drab brown, and the males are bright green or yellowish
green. Some, such as the La Selle galliwasp, are small and reach
only about 2.8 inches (7 centimeters) in length from head to
tail tip. The slowworm, on the other hand, can grow to nearly
20 times that size at 55.1 inches (140 centimeters) long.
In general, the scales of these species are thick and strong, giv-
ing them an armor-like covering. Many of the legless lizards and
galliwasps have a fold on each side of the body, which allows
their bodies to stretch out when they eat a particularly big meal
or when a female is pregnant. Some of the species, including the
legless lizards, have no limbs and therefore slither about with a
twisting motion. A few, such as the Moroccan glass lizard, have
no front legs but do have tiny hind legs that look like small flaps
located near the vent, which is a slitlike opening on the under-
side of the animal. The tail in galliwasps, legless lizards, and al-
ligator lizards is usually shorter than the rest of the body, but
the tail is far longer than the body in glass lizards. In all lizards,
including those without legs, the tail begins at the vent. A few

species, such as the Cuban alligator lizard, live in trees and have
tails that can wrap around and cling to branches and twigs. In
addition, many members of this family have eyelids that they no-
ticeably blink open and shut.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These lizards live in North, Central, and South America, Eu-
rope, and Asia. They also make their homes on many islands
of the West Indies. One species, the Moroccan glass lizard, lives
in northern Africa.
HABITAT
Most of these lizards live on land and on the ground’s sur-
face, but they often remain in leaf piles, under stones, or in
some other hiding spot. A few make their homes underground,
and some spend much of their time in trees. While many species
live in moist, low-lying areas, some live high in mountain
forests or in dry and shrubby deserts.
DIET
These lizards will eat a number of different animals. They
typically move very slowly, so their diet includes other slow-
traveling things, such as snails, slugs, spiders, some insects, and
other invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are animals with-
out backbones. When they eat vertebrates (VER-teh-brehts),
which are animals with backbones, they tend to dine on bird
eggs, baby rodents that are still in the nest, or other small ani-
mals, such as salamanders, that are not fast enough to get away.

Depending on the species, they may be active during the day
or at night. They usually stay out of sight, but many species
will come out into the open on a sunny day to soak up the
warmth. Such sunbathing is called basking. Often, these shy
lizards will only expose one part of their bodies at a time while
basking, keeping the rest hidden away. Those species that live
in colder areas may spend the winter in a deep sleep, known
as hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun).
These lizards are especially known for their behavior when they
feel threatened: Most members of this family quickly drop the
tail, which may break into several wriggling pieces. While the at-
tacker is looking at or eating the tail, the lizard makes its escape.
Alligator Lizards, Galliwasps, and Relatives 261

The lizard grows back the tail, but it is often
much shorter than the original one. The glass
lizard’s regrown tail, for example, is a pointed
stump. Some lizards in this family will also de-
fend themselves by wiggling frantically, by
smearing a bad-smelling ooze and/or feces on
LIZARD OR SNAKE? the attacker, or by puffing up the body with
air, which may make the lizard appear large
Several species of lizards, including the
enough to scare off an attacker.
glass lizards of the family Anguidae, have
no legs. Many people confuse these lizards Within this family, some species lay eggs
with snakes. In fact, another common and others give birth to baby lizards. Female
name for the eastern glass lizard is actually legless lizards all have one or two live babies
glass snake. At least two features, in each litter. Depending on the species, fe-
however, can give away this lizard’s true male glass lizards and slowworms, galli-
identity. Unlike snakes, the eastern glass wasps, and alligator lizards may lay eggs or
lizard has eyelids that it can blink shut and give birth to baby lizards, with brood sizes
has ear openings that look like a hole on from less than five to two dozen or more. In
each side of the head. Snakes cannot blink some egg-laying species, the female stays
shut their eyes and have no visible ear with the eggs, often wrapping her body
openings. The glass lizards get their name around them, until they hatch. Most species
from their tails, which easily break off as if have young every year, but some, such as the
they were made of glass. montane alligator lizard, probably only give
birth once every two years. During breeding
season, males of some species, including the
slowworm, will fight by grasping at one another with their jaws.
For most species, however, scientists know little about their
courtship behaviors.
ALLIGATOR LIZARDS, GALLIWASPS, THEIR RELATIVES,

AND PEOPLE
Because many species like to hide, people rarely see them in
the wild unless a person is plowing a field or raking leaves in
their habitat. Some people mistake the glass lizard’s stubby and
pointed regrown tail for a stinger, but all lizards in this family
are harmless. Several species are fairly common in the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
species is Extinct, which means that it is no longer in existence.
This species, the Jamaica giant galliwasp, was last seen in 1840.
It probably disappeared because people brought new species, in-
cluding the mongoose, to Jamaica to kill rats. The mongoose,

however, also eats galliwasps and probably played a role in their
extinction. In addition, the IUCN names three species as Criti-
cally Endangered, which means they face an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild; one species as Endangered, which
means it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild, and one
species as Vulnerable, which means it faces a high risk of ex-
tinction in the wild. These and other unlisted species are threat-
ened by habitat destruction, particularly in such small places as
the islands of the West Indies. The IUCN also lists three species
as Data Deficient, which means that scientists have too little in-
formation to make a judgment about the threat of extinction.

Texas alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus liocephalus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT TEXAS ALLIGATOR LIZARD
Gerrhonotus liocephalus
Physical characteristics: The Texas alligator lizard has a long tail

and, unlike some other members of this family, four working legs. Its
squarish scales somewhat resemble those of an alligator. Its back is
reddish brown, sometimes yellowish, with crooked crossbands of
white and black scales. Adults usually range from 9.8 to 15.7 inches
(25 to 40 centimeters) in length, but some can be as long as 19.7
inches (50 centimeters).
Geographic range: They live from Texas in the United States to San
Luis Potosí in central Mexico.
Habitat: The Texas alligator lizard often lives on rocky hillsides,

preferring areas without many plants, although it does sometimes live
in dry woods and shrubby areas.

When the Texas alligator lizard
feels threatened, it can fill itself
up with air, which may make it
appear large enough that a
predator will leave it alone.
(Robert J. Huffman/Field Mark
Publications. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: This slow-moving species spends much of the day searching

for various invertebrates, as well as small rodents or other vertebrates,
it can capture and eat.
Behavior and reproduction: This species is active during the day.

When it feels threatened, it can blow itself up with air, which may
make it appear large enough that a predator will leave it alone. Fe-
males lay five to thirty-one eggs at least once a year, and they often
remain with the eggs until they hatch.
Texas alligator lizards and people: People sometimes collect these

lizards for pets.
Conservation status: The Texas alligator lizard is not listed as en-

dangered or threatened. ■
Books
Capula, Massimo. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Reptiles and
Amphibians of the World. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989.
Grismer, L. Lee. Amphibians and Reptiles of Baja California, Including Its
Pacific Islands and the Islands in the Sea of Cortés. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2002.

Savage, Jay M. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2002.
Web sites
“Alligator Lizard.” Melissa Kaplan’s Herp Care Collection.
http://www.anapsid.org/gerrhont.html (accessed on October 20, 2004).
“Eastern Glass Lizard.” Yahooligans! Animals. http://yahooligans
.yahoo.com/ content/animals/species/4313.html (accessed on October
20, 2004).
“Glass Lizard - Glass Snake - Legless Lizard.” Melissa Kaplan’s Herp Care
Collection. http://www.anapsid.org/legless.html (accessed on October
20, 2004).
“Northern Alligator Lizard.” Yahooligans! Animals. http://yahooligans
.yahoo.com/content/animals/species/4322.html (accessed on October
20, 2004).
“Slender Glass Lizard.” Iowa Herpetology. http://www.herpnet.net/
Iowa-Herpetology/reptiles/lizards/glass_lizard.html(accessed on October
20, 2004).

KNOB-SCALED LIZARDS
Xenosauridae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Lacertilia
Family: Xenosauridae
With their flat heads and bodies and lumpy scales, the knob- class
scaled lizards have an unusual look. The head is usually trian-
gular in shape, coming to a point at the tip of the snout. Some subclass
have a very noticeable ridge above the eye and extending for- order
ward to the snout and backward to the rear of the head. Often,
the females have larger bodies than the males, but the males monotypic order
typically have bigger heads. Their bodies are usually dark brown suborder
to black, often with lighter-colored bands or blotches. The
▲ family
largest specimens grow to 4.7 to 5.1 inches (12 to 13 cen-
timeters) long from the tip of the snout to the vent, a slitlike
opening on the belly side of the animal at the beginning of the
tail. The tail stretches nearly as long as the body.
Until 1999, this family only had four species. Discoveries of
two new species—one in 2000 and one in 2002—increased the
number to six. The two new species are known only by their
scientific names: Xenosaurus penai and Xenosaurus phalaroan-
theron. Scientists believe additional species are yet to be iden-
tified. In particular, they suspect that a closer look at some of
the already known knob-scaled lizards may reveal that they
should actually be separated into two or more similar-looking
species. This type of splitting is especially common in animals
that live in small groups that are separated from one another,
so the individuals from one group, or population, never see in-
dividuals from another population.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Knob-scaled lizards live in typically small populations widely
scattered from the Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico on the
Knob-scaled Lizards 267

Gulf of Mexico south to the middle of Guatemala in Central
America.
HABITAT
Most knob-scaled lizards live in the mountains. Some species
make their homes in cool cloud forests, while others prefer drier
climates and live in hot, shrubby areas. In both cases, the knob-
scaled lizards take advantage of their flattened shape and seek
out cracks and holes in rocks and bark and other hiding places,
where they spend much of their lives.
At one time, scientists included the Chinese crocodile lizard
in this family. This lizard is now in its own family. Unlike the
knob-scaled lizards, the Chinese crocodile lizard lives most of
its life in or near shallow forest ponds, where it eats tadpoles
and fishes.
DIET
These lizards are ambush hunters, which means that they sit
very still and wait for their meal to come to them. Their meals
are usually made up of insects that happen to come too close
to their hiding places, which are usually in rock crevices. The
lizards quickly grab the insects and gulp them down. Like other
lizards, these species flick their tongues to pick up chemical
odors from their insect prey. They cannot smell with their
tongues, but they can smell with a special organ, called a Ja-
cobson’s organ, that sits above a small opening on the roof of
the mouth. The lizard picks up the chemicals with its tongue
and places them on the opening. A study of tongue-flicking be-
havior in Xenosaurus platyceps found that the young ones
flicked their tongues to smell prey whether the lizards were in
their hiding places or not, while the adult lizards did most of
their tongue-flicking only when they were in holes or cracks.
In other words, the adults were much more interested in find-
ing prey when they were out of sight than when they were in
the open.
At least one species of knob-scaled lizards, the Newman’s
knob-scaled lizard, will also eat bits of plants and some mam-
mal meat. This suggests that the lizards may prefer insects but
will eat just about anything they can find. Scientists call such
animals opportunistic (ah-por-toon-ISS-tik), because they in-
clude almost any kind of plant or animal in their diet—if they
are hungry and the opportunity presents itself.

These lizards stay hidden away most of the
time. Individuals in some species, including
the one known simply as the knob-scaled
lizard, live alone and defend their homes.
Males will even bite one another on the head,
which can leave behind noticeable scars. REALLY RELATED?
Other species, like Newman’s knob-scaled Many scientists once included the
lizard, are much more welcoming. In this Chinese crocodile lizard as one of the
species, pairs of male and female lizards of- species in the family of knob-scaled lizards.
ten live together in peace in the same The Chinese crocodile lizard is very similar in
crevices. Members of this family usually stay appearance to the other knob-scaled lizards,
in the same area throughout their lives, which all live in Mexico and Central America.
which can be quite long. Newman’s knob- A 1999 study, however, compared their DNA
scaled lizards, for example, can live to be at and found that the Chinese crocodile lizard
least seven years old. is different enough to have its own family,
Females in all species give birth to baby which is now called Shinisauridae. DNA is
lizards, rather than laying eggs as many other genetic material, essentially, an instruction
lizards do. A typical clutch for a lizard from booklet for making a living thing, that is
this family is one to three babies, but some passed down from parents to babies. By
of those in the knob-scaled lizard species can looking at differences in these “instructions,”
have six young at a time. Once the females scientists can tell how closely two species
have their babies, usually from June to Au- are related.
gust, some stay with their young. Scientists
have found that mothers in Newman’s knob-
scaled lizard species and the species known as Xenosaurus platy-
ceps remain with their babies in their hidden-away homes, often
keeping the young farther inside the hole or crevice, while the
mothers stay nearer the entrance as if guarding the babies from
possible land predators.
Some reports indicate that the lizards are most active at dawn
and dusk and during the night. Because populations are scat-
tered, their numbers are low, and they usually stay out of sight,
much about their behavior and reproduction is still unknown.
KNOB-SCALED LIZARDS AND PEOPLE

At least one population of Newman’s knob-scaled lizard lives
in the cracks of a rock wall on a plantation, but for the most
part the lizards in this family and people hardly ever see one
another. Since the lizards seem to make their homes in very
small areas and travel very little from those areas, however, farm-
ing or other human activity that might destroy their habitat

could mean disaster for the lizards, which would likely be un-
able to find a new home nearby.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although scientists still know little about these species or
their overall population sizes, they are not considered endan-
gered or threatened.

Knob-scaled lizard (Xenosaurus grandis)
SPECIES
KNOB-SCALED LIZARD ACCOUNT
Xenosaurus grandis
Physical characteristics: With a flat head and body and tall, bumpy
scales, the knob-scaled lizard looks much like the other lizards in this
family. This species, however, has bright red eyes and usually a dark-
brown body, often with tan to cream bands or blotches. It grows to
about 10 inches (25 centimeters) long from the tip of its snout to the
end of its tail. The tail is a bit shorter than the rest of the body. Males
and females are about the same size.
Geographic range: The knob-scaled lizard lives in both Central

America and Mexico, stretching from Guatemala in the south to Ve-
racruz, Mexico, on the Gulf of Mexico in the north.
Habitat: This species lives in wooded areas containing numerous

cracks and crevices in rocks and bark where they can remain out of sight.

Diet: Like other species in this family, the knob-
scaled lizard mainly eats insects, which it captures
by ambush.
Behavior and reproduction: These lizards typi-

cally live alone in their crevices, which they defend
against other members of their species. Male-to-
male fights sometimes break out, with the males
biting at one another’s head. Females give birth to
one to six baby lizards at a time.
Knob-scaled lizards and people: Knob-scaled

lizards and people rarely see or bother one another.
The knob-tailed lizard has bright Conservation status: Although much about this species is unknown,
red eyes and a usually dark- it is not considered endangered or threatened. ■
brown body, often with tan to
cream bands or blotches.
(Illustration by Brian Cressman. FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
Amphibians. New York, NY: Facts on File, 1986.
Web sites:
“Chinese Crocodile Lizard.” Center for Research on Concepts and
Cognition, Indiana University. http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/harry/
bio/zoo/shinisau.htm (accessed on December 8, 2004).
“Xenosauridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity. ummz.umich
.edu/site/accounts/information/Xenosauridae.html (accessed on Novem-
ber 16, 2004).
“Xenosauridae.” Virtual Museum of Natural History. http://www.curator
.org/LegacyVMNH/WebOfLife/Kingdom/P_Chordata/ClassReptilia/
O_Squamata/InfraAnguimorphan/SupFDiploglossa/FXenosauridae/
xenosauridae.htm (accessed on December 8, 2004).

GILA MONSTER AND MEXICAN
BEADED LIZARD
Helodermatidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Scleroglossa
Family: Helodermatidae
The two species in this family, the Gila monster and the Mex- class
ican beaded lizard, are both large, heavy-bodied lizards coated subclass
with small, rounded bumps that look like the beadwork on
clothing. The bumps, which are actually pebblelike scales, cover order
the tops of the arms, legs, head, and tail, as well as the back monotypic order
and sides of the body. These lizards have rather short, but
suborder
strong arms and legs and long, thin claws. The tail may be thin
or thick, depending on how well-fed the individual is. This is ▲ family
because these lizards store fat in their tails. Beaded lizards have
slightly longer tails than the Gila monsters. An average beaded
tail is at least two-thirds the length of the entire body, but the
typical Gila tail is about half the total body length. Unlike many
other lizards, these two species also have thick, forked tongues.
Members of the same species can look very different from one
another. Some adults are brightly patterned, while others are
faded and dull. The patterns may be made up of spots, blotches,
circles, bands, or squiggles on a background of pink, orange,
yellow, dark gray, or black. Juveniles are usually banded.
Gila monsters and Mexican beaded lizards are the only two
venomous (VEH-nuh-mus) lizards in the world. Unlike ven-
omous snakes that deliver venom from the upper jaw and
through grooves in just the two fangs, these lizards store their
venom in the lower jaw and deliver it through grooves in nu-
merous teeth.
Adult Gila monsters and beaded lizards range from 12 to 18
inches (30 to 45 centimeters) from the snout to the vent, which
Gila Monster and Mexican Beaded Lizard 273

is a difficult-to-see opening on the underside
of the lizard at the beginning of the tail, or
14 to 39 inches (35 to 100 centimeters) from
the snout to the tip of the tail. They weigh
1.0 to 4.4 pounds (450 grams to 2 kilo-
grams). The beaded lizard can grow larger
LIVING FOSSILS than the Gila monster.
The Gila monster and Mexican beaded GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
lizard are often called “living fossils.” This
They live in North and Central America
means that they have changed very little
from the southwestern United States to north-
from the way their ancestors looked
western Mexico, in Guatemala, and also in
millions of years ago. Both lizards belong to
the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico.
a family that scientists have traced back 98
million years, long before the great dinosaur HABITAT
extinction of 65 million years ago. Most Gila monsters and beaded lizards stay in
species in this family have disappeared, but deserts usually, although some make their
the Gila monster and Mexican beaded homes in dry grassland, in shrubby forests
lizard remain and display many of the on hillsides, or in nearby areas that have
characteristics of their long-gone relatives. boulders or burrows where they can hide.
DIET
Gila monsters and beaded lizards wander through their habi-
tat looking for young rabbits or rodents or snakes and lizard eggs
to eat. They will even climb trees and cacti in search of bird eggs.

These species spend about twenty-three hours of every day
out of sight in burrows, within cracks in rocks, or in trees.
When they do travel above ground, they wander about during
the day looking for food or for mating partners, sometimes trav-
eling more than 0.6 miles (1 kilometer). They also may come
out in the evening. During the breeding season, the males of
both species will fight one another, sometimes battling for two
or three hours at a time. The male beaded lizards will arch their
bodies and wrestle belly-to-belly until one comes out on top.
The male Gila monsters wrestle by twisting the body to and
fro. Courtship and mating occur in spring for the Gila mon-
sters and in fall for the beaded lizards. Two to three months
later, female Gila monsters lay two to twelve eggs, and female
beaded lizards lay two to twenty-two eggs. Hatchling Gila mon-
sters leave the nest the following spring in April, and hatchling
beaded lizards appear in June or July as the wet season begins.

GILA MONSTERS, MEXICAN BEADED LIZARDS, AND PEOPLE
Although they are venomous, bites to humans are rare and
typically only occur when a person tries to pick up one of these
normally slow-moving Gila monsters or Mexican beaded
lizards. Both can twist around quickly and deliver a hard bite.
Their powerful jaws can remain clamped shut on a finger or
hand for many minutes. While a bite can cause awful pain,
swelling, and sometimes vomiting and sweating, it is hardly
ever fatal. In fact, the last death due to a Gila monster bite oc-
curred in 1930. On the positive side, scientists have found that
substances in the venom may be useful in treating human dis-
eases, such as diabetes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers both
species in this family as Vulnerable, which means that they face
a high risk of extinction in the wild. The destruction of their
habitat, particularly as it is developed for housing or other hu-
man uses, is one of the biggest reasons they are at risk. Another
reason for their low numbers is that humans sometimes ille-
gally collect them for the pet trade or for personal pets.

Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT GILA MONSTER
Heloderma suspectum
Physical characteristics: The Gila monster is a slow-moving,

heavy-bodied lizard with rather short, clawed arms and legs and up-
per skin that looks beaded. The beads are actually rounded scales that
appear on the top of the head, back, tail, and limbs and down the
sides of the body. The color of the skin and scales differs from indi-
vidual to individual, but most have at least some pattern, which can
be quite bright and beautiful, of squiggles, spots, blotches, circles, and
bands. Colors range from pink, orange, and yellow to black and dark
gray. Well-fed Gila monsters have thick tails, which store fat. This
species and the Mexican beaded lizard are the only two venomous
lizards in the world. Adult Gila monsters commonly grow to about
20 inches (50 centimeters) in length from head to tail tip.
Geographic range: The Gila monster makes its home in the south-
western United States and in Sonora, Mexico.

Gila monsters need to eat only
three large meals a year to
survive. (Joe McDonald/Bruce
permission.)
Habitat: Gila monsters live in warm habitats, including deserts,

grasslands, and shrubby forests, sometimes on flat ground and some-
times on hillsides. They spend most of their time in underground bur-
rows, inside large cracks in rocks, or in other hiding places, only
coming above ground for about one hour a day.
Diet: Gila monsters need to eat only three large meals a year to sur-
vive. They store fat in the tail and then use it up between meals, which
can be several months apart. Their favorite foods include lizard, snake,
and bird eggs, as well as young cottontail rabbits and rodents.
Behavior and reproduction: They remain in burrows or other hid-

ing places for all but about one hour a day when they venture out to
look for food or mates. If they feel threatened, they will hiss and some-
times snap at or bite the attacker. Once they bite, they have a very
strong grip and may hold it for five minutes or longer. Males and fe-
males court and mate from late April to early June, and in July and
August the females lay eggs in a damp sand nest. Babies are about 6.5
inches long from snout to tail tip when they hatch.
Gila monsters and people: A Gila monster bite can be painful, but
it is almost never fatal to humans. The last reported death from a bite
occurred in 1930. Bites rarely happen, however, and usually result
from a person’s carelessness in picking up the lizard.
Conservation status: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) con-

siders the species to be Vulnerable, which means that it faces a high

risk of extinction in the wild. Habitat loss and illegal collection are
the main problems the lizards face. ■
Books
Brown, David E., and Neil B. Carmony. Gila Monster: Facts and Folklore
of America’s Aztec Lizard. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press,
1999.
Campbell, Jonathan A., and William W. Lamar. The Venomous Reptiles
of Latin America. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 1989.
Lowe, Charles H., Cecil R. Schwalbe, and Terry B. Johnson. The Venomous
Reptiles of Arizona. Phoenix: Arizona Game and Fish Department, 1986.
Martin, James, and Joe McDonald. Poisonous Lizards: Gila Monsters and
Mexican Beaded Lizards. Minneapolis, MN: Capstone Press, 1999.
Web sites
“Gila Monster.” Animal Planet: Corwin’s Carnival of Creatures. http://
animal.discovery.com/fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/lizard/gilamonster
.html (accessed on October 16, 2004).
“Gila Monster.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/reptiles/lizard/Gilamonster.shtml (accessed on October
16, 2004).
“Gila Monster.” WhoZoo. http://www.whozoo.org/anlife2000/jamiebritt/
gilaindexrev.html (accessed on November 3, 2004).
“Mexican Beaded Lizard.” Lincoln Park Zoo. http://www.lpzoo.com/tour/
factsheets/herps/beaded_lizard.html (accessed on October 16, 2004).

MONITORS, GOANNAS, AND
EARLESS MONITOR
Varanidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Varanoidei
Family: Varanidae

The monitors, goannas, and earless monitor all have a sim- class
ilar overall appearance, although some are rather small and oth- subclass
ers are very large. The smallest species is the Australian pygmy
monitor that only reaches about 6.7 to 7.9 inches (17 to 20 order
centimeters) in length from snout to tail tip and weighs just monotypic order
0.28 to 0.71 ounces (8 to 20 grams). The family contains the
suborder
largest lizards in the world. The heaviest is the Indonesian Ko-
modo dragon. This immense animal can grow to be at least 9.9 ▲ family
feet (3 meters) long and 330 pounds (150 kilograms). Many
people consider the crocodile monitor to be the world’s longest
lizard. They may grow to 12 feet (nearly 3.7 meters) long from
snout to tail tip, or as some reports claim, the lizards can reach
a whopping 15 to 19 feet (4.6 to 5.8 meters) in length.
The monitors, goannas, and earless monitor have heavy bod-
ies and long necks. Their tongues are long and forked, and they
have noticeable, sometimes large, eyes. Many have somewhat
saggy skin that hangs in small folds on their sides and necks.
Most of the members of this family have teeth with edges like
saw blades, which help them tear through the skin and flesh
of their prey.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Australia is home to about one-half of the known species.
Members of this family also live in Africa; central to southern
mainland Asia; Southeast Asia, especially the Malaysian and
Indonesian islands; and Papua, New Guinea.
Monitors, Goannas, and Earless Monitor 279

HABITAT
These lizards live in many different habitats from dry deserts
and grasslands, to lush forests and swamps. Some rarely if ever
leave the land, and others rarely leave the water. Several species
climb trees. This includes the green tree monitor of New Guinea
and Australia, which has a very strong tail that it uses when
climbing.
DIET
Most members of this family are meat-eaters. The smaller
species typically dine on insects, centipedes, worms, and other
invertebrates (pronounced in-VER-teh-brehts), which are ani-
mals without backbones. Medium-sized species eat lizards,
lizard and turtle eggs, and young mammals and birds, while
the very large monitors will capture, kill, and eat deer, mon-
keys, adult birds, wild pigs, buffalo, and other big animals.
Monitors also eat carrion (KARE-ree-un), which is the flesh of
an already-dead animal. They are not picky eaters, and many
will even eat young of their own species. A few species eat fruit.
Members of this family spend a good part of the day look-
ing for food, with some traveling 0.6 mile (1 kilometer) or more
between sunup and sunset. They flick their tongues to pick up
the scent of a prey animal and then rely on their eyesight and
their ears to help hunt down the animal when they get close.
Some species, including the sand monitor, swing their heads
back and forth while flicking their tongues so they can pick up
scents from a wider area and then track animals, especially small
lizards, to their underground burrows. They use their long
claws to dig up the lizards. Other species, such as the Komodo
dragon, sometimes hunt by ambush, which means that they sit
very still so they are not obvious and wait for a prey animal to
wander by. The Komodo dragon then rushes from its hiding
spot and grabs the animal.

These lizards are active during the day. Those that live on
land spend their nights in the hollow of a tree, a burrow that
they dig, or some other hiding place. Many of them enter the
water at times and are good swimmers. A few, such as the Nile
monitor and Merten’s water monitor, only come out of the wa-
ter to sunbathe, or bask, on shore. The females also leave the
water to dig holes along the shoreline, where they lay their eggs.

Many species in this family hide them-
selves when they hear people coming, so peo-
ple often see little but their footprints. When
they cannot hide, these lizards will defend
themselves. They will typically flatten out
from side to side and puff out their cheeks,
which makes them look larger. A few even GIANT LIZARDS
stand up on their hind legs. They also hiss.
The Komodo dragon is the heaviest
Some of the larger species can be quite dan-
lizard on Earth today, but it is only half as
gerous, because they can swing their tail
long and weighs just one-quarter of the
around with great speed and use it as a whip
amount of its ancient relative, known as
to strike the attacker. The Komodo dragon is
Megalania prisca. This enormous lizard
large enough to kill humans with bites from
tipped the scales at more than 1,320
its powerful jaws.
pounds (600 kilograms), compared to the
During the breeding season, males will Komodo’s 330 pounds (150 kilograms).
fight over females. Their fights are wrestling While a Komodo can grow to an impressive
matches in which two males stand belly to 10 feet long (3 meters), Megalania prisca
belly, grip each other with their arms, and try grew to at least 20 feet (6.1 meters) from
to knock one another down. Smaller species snout to tail tip. Some people believe it may
wrestle while lying on the ground. The win- have even reached 30 feet (9.1 meters) or
ning male then courts the female by flicking more. Now extinct, the lizard lived until at
his tongue over her snout and body. After least 19,000 years ago.
mating, the females lay eggs in underground
burrows, occasionally dug in the middle of
termite nests or ground-built bird nests. Depending on the
species, she may lay two to sixty eggs. The smallest species lay
the fewest eggs, and the largest lay the most.
MONITORS, GOANNAS, EARLESS MONITOR, AND PEOPLE

These lizards are usually shy animals that hide when people
approach. For this reason, people usually do not see them. The
footprints they leave behind, however, usually provide enough
clues to tell which species recently passed by. Monitor lizards
are often mentioned in ancient tales and are likely the basis for
legends of dragons. Some humans now hunt them for their skin,
which is highly prized as leather.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), two
species are Vulnerable, which means they face a high risk of
extinction in the wild. These are the Indonesian Komodo
dragon and the Philippine Gray’s monitor. Their low numbers

are due mainly to habitat loss and to hunting. People kill these
lizards for their skin. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists
the following four species as Endangered, which means that
they are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of their range: the desert monitor, the Indian monitor,
the Komodo dragon, and the yellow monitor.

Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis)
SPECIES
KOMODO DRAGON ACCOUNTS
Varanus komodoensis
Physical characteristics: A thick-bodied animal, the Komodo dragon

is the world’s heaviest lizard. It can reach a weight of 330 pounds (150
kilograms) and a length up to 9.9 feet (3 meters) from snout to tail tip.
Geographic range: They live on a few Indonesian islands, includ-

ing Komodo.
Habitat: Komodo dragons can live in dry or moist habitats and are
good enough swimmers to spend some time in the water.
Diet: They are meat eaters, dining on deer, pigs, other mammals,
lizards, and birds. The juvenile diet includes insects, bird and turtle
eggs, and carrion.

Behavior and reproduction: Komodo dragons
are active during the day, when they do their hunt-
ing. They either walk around looking for food or
hunt by ambush. Juveniles are good climbers, but
adults are too large to climb and stay on the ground.
The mating season runs from May to August. In
September, the females begin laying their eggs in
burrows. The average nest contains about eighteen
eggs, but some females can lay as many as three
dozen at a time. The young hatch in March and
April. When they reach eight or nine years old, they
are ready to mate and become parents themselves.
Komodo dragons and people: Most people

know of Komodo dragons from the zoo. Humans
may find use for these lizards, because their blood
contains special substances, called antibodies (AN-
tee-BA-dees), that may someday help fight health
problems in people.
The Komodo dragon is the
world’s heaviest lizard. It can Conservation status: Because the number of Komodo dragons is
reach a weight of 330 pounds small, and they live in a very small area where their habitat is disap-
(150 kilograms) (Erwin & Peggy
pearing, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers these
Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.) lizards to be Vulnerable, which means that they face a high risk of
extinction in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considers
the lizards to be Endangered, which means that they are in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range. ■

Crocodile monitor (Varanus salvadorii)
CROCODILE MONITOR
Varanus salvadorii
Physical characteristics: The crocodile monitor is a long-tailed,

yellow-spotted lizard that may grow to 12 feet (nearly 3.7 meters) in
length from snout to tail tip, although some claim that the lizards
may reach 15 to 19 feet (4.6 to 5.8 meters) long. It is often consid-
ered to be the world’s longest lizard.
Geographic range: This lizard lives on southern New Guinea.
Habitat: The crocodile monitor frequently climbs into trees of the

rainforest.
Diet: They probably eat birds in the wild, but in captivity, they also
eat mice and rats.

The crocodile monitor is reported
to be the world’s longest lizard.
They can grow to a length of 12
feet (nearly 3.7 meters). (©Tom
McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Behavior and reproduction: Crocodile monitors spend much of their

time in trees where they look for food. When they feel threatened, they
will swing their tails like whips to strike an attacker. During mating
season, the males wrestle one another. Females lay eggs, which hatch
into large babies that can be 20 inches (0.5 meter) in length.
Crocodile monitors and people: Legends among the native people

of New Guinea claim that this lizard is an evil spirit that breathes fire
and eats men.
Conservation status: The crocodile monitor is not considered en-

dangered or threatened. ■
Books
Auffenberg, W. The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1981.
— The Bengal Monitor. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994.
— Gray’s Monitor Lizard. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1988.
Bennett, D. Monitor Lizards. Natural History, Biology and Husbandry.
Frankfurt am Main: Edition Chimaira, 1998.

King, D., and B. Green. Goannas: The Biology of Varanid Lizards.
University of New South Wales Press, 1999.
Murphy, J. B., C. Ciofi, C. de la Panouse, and T. Walsh, eds. Komodo
Dragons: Biology and Conservation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Institution Press, 2002.
Periodicals
Mealy, Nora Steiner. “Creatures from Komodo.” Ranger Rick (August
2001): http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EPG/is_8_35/
ai_76289139 (accessed on October 18, 2004).
Web sites
“Crocodile Monitor.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/Crocodile_
Monitor.htm (accessed on October 18, 2004).
“Komodo Dragon.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/reptiles/lizard/Komodoprintout.shtml (accessed on Octo-
ber 18, 2004).
“Komodo Dragon.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/komodo_
dragon.htm (accessed on October 18, 2004).
“Komodo Dragon, Varanus komodoensis, 1998.” San Diego Zoo. http://
library.sandiegozoo.org/Fact%20Sheets/komodo_dragon/Komodo.htm
“New Guinea Crocodile Monitor.” Central Florida Zoo. http://www
.centralfloridazoo.org/animals/New_guinea_crocodile_monitor.htm
“Varanus komodoensis.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Varanus_komodoensis
.html (accessed on October 18, 2004).
“Varanidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich
.edu/site/accounts/information/Varanida.html (accessed on October
18, 2004).

EARLY BLIND SNAKES
Anomalepididae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Anomalepididae
class Early blind snakes are small, thin snakes, with many species
reaching just 6 to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters) in length
subclass
and less than one-tenth of an ounce (2.8 grams) in weight when
order full-grown. Five of the sixteen species are a bit larger and can
monotypic order top 12 inches (31 centimeters) in length, with some reaching
as much as 16 inches (41 centimeters). The larger species in-
suborder clude the greater blind snake and the four lesser blind snakes
▲ family known by their scientific names. Most members of this family
Anomalepididae have no common names and are known only
by their scientific names. The typical early blind snake has a
dark brown or black body with white, yellow, or pink on the
head and tail. A few species lack the lighter color on the head
and tail and are all reddish brown to brown.
The snakes in this family all have short heads with rounded
snouts, and most have slightly larger scales on the snout than on
the rest of the body. Compared to other snakes, their tongues are
quite short. They have stumpy tails that make up just 1 to 3.4
percent of the snake’s total body length. In snakes, the tail be-
gins at the vent, a slitlike opening on the belly side of the ani-
mal. The tail in half of the early blind snake species is tipped with
a thin, sharp spine. The other species have tails without spines.
They look much like slender blind snakes of the family Lep-
totyphlopidae and blind snakes of the family Typhlopidae. The
snakes in all three families have tube-shaped bodies that are
covered in smooth, round scales. Unlike most snakes that have
belly scales, or ventrals, that are noticeably larger than the scales

on the sides and back, the members of these
three families have belly scales that are about
the same size as the others. The three fami-
lies also share a few other traits. All have
small mouths that open not on the front end
of the head as in most other snakes, but
slightly before the front end and on the bot- TANGLED FAMILIES
tom. They have tiny eyes that are barely no-
Although some sources lump the blind
ticeable, if they are noticeable at all, beneath
snakes together in one family, most
scales on the head.
scientists place them in three separate
Early blind snakes do have some differ- families: the blind snakes of the family
ences from the other two blind snake fami- Typhlopidae, the early blind snakes of the
lies. Early blind snakes have teeth on both family Anomalepididae, and the slender
the upper and lower jaws, while snakes in blind snakes of the family Leptotyphlopidae.
the other families have them only on the up- The early blind snakes first got their own
per jaw or only on the lower jaw. In addi- family in 1939 when Edward H. Taylor
tion, early blind snakes have more scale rows noticed several differences in them from
than the others. Scientists determine scale other blind snakes, including a greater
rows by counting the number of scales from number of scale rows and the presence of
the belly up the side over the top and down teeth on both jaws instead of just one or the
the other side. Most early blind snakes have other. They also have an unusually shaped
more than 20 scale rows. bone, called the hyoid (HIGH-oid), that
Early blind snakes sometimes go by the supports the tongue. In early blind snakes,
common names of primitive or dawn blind it is M-shaped, rather than the typical V- or
snakes. Because many individuals have a head Y-shape seen in other snakes.
and tail that are very hard to tell apart, they
are also sometimes called two-headed snakes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Early blind snakes live in southern Central America, across
northern South America and possibly on Trinidad, and then
down the eastern side of South America to northeastern Ar-
gentina. Of the four main groups, or genera (jen-AIR-uh), in
this family, two live from Costa Rica to northern South Amer-
ica. These include the four species in the genus (JEAN-us) (the
singular of genera) Anomalepis and the three species in the
genus Helminthophis. The two species of the genus Typhlophis
live only in South America, from central Venezuela eastward
through French Guiana and southward through northeastern
Brazil. One species may extend onto Trinidad. The largest genus
is Liotyphlops with eight species. Some of these live from Costa
Rica into northern South America, and others make their homes
Early Blind Snakes 289

farther south in southern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay, and
northeastern Argentina.
One species, Helminthophis flavoterminatus, lives on the In-
dian Ocean island of Mauritius, far away from the other early
blind snakes. Humans are likely responsible for bringing the
snake to the island.
HABITAT
These snakes live most of their lives below the ground; one in-
dividual was reported buried 1.6 feet (0.5 meters) deep in the
soil. They also spend time beneath rocks, logs, and piles of leaves.
Like other underground-living, or fossorial (faw-SOR-ee-ul),
species that stay out of human sight and live in remote areas, sci-
entists know little about them. People have reported these snakes
in a number of different habitats from dry forests to rainforests,
and from low-lying grasslands to nearly 6,000 feet (1,830 meters)
up rocky mountainsides. Although no one has seen early blind
snakes doing it, scientists suspect that they can and do climb trees.
DIET
At least two species eat ant eggs, as well as ant larvae (LAR-
vee) and pupae (PEW-pee), which are the life stages between
the egg and the adult ant. Scientists suspect that other early
blind snakes also eat ants and possibly other insects, but they
have not studied them in enough detail to say for sure.

Scientists know little about their behavior in the wild but
suspect that they remain active all year and mainly at night. In
captivity, the snakes stay underground most of the time. When
picked up by a person, an early blind snake defends itself by
squirming and twisting its body and then releasing body waste
—both of which may cause the person to lose grip or let go of
the snake. If it has a spine-tipped tail, the snake will also jab
it into the person’s hand.
Snake researchers guess that the early blind snakes probably
lay eggs rather than give birth to live babies, but they have not
studied them enough to be sure. No information is available on
when or how the snakes mate or on how many young they have.
EARLY BLIND SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Early blind snakes and people rarely encounter one another.

CONSERVATION STATUS
These species are not listed as endangered or threatened. Like
many other species that live much of their lives underground,
however, scientists have little information about their numbers
in the wild. In fact, scientists know about six of the sixteen
species only from a few individuals caught in the area where
the first ones were found, and they have not seen one species,
the South American blind snake (Anomalepis aspinosus), since
1916.

Lesser blind snake (Liotyphlops ternetzii)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LESSER BLIND SNAKE
Liotyphlops ternetzii
Physical characteristics: One of the larger members of the family,

lesser blind snake adults can grow to more than 12 inches (31 cen-
timeters) in length. It is a thin, black, wormlike snake with white on
its head. Its shiny body is covered with small scales that are all about
the same size. It has tiny eyes and a small mouth that opens on the
bottom of the head rather than in front like the mouths in most other
snakes. Its body is tube-shaped and ends with a short spine-tipped
tail. Its skeleton includes bits of hip bones that are leftover reminders
of its ancient ancestors, which had legs.

Geographic range: The lesser blind snake lives
in Central and South America.
Habitat: This species spends most of its time un-

derground, beneath rocks or logs, or in other hid-
ing places.
Diet: They eat ant eggs, larvae, and pupae. The

larvae and pupae are the life stages between the egg
and the adult ant. They may also eat other insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Scientists know al-

most nothing about their behavior and reproduction.
They suspect, however, that these snakes are active
at night throughout the year and that they lay eggs.
Lesser blind snakes and people: Lesser blind

snakes and people rarely encounter one another.
Conservation status: The species is not listed as

endangered or threatened, but scientists have little information about One of the larger members of
their numbers in the wild. ■ the family, lesser blind snake
adults can grow to more than
12 inches (31 centimeters) in
length. (Illustration by Emily
FOR MORE INFORMATION Damstra. Reproduced by
permission.)
Books
Brazaitis, P., and M. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York: Crescent
Books, 1992.
McDiarmid, Roy W., Jonathan A. Campbell, and T’Shaka A. Touré. Snake
Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1.
Washington, DC: Herpetologists’ League, 1999.
Mehrtens, John M. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling
Publishing. 1987.
Peters, James A., and Braulio R. Orejas-Miranda. Catalogue of the
Neotropical Squamata. Vol. 1, Snakes. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Taylor, Barbara. Snakes. New York: Lorenz: 1998.
Web sites
“Blind snake (Typhlopidae).” MavicaNET. http://www.mavicanet.ru/
directory/eng/24710.html (accessed on October 5, 2004).

“Blindsnakes (Infraorder Scolecophidia).” Singapore Zoological Gardens.
http://www.szgdocent.org/cc/c-blind.htm (accessed on September 29,
2004).
“Family Anomalepidae (Dawn Blind Snakes).” EMBL Reptile Database.
http://www.embl-heidelberg.de/uetz/families/Anomalepidae.html (ac-
cessed on October 5, 2004).
“Superfamiliy Typhlopoidea (blind snakes).” The University of Michigan
Museum of Zoology, Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz
.umich.edu/site/accounts/pictures/Typhlopoidea.html (accessed on
October 5, 2004).

SLENDER BLIND SNAKES,
THREAD SNAKES, OR WORM
SNAKES
Leptotyphlopidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Leptotyphlopidae
family C H A P T E R Number of species: 93 species

Slender blind snakes, which are also known as thread snakes class
or worm snakes, are thin snakes with smooth, shiny scales.
Members of this family look much like blind snakes of the fam- subclass
ily Typhlopidae and the early blind snakes of the family order
Anomalepididae, since all have tube-shaped bodies that are
monotypic order
about the same diameter from head to tail, and all have short
heads with mouths that open downward instead of right on the suborder
front end of the head. Species within the three blind snake fam- ▲ family
ilies have small eyes and bodies that are covered with small
scales that are the same size on the belly as they are on the
sides and back. In most snakes, the belly scales, or ventrals, are
noticeably larger. In the three blind snake families, only the
scales on the snout are larger.
The slender blind snakes are different from the other two
families in several ways. While all are slim, the slender blind
snakes are the thinnest. The bodies of most species within this
family are no wider than 0.2 inches (0.5 centimeters), and some
are as little as 1/25th of an inch (1 millimeter) wide. This gives
them the appearance of moving string or thread. The largest
species in the family, such as the western slender blind snake
(also known as the southwestern thread snake) and the west-
ern thread snake, may reach more than 15 inches (38 cen-
timeters) in length, but most of the 93 species in the family are
much smaller. The typical adult ranges from 4 to 10 inches (10
to 25 centimeters) in length and no more than 0.05 ounces (1.4
grams) in weight. Another characteristic that sets the slender
blind snakes apart from the other blind snakes—and indeed
Slender Blind Snakes, Thread Snakes, or Worm Snakes 295

from all other snakes—is their teeth. Slender blind snakes are
the only snakes that have teeth on the lower jaw, but none on
the upper jaw.
Most slender blind snakes have backs that are all one color.
They may be pink, light or dark brown, black, or gray. A few
South American species are colorfully striped. The tails vary in
length from about 2 percent of the overall body length to 19 per-
cent, but most have tails that take up about 5 to 10 percent of
the total length. The tail on a snake begins at the vent, which is
a slitlike opening on the underside and toward the rear of the
animal. The tail in almost all species of slender blind snakes has
a sharp spine on the end. Most have rounded snouts, but some
have hooked and/or pointed snouts. In one unusual species,
known as the western slender blind snake, the largest of its snout
scales glows under ultraviolet light. Inside the body, the skele-
ton of most slender blind snakes includes pieces of hip and up-
per leg bones that are leftover reminders of its ancient ancestors,
which had working hips and legs. In boas and other snakes that
have similar structures, the bony bits sometimes stick out of the
body near the vent and look like small claws. These “claws” are
called spurs. In slender blind snakes, the leftover bones usually
do not poke through the skin. A few species have another odd
feature in their skeletons: The top of the skull is missing.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Slender blind snakes live in South, Central, and North Amer-
ica, as well as Africa and southwest Asia. North American
species live in Mexico and the southwestern United States. Cer-
tain species also live on the island of Socotra in the north-
western Indian Ocean, in the West Indies, and on islands off
the coast of Africa, Mexico, and Central America.
HABITAT
Slender blind snakes can live in many different habitats from
dry deserts and humid rainforests to rocky mountainsides, but
within those habitats, they always seek at least slightly damp
areas. These burrowing snakes spend much of their day buried
under an inch or two (2.5 to 5 centimeters) of soil, hidden be-
neath stones or logs, or out of view in piles of rotting leaves or
inside ant and termite hills. The species known only by its sci-
entific name of Leptotyphlops natatrix may be a swimmer. Just
one individual from this species has ever been found, and it
was discovered in 1931 in a swamp in Gambia.

DIET
Slender blind snakes eat small inverte-
brates (in-VER-teh-brehts), which are insects
and other animals without backbones. Many
of the species will eat almost anything, in-
cluding insects such as caterpillars, fly mag-
gots, beetles, cockroaches, and crickets, as SIZE MATTERS
well as spiders, harvestmen, which include Some animals need to live in a moist
daddy longlegs, and the many-legged cen- environment. The slender blind snakes, for
tipedes and millipedes. Most species, how- example, burrow underground, hide
ever, tend to prefer ants and termites. The beneath rocks, or slither into rotting logs or
snakes are able to find ant and termite hills piles of dead leaves. One of the reasons a
by following the chemical trails that these in- slender blind snake needs moisture is its
sects leave on the ground as they travel to and very high surface-to-volume ratio. This is a
from the nest. Once the snake tracks down mathematical formula that shows how
the ant or termite hill, it slithers inside and much outer surface, or surface area, an
eats as much as it can. In ant hills, they es- animal has compared to the space, or
pecially like the eggs, larvae (LAR-vee), and volume, the entire animal takes up.
pupae (PYU-pee). Ant eggs hatch into larvae, Because the slender blind snake is so long
which are the maggotlike life stage of ants. and thin, it has a great deal of surface area
Eventually, the larvae transform into the mo- compared to its overall tiny body. If the
tionless pupae stage before becoming adult snake were round like a ball rather than
ants. The slender blind snakes are able to jut long and thin, its surface area would be
out and pull in the lower jaw very quickly, much, much smaller. The outside weather
which allows them to eat hundreds of eggs, has a greater effect on animals with higher
larvae, and pupae in a very short time. surface-to-volume ratios, because a higher
Many animals avoid ant hills because these percentage of their total body volume is
insects, which are very protective of their exposed. This means that they can dry out
nests, can bite and sting. The slender blind especially fast and may even die. For this
snake, however, is able to defend itself. When reason, these animals frequently live in
attacked, the snake rolls into a ball and moist habitats or underground where their
smears itself with its body’s own ant repel- surroundings are damp.
lant: a mixture of slime and feces. The ants
shy away from the smelly mess, leaving the
snake to return to its meal.

Slender blind snakes spend most of their time out of sight
and below ground, sometimes as much as 49 feet (15 meters)
down, but they will crawl out of their burrows at night or af-
ter a heavy rain. They are able to dig through loose, sandy soil
but cannot dig into harder ground, so they probably use other

animals’ burrows or perhaps crawl along the paths of plant and
tree roots when they are in tougher soil conditions. If they feel
threatened, the snakes will squirm wildly, and those with tail
spines will jab their attacker. Some species may also stiffen up
their bodies and play dead in an attempt to survive an attack.
Although they are not sure, scientists suspect that all species
lay eggs, rather than give birth to live baby snakes. The few
snakes that have been studied mate in the spring and lay one
to twelve eggs at a time in the summer.
SLENDER BLIND SNAKES AND PEOPLE

These snakes and humans rarely encounter one another.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These snakes are not listed as endangered or threatened.

Texas blind snake (Leptotyphlops dulcis)
SPECIES
TEXAS BLIND SNAKE ACCOUNT
Leptotyphlops dulcis
Physical characteristics: With their brownish pink to dark brown

coloration, Texas blind snakes look much like earthworms, except
that the snakes have noticeable scales and lack the worm’s segments.
The snakes have a lighter colored, sometimes almost white, under-
side. Also known as Texas thread snakes, they have a long, thin body
and a small head with eyes that appear as little more than tiny dark
spots. Adults range from 2.6 to 10.7 inches (6.6 to 27 centimeters)
long. The tail is short, just 5 to 6 percent of total body length, and
has a spine at the end.
Geographic range: Texas blind snakes are found in the southwest-

ern United States and northeastern Mexico.

Habitat: Also known as a Texas worm snake, the
Texas blind snake spends much of its time in the
dirt, under rocks, or in some other hiding place. It
can live in dry areas, including deserts and rocky
mountainsides, but often chooses a spot near a
water source.
Diet: Texas blind snakes most often eat ant larvae

and pupae and termites, but they sometimes eat
other insects and spiders. They always eat ant larvae
and pupae whole, but they often refuse to eat the
heads of termites and sometimes only chew the juices
out of the back portion of the termite. Once in a
while, a small owl known as a screech owl will swoop
down to snatch a Texas blind snake and, keeping it
With their brownish pink to dark
brown coloration, Texas blind alive, bring it back to its nest. There, the snake cleans out the nest by
snakes look much like eating small invertebrates that might otherwise nibble on the owl.
earthworms, except that the
snakes have noticeable scales Behavior and reproduction: Texas blind snakes live mainly under-
and lack the worm’s segments.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra. ground but sometimes crawl out of their burrows at night or after a
Reproduced by permission.) rain downpour. They are not especially good at slithering above
ground and sometimes jab the tail spine into the ground to push off.
Males and females group together in the spring for the mating sea-
son. The female lays two to seven eggs in June or July and then coils
around them. Often, several females lay their eggs near one another.
The eggs hatch in late summer into baby snakes about 2.6 to 3 inches
(6.6 to 7.6 centimeters) long.
Texas blind snakes and people: Texas blind snakes and people
rarely encounter one another.

threatened. ■
Books
Books, 1992.
Grace, Eric, ed. Snakes. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books for Children,
1994.

Greene, H. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley:
McDiarmid, R. W., J. A. Campbell, and T. A. Touré. Snake Species of the
World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1. Washington, DC:
Herpetologists’ League, 1999.
Publishing, 1987.
Shaw, C. E., and S. Campbell. Snakes of the American West. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1974.
Taylor, Barbara. Snakes. New York: Lorenz, 1998.
Werler, J. E., and J. R. Dixon. Texas Snakes: Identification, Distribution,
and Natural History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
Web sites
“Family Leptotyphlopidae (slender blind snakes and thread snakes).”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Leptotyphlopidae.html (accessed on September
29, 2004).
“Other Interesting Aspects of Ant Biology.” Rice University. http://
www.ruf.rice.edu/bws/blindsnake.html (accessed on October 7, 2004).
“Photographs of Blindsnakes.” Comparative Physiology and Biome-
chanics Lab at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. http://
marlin.bio.umass.edu/biology/brainerd/kleyphotos.html (accessed on
October 7, 2004).
“Texas Blind Snake.” National Wildlife Federation. http://www.enature
.com/fieldguide/showSpeciesSH.asp?curGroupID=7&shapeID=1060&
curPageNum=1&recnum=AR0724 (accessed on October 7, 2004).

BLIND SNAKES
Typhlopidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Typhlopidae
class Most blind snakes are small, with many species reaching less
than 12 inches (31 centimeters) in length at full size. Adult flow-
subclass
erpot snakes, for example, reach only 4 to 6.5 inches (10 to 16.5
order centimeters) long. A few species, however, can grow to more
monotypic order than 24 inches (61 centimeters). The largest, known as Peter’s
giant blind snake or the Zambezi blind snake, can top 3 feet
suborder (0.9 meters) in length and weigh 1.1 pounds (0.5 kilograms).
▲ family The typical blind snake is smooth and shiny with a tube-
shaped body. Usually, the head, body, and tail have about the
same diameter, although in a few of the larger species, the back
half of the animal may grow fat and become quite thick. The
scales on their backs are thick and noticeably overlap one an-
other. In some other families of snakes, the scales barely over-
lap, if they overlap at all. Such an arrangement of overlapping,
thick scales gives the blind snakes a strong protective cover.
Blind snakes have short heads, typically with small eyes cov-
ered by a see-through scale and a small mouth that opens on the
underside of the snake rather than on the front of the head like
most other snakes. In some species, the snout is rounded, but in
others it may flatten out toward the front, become pointed or
hooked, or have some other shape. A few species have little bits
of flesh that stick out of the front of the snout and are used by
the snake to feel its way along the dark, underground tunnels in
which it lives. The tails are usually rather short and often tipped
with a single, thorny spine. The spine is especially noticeable in
Typhlops depressiceps and Acutotyphlops subocularis. The tail in a

snake begins at the vent, a slitlike opening on the snake’s un-
derside. They range from tails that make up less than 1/100th of
the body length to tails in some species that consist of 1/10th of
the overall body.
Many blind snakes have brown, dark gray, or black backs,
and a few have bright patterns, such as speckles, blotches, or
stripes of white, yellow, orange, or blue. The bellies are often
a lighter color than the backs. A few of the blind snakes, in-
cluding the Xenotyphlops grandidieri, are completely uncolored
and look a rather sickly white.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Blind snakes are found in tropical areas nearly around the
world, including New Guinea and Australia, Southeast Asia,
Africa and Madagascar, the Middle East, southeastern Europe,
Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. They
are also found on many islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans
and in the West Indies. One species, commonly called the flow-
erpot blind snake or Brahminy blind snake, has traveled
throughout the world, including the United States, in plant
shipments. Many people mistake this species for an earthworm,
but the snake is shiny, has a light-colored underside, and lacks
the rings around its body that worms have.
HABITAT
Blind snakes are burrowing species that spend most of their
lives either underground or out of sight under logs, tree bark,
stones, or in some other hiding place. Some will even slither
into ant or termite hills. Rainy weather seems to persuade many
blind snakes to leave their underground homes and crawl out
onto land. A few species have been found in trees, but they may
not actually live there and instead be just visiting to look for a
meal. Some blind snakes live in wet rainforests, but other
species survive quite well in deserts. Many others live in grass-
lands, dry forests, farm fields, sandy beaches at the oceanside,
or high up mountainsides. Almost half of the species are found
only on islands, and about 85 percent of all species of blind
snakes live only in the Old World, which includes Asia, Eu-
rope, and Africa in the Eastern Hemisphere.
DIET
Blind snakes eat termites, ants, worms, and other small
invertebrates (in-VER-teh-brehts). Invertebrates are animals
Blind Snakes 303

without backbones. Some of the insects at-
tempt to bite or sting in defense, but the
thick, overlapping scales on the blind snake
protect it from harm. The snakes follow ant
trails to their nests by flicking out their
tongues, which they use to smell and taste
NOT THE WHOLE SKIN the trail. They are very fast eaters, sometimes
gobbling up to 100 insects in just a minute’s
Snakes do not shed all of their skin.
time. They can eat so rapidly because their
Instead, they shed only the outermost
upper teeth can be pushed out and then
layer, called the stratum corneum (STRAT-
pulled back into the mouth, somewhat like
um kor-NEE-um). When a snake sheds, or
a fast-moving rake. When they find an
molts, the stratum corneum comes loose,
anthill, for example, they can rake through
and the snake slips out of it so that it peels
it and pull in prey very quickly.
off and leaves a complete, inside-out shed
that is thin and nearly see-through. In the
blind snake of the family Typhlopidae, BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
which has an exceptionally thick stratum As is true with many other burrowing
corneum, the shed comes off not in an species that remain out of sight most of the
entire piece but in bits and pieces that look time, scientists know little about their be-
like a number of rubbery rings. havior or reproduction. When they are dug
out of their burrows, the snakes quickly try
to bury themselves again. If they are cap-
tured, they will wiggle wildly, ooze a bad-smelling material
from the vent area, release their body waste, and/or poke the
tail spine into the attacker. Any of these actions can cause the
attacker to drop the snake. Occasionally, up to twenty indi-
viduals from some species of blind snakes coil up together un-
der a stone. Scientists are unsure why they do it, but they think
the snakes are just sharing a good spot.
Most blind snakes lay eggs, but in a few species, the eggs
may hatch inside the mother so that she gives birth to live baby
snakes. The flowerpot snake may be parthenogenetic (PAR-
thih-no-jeh-NEH-tik), which means that the females do not
need males to fertilize their eggs in order to have babies. It is
the only parthenogenetic snake, and one of the few partheno-
genetic vertebrates in the entire animal kingdom. Vertebrates
(VER-teh-brehts) are animals with backbones. Among blind
snakes overall, small or especially thin species have fewer eggs
— sometimes just one, raisin-sized egg. Larger species may have
more than fifty eggs that are the size of large grapes. Eggs
probably hatch in one to two months, but some hatch in just
a week. Many of the blind snakes mate during only one season

a year, usually in late spring, but others appear to mate all year
long.
BLIND SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Many African and Asian cultures mention blind snakes in
their legends and folklore.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the Mona Is-
land blind snake as Endangered, which means it faces a very
high risk of extinction in the wild. It also lists the Christmas
Island blind snake as Vulnerable, which means it faces a high
risk of extinction in the wild. Scientists know little about the
wild populations of many species, however, so others may be
at risk.
Blind Snakes 305

Blackish blind snake (Ramphotyphlops nigrescens)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT BLACKISH BLIND SNAKE
Ramphotyphlops nigrescens
Physical characteristics: The blackish blind snake, also known as

the English blind snake, has a dark back and lighter belly. The back
may be black, purple, or pinkish brown, while the underside is pink
or off-white. The vent may have a dark blotch on either side. The snout
is short and rounded. Size ranges from 3.8 to 22.7 inches (9.7 to 57.6
centimeters) long, and the females are much larger than the males.
Geographic range: Blackish blind snakes live in the eastern half of

Australia.
Habitat: People usually see these snakes while turning over rocks
or other items in gardens, farm fields, or even in city lots. The snakes
also live in similar hiding spots in the woods and along the coastline.

Diet: Blackish blind snakes eat ant larvae (LAR-
vee) and pupae (PYU-pee), which are the stages in
an ant’s life between egg and juvenile. They will
also eat worms and other small invertebrates once
in a while. A single blackish blind snake can eat
1,500 ants or more at one sitting. The snakes usu-
ally only feed in the spring and summer.
Behavior and reproduction: Blackish blind

snakes are a burrowing species that spends much
of its time underground. Up to thirty members of
the species sometimes group together to share a
good spot under a stone or in some other hiding
spot. After a heavy rain, blackish blind snakes may
leave their burrows and slither about on the ground,
sometimes even climbing into trees. This species
mates in late spring, and the females lay five to
twenty grape-sized eggs at a time in the summer.
A single blackish blind snake
Blackish blind snakes and people: People and these snakes gen- can eat 1,500 ants or more at
one sitting. (Illustration by Bruce
erally leave one another alone.
Worden. Reproduced by
permission.)
Conservation status: The species is not listed as endangered or
threatened. ■
Books
Cogger, H. G. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Fifth ed. Ithaca, NY:
Comstock Publishing Associates/Cornell University Press, 1994.
Ehmann, H., and M. J. Bamford. “Family Typhlopidae.” In Fauna of
Australia. Vol. 2A, Amphibia & Reptilia, edited by C. J. Glasby, G. J. B.
Ross, and P. L. Beesley. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing
Service, 1993.
FitzSimons, V. F. M. Snakes of Southern Africa. Cape Town and
Johannesburg: Purnell and Sons, 1962.
1994.
Greer, A. E. The Biology and Evolution of Australian Snakes. Chipping
Norton, New South Wales, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons, 1997.
Blind Snakes 307

Lee, Alfonso Silva. Coquí y sus amigos / Coquí and His Friends.
Pangaea, Bilingual edition, 2000.
McDiarmid, R. W., J. A. Campbell, and T. A. Touré. Snake Species of the
World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Vol. 1. Washington, DC:
Herpetologists’ League, 1999.
Publishing, 1987.
Schwartz, A., and R. W. Henderson. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West
Indies: Descriptions, Distributions, and Natural History. Gainesville:
University of Florida Press, 1991.
Web sites
“Blindsnake.” Wild Kids. http://www.amonline.net.au/wild_kids/reptiles/
blind_snake.htm (accessed on September 22, 2004).
“Blind Snakes, Family Typhlopidae.” Australian Museum. http://www
.livingharbour.net/reptiles/snakes_blind.htm (accessed on September
22, 2004).
“Blind Snakes (Family Typhlopidae: South-east Queensland.” Queensland
Museum Explorer. http://www.qmuseum.qld.gov.au/features/snakes/
seq/typhlopidae.asp (accessed on September 23, 2004).
“Brahminy Blind Snake.” Ohio Public Library Information Network.
http://www.oplin.org/snake/fact%20pages/brahminy_blind/brahminy

FALSE BLIND SNAKES
Anomochilidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Anomochilidae
False blind snakes are also known as dwarf pipe snakes be- class
cause, at first glance, they look very much like small pipe subclass
snakes. Pipe snakes actually fall under a separate family, the
Cylindrophiidae. The false blind snake has a short head and a order
short tail on either end of a tube-shaped body. In snakes, the monotypic order
tail is the portion of the body that begins at the vent, a cross-
suborder
wise opening on the belly side and toward the rear of a snake.
On either side of the vent, these snakes have a tiny bit of bone ▲ family
that sticks out. These bones are called spurs and are seen in a
few other snake families, including the boas.
Their backs are a dark reddish color blotched with yellow-
ish white markings. The eyes and mouth in a false blind snake
are small. In most snakes, the mouth opens at the very tip of
the head, but in false blind snakes, it opens slightly before the
end of the head. Both species in this family have seventeen to
nineteen scale rows. In other words, if a person counted the
number of scales in a straight line from the belly over the back
the snake and back down to the belly, he or she would find
seventeen to nineteen rows. The number of scales on the un-
derside of the snake from front to back is between 222 and 252
in the false blind snake known as Anomochilus leonardi and be-
tween 236 and 248 in the snake Anomochilus weberi. The com-
mon name for both species is false blind snake. The short tail
in both species only has six to eight scales on the underside.
Based on the specimens in museums, adult false blind snakes
range from 8 to 14 inches (20 to 36 centimeters) in length.
False Blind Snakes 309

Scientists have studied only museum speci-
mens rather than living snakes in the wild.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
False blind snakes are found in Borneo,
the Malaysian Peninsula, and Sumatra.
MYSTERIES BELOW
As humans build ships to travel to space HABITAT
or deep in the oceans, a wide variety of life False blind snakes probably live in loose
forms go unnoticed beneath our feet. Many soil or under leaves, but this is uncertain. Only
of the species that spend their lives out of a few individuals have been found, and these
view in underground tunnels or even just have been spread out in such a way that some
underneath piles of leaves are overlooked. scientists now think that the two species are
The false blind snakes are a good example. really just different populations of one species,
Although they live over a large region in while others believe that the snakes should be
Indonesia, scientists have only found a few split into more than two species.
and have never studied a living specimen.
The same holds true for many other DIET
underground species, which leaves wide False blind snakes probably eat worms and
open a huge area of study for future insect larvae (LAR-vee), which may include
biologists. grubs or caterpillars, but this is just a guess.
No one has studied a live false blind snake.
In addition, no researcher has found a dead
one and opened up its stomach to see what it had been eating.

Scientists have never studied a live false blind snake, so they
know nothing about its behavior. They did, however, find one
female that had shelled eggs still inside her. From this, they
guessed that the species lays eggs. Snakes, however, fall into
three groups. One of them is oviparous (oh-VIH-puh-rus),
which means that the female produces and lays shelled eggs.
The babies in the eggs get all their necessary food from inside
the egg until they hatch. The second group is viviparous (vie-
VIH-puh-rus), which means that the mother makes no eggs,
provides all of the food for the babies through connections in-
side of her body, and gives birth to baby snakes. No eggs are
involved. The third group is ovoviviparous (oh-voh-vie-VIH-
puh-rus), which falls somewhere between oviparous and vivip-
arous. The females in ovoviviparous species produce eggs, but
the eggs hatch inside her body just before she gives birth. The
babies, then, get food from the egg rather than directly from the

mother, but are born as baby snakes. Only oviparous species are
considered to be egg-layers. The other two groups are said to
be live-bearing snakes, meaning that they give birth to baby
snakes rather than eggs. Since scientists have only seen eggs in
a dead female but have never seen one give birth, they cannot
tell for sure whether this species is oviparous or ovoviviparous.
FALSE BLIND SNAKES AND PEOPLE

False blind snakes continue to live their lives outside the
view of people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers the two
false blind snakes to be Data Deficient, which means that sci-
entists as yet have too little information to make a judgment
about the threat of extinction.

False blind snake (Anomochilus leonardi)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT FALSE BLIND SNAKE
Anomochilus leonardi
Physical characteristics: The false blind snake has a tube-shaped

body, a short head with small eyes and mouth, and a short tail. At
first glance, it is difficult to tell which end is the head and which is
the tail. It has small, oblong, whitish spots down its dark red to brown
back. Adults range from 8 to 14 inches (20 to 36 centimeters) in
length. The size range may change a bit once scientists study more
false blind snakes.
Geographic range: False blind snakes live in the Malaysian Penin-

sula and Borneo.
Habitat: They probably live in loose soil or under leaves, but this
is uncertain.

Diet: They probably eat invertebrates, which are
insects, worms, and other animals without back-
bones.
Behavior and reproduction: False blind snakes

are probably egg-layers, although this in uncertain.
Their behavior and reproduction are unknown.
False blind snakes and people: People see this

snake only very rarely and generally leave it alone.
Conservation status: The World Conservation

Union (IUCN) considers the false blind snake to
be Data Deficient, which means that scientists as
yet have too little information to make a judgment
about the threat of extinction. ■
FOR MORE INFORMATION False blind snakes are found in

Borneo, the Malaysian
Books Peninsula, and Sumatra.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra.
David, P., and G. Vogel. The Snakes of Sumatra. Frankfurt am Main, Reproduced by permission.)
Germany: Edition Chimaira, 1996.
Greene, H. W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley:
Publishing, 1987.
Web sites
“Family Anomochilidae (Dwarf Pipe Snakes).” Animal Diversity Web.
Anomochilidae.html (accessed on September 21, 2004).
“Pipe Snakes and Shield Snakes.” Singapore Zoological Gardens.
http://www.szgdocent.org/cc/c-pipe.htm (accessed on September 22,
2004).

SHIELDTAIL SNAKES
Uropeltidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Uropeltidae
class Almost all of the forty-seven species of shieldtail snakes have
a head that gets narrower and narrower until it comes to a point
subclass
at the end. In some species, the head gets narrower from side
order to side, and in others it narrows from top to bottom. The pointed
monotypic order snout is covered with thick scales made of fingernail-like mate-
rial, and in some snakes, a particularly large scale makes a roof
suborder over the top of the snout. Many species have a large scale at the
▲ family very end of the tail. This large scale looks something like a shield,
which is how the snakes got their common name of shieldtails.
The large tail scale may have ridges, or keels, or it may be cov-
ered with spines. Often, the snake has other thick and keeled
scales that form a flattened oval just in front of the shield scale.
If the snakes live in wet areas, these keels and spines can pick
up and hold mud, which may form into a large clump.
Many species are brown, gray, or black. Some have dark
bands. A number of species have white or yellowish white out-
lines around their belly scales, which can make them look
rather speckled. Some shieldtails have bright yellow bellies
marked with dark spots, and blue, so-called iridescent (IH-rih-
DEH-sent) backs that shimmer different colors when the light
strikes them. A few species in Sri Lanka look like members of
the cobra family. This type of copying, called mimicry (pro-
nounced MIM-ick-ree), actually causes some birds that might
otherwise attack the snakes to stay away.
Although it cannot be seen from the outside, shieldtail snakes
are different from other snakes in the kind of muscle tissue that

they have in the trunk, or portion of the body
between the head and the tail. In snakes, the
tail begins at the vent, a slitlike opening on
the underside of the snake. The muscles in
the front part of the trunk in shieldtails have
red muscle fibers in addition to the white
muscle fibers present in other snakes. The BURROWING BY JERKS
red fibers can work longer than the white
Some scientists believe that the
ones without tiring out, and scientists believe
shieldtail snakes burrow through the ground
that these long-lasting fibers help the snake,
with an odd jerking movement. According to
which spends much of its time digging.
this idea, the snakes twist up the backbone
Shieldtail snakes are mostly small snakes, behind the head so that it is curved back
with most adults growing to less than 12 and forth and then quickly push the
inches (30 centimeters) in length. Some grow backbone out straight to burst the head
longer, and a few such as the Rhinophis forward. In other words, the back acts like
oxyrhynchus and Uropeltis ocellatus can reach a spring that is squeezed together and then
nearly 24 inches (61 centimeters) in length. let loose. By repeating this movement and
scooting up the body each time, the snake
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE digs through the soil. This is the same type
Shieldtail snakes live in southern India of jerking movement used by pipe snakes,
and in Sri Lanka or Ceylon, which is located but pipe snakes use it to force the head
off India’s southern coast. forward as a way of gulping down large prey.
HABITAT
Shieldtail snakes make their homes in forests that may be in
low areas or on the sides of mountains, usually preferring places
with moist or wet ground. They also live in gardens and farm
fields, including rubber plantations. Unlike most digging snakes
that only push through loose soil, the shieldtails will also tun-
nel through quite hard, clay soils. In addition, they will scoot
under leaves or logs.
DIET
Shieldtails mainly eat worms, but some species will also eat
caterpillars and termites, and at least one species in captivity
will eat earwigs. Earwigs are small insects with a pair of pin-
cers on the end of the body. After studying how several species
eat worms, scientists found that the snakes either grab the
worm at the end or in the middle and quickly drag them back
into the burrow. The bodies of those worms caught in the mid-
dle fold in half as they are dragged into the snake’s narrow
burrow.
Shieldtail Snakes 315

The shieldtails stay hidden underground most of the time,
but many will come up to the surface after a good rain, and at
least one species will then begin hunting for worms. If the
snakes feel threatened, they will wiggle away while looking for
some loose soil and then force the head into the ground to start
tunneling. They are expert diggers and can tunnel quickly. If
prodded with a stick or otherwise attacked, the snake will coil
around the stick or other object and begin waving the tail end
of the body. Apparently, predators are confused into thinking
the tail is the head. The snake can survive an attack to the tail
much better than an attack to the head, so the tail waving may
save its life. It is also possible that some predators may be scared
off by the tail-waving behavior.
Female shieldtail snakes give birth to baby snakes rather than
laying eggs. Typically, they have two to five young at a time,
with larger females giving birth to a larger number than younger
mothers. Births likely occur between March and September. Sci-
entists know little else about their behavior or reproduction.
SHIELDTAIL SNAKES AND PEOPLE

These snakes and people rarely encounter each other.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These species are not listed as endangered or threatened, but
scientists know little about the size of the snakes’ populations.

Nilgiri burrowing snake (Plectrurus perrotetii)
SPECIES
NILGIRI BURROWING SNAKE ACCOUNT
Plectrurus perrotetii
Physical characteristics: One of the larger species in this family,

the Nilgiri burrowing snake can reach 17.3 inches (44 centimeters)
in length. They are tube-shaped snakes with purplish brown to brown
backs and bellies that are often either a light brown or yellowish color.
In some species, the bellies are spotted with a lighter color, and each
of these spots is located right in the center of a belly scale. The head
is flattened from top to bottom. The tail is tipped with a spiny, cup-
shaped scale.
Geographic range: The snake lives in Nilgiri and the Anamalai Hills
in southern India.
Habitat: Most of the snakes found by people are buried about 4 to

6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) deep in the very rich soil of gardens

or farm fields. The snakes especially like soil with
lots of manure mixed into it. Farmers and garden-
ers often use manure, which contains many nutri-
ents, to fertilize their soil and help their plants to
grow. The snakes live high up on hillsides.
Diet: The Nilgiri burrowing snake eats mainly

worms.
Behavior and reproduction: They spend much

of their time in burrows, but if the weather turns
cooler, they will move out of their homes and ex-
plore piles of manure that farmers and gardeners
have left above the ground. They give birth to baby
One of the larger species in this snakes rather than laying eggs. Females have three to six babies at a
family, the Nilgiri burrowing time, usually in July or August. Scientists know little else about their
snake can reach 17.3 inches
behavior or reproduction.
(Illustration by Bruce Worden.
Reproduced by permission.) Nilgiri burrowing snakes and people: These snakes and people
rarely see or bother each other.
Conservation status: The Nilgiri burrowing snake is not listed as

endangered or threatened, but scientists know little about the size of
the snake’s population. ■
Books
Deraniyagala, P. E. P. A Colored Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon.
Vol. 3, Serpentoid Reptilia. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Government Press,
1955.
Frank, N., and E. Ramus. A Complete Guide to Scientific and Common
Names of Reptiles and Amphibians of the World. Pottsville, PA: NG
Publishing, 1996.
1994.
McDiarmid, R. W., J. A. Campbell, and T. A. Toure. Snake Species of the
World, Vol. 1. Washington, DC: The Herpetologists’ League, 1999.
Publishing, 1987.

K. D. Wells. Herpetology, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,
2001.
Rajendran, M. V. Studies in Uropeltid Snakes. Madurai, India: Madurai
Kamaraj University Publications, 1985.
Smith, M. A. The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, Including the
Whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-Region. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. 3,
Serpentes. London: Taylor and Francis, 1943.
Web sites
“Family Uropeltidae (shield-tailed snakes and short-tail snakes).” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
pictures/Uropeltidae. html (accessed on September 22, 2004).

PIPE SNAKES
Cylindrophiidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Cylindrophiidae
class The family name Cylindrophiidae points out one of the pipe
snakes’ most noticeable features: their tube- or cylinder-shaped
subclass
bodies. The family includes nine species, which are often called
order Asian pipe snakes to set them apart from other families of snakes
monotypic order that some people also call pipe snakes. These include the some-
what similar-looking false coral snakes of the family Aniliidae
suborder and the false blind snakes of the family Anomochilidae.
▲ family The pipe snakes are usually dark brown to black with yellow
or reddish bands running from the belly up the sides of the back.
The back bands are sometimes very pale and difficult to see. The
underside of the tail, however, usually has a very bright red or
yellow tip. Some pipe snakes have stripes, and others have light-
colored spots that color the middle of the snake’s back from head
to tail. Counted from one side over the back and down the other
side, they have seventeen to twenty-three rows of scales. The
head, which is no wider than the neck, is rounded and contains
two small eyes with round or slightly oblong pupils and two nos-
trils that each sit inside a single scale. Pipe snakes also have a
very short, pointy tail that is about as thick as the rest of the
body. The tail in a snake begins at the vent, a slitlike opening
on the underside of the animal. Pipe snakes are small- to medium-
sized snakes, ranging from 1 to 3 feet (0.4 to 1 meters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pipe snakes live in Indonesia, including Borneo, Sumatra,
and Aru Island west of New Guinea; Sri Lanka or Ceylon off

the coast of southern India; and southern
China. They also exist in much of Southeast
Asia, including Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
Myanmar, and Vietnam.
HABITAT
Pipe snakes tend to live in low-lying THE NAME GAME
forests near a water source and in rice pad- Scientific names for animals, such as
dies, but they may also crawl into nearby vil- Cylindrophis ruffus, may appear to be long
lages and towns. They often slither under and confusing, but they actually make it
leaves or into soft, moist soil on the ground. much easier for researchers to tell animals
They are also excellent swimmers. apart. This is because all scientists around
the world use the same scientific names no
DIET matter what language they speak. This is not
The red-tailed pipe snake, and probably the true of common names. For example,
other eight species, eats long and thin animals, among just the English-speaking people,
including other snakes, eels, and lengthy some use the common name of pipe snake
lizards. For this reason, their jaws do not need for the nine species in the family
to open as wide and their necks and bodies Cylindrophiidae, but others use it to mean
do not need to stretch as much as other the species in the family Aniliidae or those
snakes, which eat prey that are larger around. in the family Anomochilidae. A scientific
The pipe snakes are constrictors (kun-STRIK- name has two parts: the genus name, which
tuhrs), which means that the snake will grasp notes the general group to which the animal
its prey by looping its body around the ani- belongs, and the species name, which
mal and squeezing. For small prey, the snake reveals the exact type of animal. In addition,
may hold the animal just until it can reach its the genus name tells scientists which
head around and eat it. For larger animals, the animals are the most closely related. All nine
snake squeezes the prey until it cannot breathe members of the Cylindrophiidae family, for
and stops moving before eating it. People who instance, are of the same genus and are
keep pipe snakes in captivity find that the therefore closely related.
snakes will also eat small mice and fish.
Pipe snakes swallow in an unusual way. Af-
ter swallowing part-way with some of the prey still hanging out-
side, the snake shuts its mouth, curves its backbone back and
forth, and then reopens its mouth while quickly straightening
out the backbone, which causes the head to shoot forward over
more of the prey’s body. Some people believe the snake may dig
through the soil by the same method, but no one has seen this.

Pipe snakes stay out of sight in the dirt or under leaves much
of the time but will crawl about above ground after a heavy rain.
Pipe Snakes 321

Their most noted behavior is a defense tactic that involves flat-
tening out the body and then raising and curling over the tail
to show off its bright red or yellow color. At the same time, they
bury the head under part of the body and wave the now flat-
tened tail. Although the pipe snake performs the display with
its tail rather than its head, it looks much like the flattened neck
and head-waving behavior seen in cobras. The display may be
enough to convince an attacking animal, called a predator
(PREH-duh-ter), from taking a bite out of the pipe snake. If the
display does not work, however, and the predator so much as
touches the snake, the pipe snake will ooze a bad-smelling mix-
ture from its vent area. Captured snakes will continue to per-
form the cobra display and give off the bad-smelling material
for a few weeks, but eventually they get used to their new sur-
roundings and people and stop both behaviors.
Based on information collected by watching captive snakes,
the pipe snakes are able to dig quite swiftly through unpacked
soil and will make tunnels that are about twice as wide as their
bodies. While the wide tunnels do give them room to turn
around, these snakes are able to slither frontward and back-
ward at about the same speed. Scientists know little else about
their behavior.
Pipe snakes give birth to live babies rather than eggs, most
mothers having two to five young at a time. Larger females may
have closer to five young, and smaller females may have closer
to two. The baby snakes are quite large, often measuring half
the length of the mother’s body.
PIPE SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Pipe snakes and humans have little contact.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These species are not listed as endangered or threatened. Like
many other species that live much of their lives underground,
however, scientists have little information about their numbers
in the wild.

Red-tailed pipe snake (Cylindrophis ruffus)
SPECIES
RED-TAILED PIPE SNAKE ACCOUNT
Cylindrophis ruffus
Physical characteristics: The small, nonvenomous (nahn-VEH-

nuh-mus) red-tailed pipe snake is a black snake with reddish or white
bands. The back is slightly iridescent (IH-rih-DEH-sent), which
means that it reflects different colors depending on how light bounces
off. In the bright sunshine, for example, the scales may shine blue,
green, yellow, or red. The undersides have a black and white checker-
board pattern, except for the tail. The tail is banded with black, white,
and sometimes red and has a red tip. Adults usually reach about 15.5
to 16 inches (39 to 41 centimeters) long but can grow to about twice
that size.
Geographic range: Red-tailed pipe snakes are found in southern

China and much of Indonesia and southeast Asia.
Pipe Snakes 323

Habitat: Red-tailed pipe snakes spend most of
their time under leaves or in burrows that they can
dig themselves. They live in forests, often near a
water source, and in rice paddies, but they may
also live in nearby villages and towns.
Diet: It eats other snakes, lizards, and eels. A con-

strictor, it is able to squeeze the prey animals un-
til they cannot breathe and either pass out or die
before being eaten.
Behavior and reproduction: The red-tailed pipe

snake is mostly known for its behavior when it
feels threatened. The snake will flatten out its
The red-tailed pipe snake is
mostly known for its behavior body and raise its tail, moving it much as a cobra would wave its
when it feels threatened. The flattened neck and head. Although the tail can do no harm, the dis-
snake will flatten out its body play is often enough to convince an attacking animal to leave the
and raise its tail, moving it much
as a cobra would wave its
snake alone. This species gives birth to baby snakes rather than eggs.
flattened neck and head. The females typically have two young at a time but occasionally have
(Illustration by Bruce Worden. up to twelve. Young are about 7 inches (18 centimeters) long at
birth.
Red-tailed pipe snakes and people: Humans and these snakes have
little contact.
Conservation status: These species are not listed as endangered or

threatened. Like many other species that live much of their lives un-
derground, however, scientists have little information about their
numbers in the wild. ■

Books
Mattison, C. The Encyclopedia of Snakes. New York: Facts on File,
1995.
Mehrtens, John M. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York:
Sterling Publishing, 1987.
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory Bi-
ology of Amphibians and Reptiles. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press,
2001.

Web sites
Cylindrophis maculates (Linne’s Earth Snake) Linne 1754.” Upeka Pre-
maratne. http://members.fortunecity.com/ukp001/naja/cylindrophiidae/
cylindrophis_maculatus.htm (accessed on September 22, 2004).
“Red-tailed Pipe Snake.” Ecology Asia. http://www.ecologyasia.com/
Vertebrates/red-tailed_pipe_snake.htm (accessed on September 22,
2004).
Pipe Snakes 325

FALSE CORAL SNAKE
Aniliidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Aniliidae
One species: False coral snake
(Anilius scytale)
class The false coral snake, the only species in this family, is a
subclass brightly colored, orange, red, or pinkish snake with fifty to sixty
black bands. Each of the bands is two, three, or four scales
order wide. In some members of this species, the black bands are in-
monotypic order complete. In other words, they only reach partway up the sides
suborder of the snake and do not meet at the top of the back. Sometimes,
the individual orange, red, or pinkish scales are outlined in
▲ family black, making the snake look slightly speckled. Its belly is all
red, orange, or pinkish, with no black banding. All scales on
its body are shiny and smooth, which means they have no
ridges, or keels. This nonvenomous (nahn-VEH-nuh-mus)
snake looks somewhat similar to the venomous, or poisonous,
coral snake species that shares its habitat and is therefore
known as a “false” coral snake. Both false coral snakes and coral
snakes, which are in the family Colubridae, are red, orange, or
pink with evenly spaced black bands.
The body of a false coral snake is about the same thickness
from one end to the other, giving the snake an overall tube
shape. Both the head and tail are short. In snakes, the tail be-
gins at the vent, which is a slitlike opening on the underside
of the snake. This tube-shaped body is very similar to that of
the pipe snakes of family Cylindrophiidae, and the false coral
snakes are sometimes called red pipe snakes. At one time, in
fact, the two families were combined into just one family. The
only slight change in the body thickness of the false coral snake
is in its head, which flattens out a bit. The head, which is made

of very thick bones, has two small eyes cov-
ered by scales, and the large jaws have cone-
shaped teeth that are very slightly curved.
The snakes also have spurs, which are tiny,
barely noticeable bits of bone that stick out
near the vent. The snakes reach about 2 to 3
feet (0.6 to 1 meters) in length. BONY MEMORIES
Within this species of false coral snake, Some snakes, including false coral
scientists have named two subspecies, or snakes, have spurs. These are tiny bits of
races. A species has a two-part name, and the bone that barely jut out near the vent,
false coral snake is named Anilius scytale. which is the slitlike opening on the
When scientists name subspecies, they add a underside of a snake. The spur is actually
third name to the end of the scientific name. part of leftover hip and sometimes upper
In the case of the false coral snakes, the two leg bones, carried down through the years
subspecies have slightly different scale pat- from the long-ago ancestors of snakes,
terns. Anilius scytale scytale, abbreviated to which had working hips and legs. The legs
A. s. scytale, has more than 225 ventrals, gradually disappeared, and in most
which are the scales on its underside, and snakes, the hips vanished, too. In the false
A. s. phelpsorum has fewer than 225. The coral snakes, however, the spurs are a
belly scales in snakes are generally wider reminder of past life on Earth.
than the rest of the scales on the snake’s sides
and back. A. s. scytale also has black bands
that are shorter than the red bands, while A. s. phelpsorum has
black bands that are longer than the red bands. In addition, the
two subspecies usually live in different areas, with A. s. phelp-
sorum living farther north than A. s. scytale. In some areas, such
as northern Brazil and French Guiana, some individuals look
a little bit like both subspecies, which means that their two par-
ents may be from two different subspecies.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
False coral snakes live in eastern Peru, Ecuador, Colombia,
Bolivia, Brazil, French Guiana, southwestern Venezuela, Suri-
name, and Guyana, especially in the Amazon and Orinoco
Basins, which are the areas surrounding the Amazon and
Orinoco Rivers of South America.
HABITAT
This snake spends much of its time in burrows in loose soil.
It lives in rainforests, especially in low-lying areas near streams
or other waterways.
False Coral Snake 327

The false coral snake is a
nonpoisonous snake and usually
stays underground during the
daytime. (Illustration by Jonathan
Higgins. Reproduced by
permission.)
DIET
False coral snakes eat long and narrow vertebrates (VER-
teh-brehts), which are animals with backbones. These include
small snakes, eels, caecilians, and amphisbaenians. Caecilians
(seh-SEE-lee-ens) are salamanderlike animals that live under-
ground. Amphisbaenians (am-fizz-BANE-ee-ens) are small-
headed, short-tailed lizards that also make their homes below
ground.

This nonpoisonous snake is a burrower and usually stays un-
derground during the daytime. When it is above ground and
feels threatened, it will curl up its tail to show off its bright un-
derside. The snake appears to be an ovoviviparous (oh-vo-vie-
VIH-puh-rus) species, which means that the female produces
eggs, but they hatch inside her, and she actually gives birth to
baby snakes. Females have up to fifteen young at a time. Like
many other snakes that stay buried under the ground much of
the time, false coral snakes have been studied very little by sci-
entists. Further information about their behavior and repro-
duction remains a mystery.
FALSE CORAL SNAKES AND PEOPLE

People and false coral snakes rarely see one another.

False coral snake (Anilius scytale)
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers the false
coral snake to be Data Deficient, which means that scientists as
yet have too little information to make a judgment about the
threat of extinction. Destruction and other changes to their habi-
tat, however, are probably threatening at least some populations.
Books
1994.
Greene, H. W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1997.
False Coral Snake 329

Publishing, 1987.
Peters, J. A., R. Donoso-Barros, and P. E. Vanzolini. Catalogue of the
Neotropical Squamata. Part 1, Snakes. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory
Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles, 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press,
2001.
Web sites
“Family Aniliidae.” EMBL (European Molecular Biology Laboratory)
Reptile Database. http://www.embl-heidelberg.de/uetz/families/Aniliidae
Lovera, A. “Anilius scytale (false coral snake, pipe snake, and red pipe
snake).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/
site/accounts/information/Anilius_scytale.html (accessed on February
2, 2005).
“Pipe Snake (Anilius scytale). Animal Planet.com. http://animal.discovery
.com/fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/slithering/pipesnake.html (accessed on
February 2, 2005).

SUNBEAM SNAKES
Xenopeltidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Xenopeltidae
The two species of sunbeam snakes—the common sunbeam class
snake and the Hainan sunbeam snake—are among the world’s subclass
most beautiful snakes. Their metallic-looking bodies shine dif-
ferent colors depending on how light bounces off them. When order
a sunbeam snake is in the shade, its back looks dark purplish monotypic order
brown or black, but when it slithers out into the sun, the large
suborder
scales on its back and head erupt into a wave of color. Like a
raindrop can bend sunlight to create a rainbow, this snake has ▲ family
scales that reflect sunlight into many colors. This property is
called iridescence (IH-rih-DEH-sense). In fact, another com-
mon name for this snake is the iridescent earth snake. Young
snakes, which are also iridescent, often have a white patch, or
collar, on the upper neck.
Adults have slightly flattened bodies that are white, light gray,
or light yellow on the bottom. The light color also extends up
onto the lip scales. Sunbeam snakes have very small eyes on a
head that is about the same diameter as the neck, so the head
is not as obvious as it is in vipers, pythons, and many other
snakes. The head flattens out toward the snout, giving it a wedge
shape suited for digging. The skeleton also has some interest-
ing features. The bone in the front of the upper jaw has teeth
where most snakes do not. The snake’s teeth are also all hinged
at the base, rather than more firmly attached to the jaw bone,
so they can wiggle back and forth a bit without falling out.
Adults usually reach about 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters) in
length. The tail makes up about one-tenth of the body’s total
Sunbeam Snakes 331

length. In snakes, the tail begins at the vent,
a slitlike opening on the belly side.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sunbeam snakes live in southern China
and Southeast Asia from the Nicobar and An-
“OLD” SPECIES daman islands west of Thailand to the Philip-
Scientists sometimes refer to some pines and south through much of Indonesia.
species, such as the sunbeam snakes, as
being relicts (REH-lihkts). Relict species are HABITAT
those that now live in a much smaller area Sunbeam snakes spend at least part of
than they once did. Typically, they have their time underground, hidden in leaves or
been on Earth for a very long time under trash. They live in humid forests, as
compared to other similar animals and well as rice paddies, farm fields, parks, and
have a set of features—usually something gardens next to the woods. People rarely see
in the skeleton—that is similar to that seen them deep in the forests, which may mean
in ancient animals, many of which are they do not travel there, but it may also sim-
known only from their fossils. In some ply mean people usually overlook them in
cases, relicts now live in widely separated that habitat.
areas, because the species in between
died out over the years. DIET
Scientists have only studied the diet of the
common sunbeam snake, which eats lizards,
frogs, and snakes, as well as small mammals and birds. The snake
is a very fast eater, swallowing its prey more quickly than most
other snakes can. Scientists have not studied the other species.

These snakes are nonvenomous (nahn-VEH-nuh-mus), or not
poisonous. They stay out of sight most of the day, remaining
underground in burrows. A sunbeam snake uses its wedge-
shaped head to push through leaves, litter, and loose soil. Al-
though it is capable of digging, it usually uses burrows made by
other animals rather than making them itself. The snakes be-
come more active at night and leave the burrows to hunt. They
seem to keep up their guards when out at night, moving quickly
with the head pressed against the ground and the tongue flick-
ing about again and again to pick up any scents of other ani-
mals in the air. When they feel threatened, sunbeam snakes will
shake the tail like a rattlesnake does, but the sunbeam snakes
have no rattles, so the tail makes no noise. Nonetheless, scien-
tists believe that the motion alone is enough to make an

attacker, also known as a predator (PREH-duh-ter), think twice
about approaching the snake. Predators that come too close are
greeted by a very bad-smelling material that oozes from the
snake’s vent area. If the predator actually touches the sunbeam
snake, the snake will stiffen its body and jerk about wildly.
Again, while this poses no danger to the attacker, the motion
may be enough to cause the predator to leave the snake alone.
Female sunbeam snakes lay up to seventeen eggs at a time.
Scientists know little else about their reproduction.
SUNBEAM SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Sunbeam snakes and people leave one another alone for the
most part, but the snakes are starting to become more popular
in the pet trade as more people become familiar with their color-
changing scales. They make poor pets, however, because they
remain underground most of the time and usually give off a
bad odor when handled. They also are very nervous, and the
stress is likely one reason they often die soon after they are pur-
chased. In addition, the snakes do not reproduce well in cap-
tivity, which means that people must hunt them in the wild to
supply the pet trade, rather than raise babies from already cap-
tured snakes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
These snakes are not listed as endangered or threatened.
Sunbeam Snakes 333

Common sunbeam snake (Xenopeltis unicolor)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COMMON SUNBEAM SNAKE
Xenopeltis unicolor
Physical characteristics: The common sunbeam snake has a dark

purplish brown back, but its smooth scales shine in blues, greens,
reds, and yellows when the animal slithers out on a bright, sunny
day. Its belly is whitish. That whitish color extends into a collar
around the back of the head and front of the neck in juveniles. The
snakes have wedged-shaped heads that help them to dig into the soil.
Adults usually reach less than 3 feet (0.9 meters) in length, but some
can grow to 49 inches (1.25 meters).
Geographic range: The common sunbeam snake lives in southern

China and Southeast Asia.
Habitat: The common sunbeam snake is semifossorial (SEM-ee-faw-

SOR-ee-ul). “Fossorial” means it lives below ground, and the term “semi”

means they only spend part of their time there. They
are most often seen at the edges of forests or in the
farm fields and neighborhoods nearby.
Diet: In the wild, they eat lizards, especially

skinks, as well as frogs, snakes, small mammals,
and small birds. Captive snakes will eat mice.
Behavior and reproduction: This snake stays

underground much of the day and comes out at
night to hunt. In captivity, it kills mice by con-
striction (kun-STRIK-shun), which is the ability to
squeeze a prey animal until it cannot breathe and
therefore dies. When threatened, the common sunbeam snake will
Sunbeam snakes spend at least
shake its tail and, if touched, will jerk its body. Females lay up to part of their time underground,
seventeen eggs at a time, and eggs reportedly hatch in about seven to hidden in leaves or under trash.
eight weeks, but scientists know little else about its reproduction. (Illustration by Jonathan Higgins.
Common sunbeam snakes and people: The common sunbeam

snake and people leave one another alone.
Conservation status: This snake is not listed as endangered or

threatened. ■

Books
Campden-Main, S. M. A Field Guide to the Snakes of South Vietnam.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1970.
Cox, M. J. The Snakes of Thailand and Their Husbandry. Malabar, FL:
Krieger Publishing Company, 1991.
Deuve, J. Serpents du Laos. Paris: ORSTOM, 1970.
1994.
Publishing, 1987.
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory Bi-
ology of Amphibians and Reptiles, 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press,
2001.
Sunbeam Snakes 335

Web sites
“Sunbeam Snake (Iridescent Earth Snake).” Ecology Asia. http://www
.ecologyasia.com/Vertebrates/sunbeam_snake.htm (accessed on
“Sunbeam Snake (Xenopeltis unicolor).” Science Museums of China.
http://smc.kisti.re.kr/animal/class/cls310.html (accessed on September
21, 2004).
“Sunbeam Snake or Iridescent Earth Snake.” Wild Singapore. http://www
.wildsingapore.per.sg/discovery/factsheet/snakesunbeam.htm (accessed
on September 21, 2004).

NEOTROPICAL SUNBEAM
SNAKE
Loxocemidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Family: Loxocemidae
One species: Neotropical sunbeam
snake (Loxocemus
family C H A P T E R bicolor)

This family has only one species, the neotropical sunbeam class
snake. It also is known as a Mexican burrowing python, New subclass
World python, ground python, dwarf python, and burrowing
boa, but it is actually neither a boa nor a python. Boas and order
pythons are in separate families. For many years, some re- monotypic order
searchers felt this snake was similar enough to the boas that it suborder
should be placed in the Boidae family, but now most agree that
it should have its own family, as it does in this chapter. ▲ family
The neotropical sunbeam snake has a small mouth, tiny cat-

eyed pupils, and a somewhat-pointed, upturned snout. Its head
is covered with larger scales than the rest of the upper body.
The belly side of the snake is whitish, while the upper snake is
brown, sometimes with small, white speckles. This obvious shift
from the brown back to the white underside gives the snake its
scientific name bicolor (“bi” meaning two). Its scales are slightly
iridescent (IH-rih-DEH-sent), which means that they change
color depending on how light bounces off them. Often, the
neotropical sunbeam snake is confused with another family of
snakes that lives in southeast Asia. The southeast Asian sun-
beam snakes have iridescent scales much like those on the
neotropical sunbeam snakes. One feature that helps to tell them
apart is the presence of pelvic spurs, which are tiny bits of bone
that stick out from the underside of neotropical sunbeam snakes
near the vent, which is the slitlike opening on the belly side be-
tween the middle and end of the snake. Asian sunbeam snakes
do not have spurs. Male neotropical sunbeam snakes have two
Neotropical Sunbeam Snake 337

noticeable pelvic spurs. Females also have
spurs, but they are small and difficult to see.
Young snakes look like smaller versions of
the adults. They have the slightly iridescent,
copper-colored skin, but they do not have any
white speckles on their backs.
WHAT IS CITES? Neotropical sunbeam snakes have heavy
CITES is the Convention on International muscular bodies. Adults usually are less than
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 3 feet (1 meter) long, but large ones can
and Flora. Governments from all over the reach 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length. The short
world volunteer to participate in CITES to tail makes up only about 10 to 14 percent of
control the buying and selling, called trade, its total body length. As in all snakes, the tail
of plants and animals from one country to begins at the vent.
the next. This is especially important for
species that are threatened with extinction GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
or otherwise in danger, because such This snake lives from southwestern Mex-
collecting could possibly wipe out an entire ico through much of Central America, in-
species. CITES protects these plants and cluding Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
animals by listing each species under one Nicaragua, and northwestern Costa Rica.
of three sets of rules that control or ban
almost all trade of animals. Currently, CITES HABITAT
protects about five thousand species of Neotropical sunbeam snakes live in warm
animals, including the neotropical sunbeam climates and a variety of forested areas, but
snake, and twenty-eight thousand species not in the mountains. They also sometimes
of plants. make their home along the beaches of the
coastline. They are secretive animals that hide
among rocks and leaves, beneath logs and/or
under their bark, in below-ground holes, and even in ant nests.
DIET
This snake will eat small mammals and adult and young
lizards, including whip-tailed lizards. It also eats the eggs of
black and green iguanas and olive Ridley seaturtles. The snake
apparently crawls into the lizard and turtle nests, wraps its body
around the eggs, then moves in with its head to swallow them
whole. In captivity, the snakes will sometimes bite into the eggs,
but then swallow the entire egg. A snake may eat several eggs,
sometimes more than two dozen, at one time.

Because this snake spends a good deal of its time underground,
scientists know little about the details of its behavior in the wild

Neotropical sunbeam snake (Loxocemus bicolor)
but have learned some information from captive snakes, which

are held in various zoos around the world. They are called semi-
fossorial (SEM-ee-faw-SOR-ee-ul) animals. “Fossorial” means
that they spend time below ground, and adding “semi” points
out that they frequently leave their underground homes. During
the daytime, the snakes stay out of sight by using their upward-
curved snouts to push through leaves to reach the ground, where
they dig into loose dirt to make tunnels, or burrows. They come
out at night and on rainy days to wander around above ground
looking for things to eat. The white speckles on the backs of
adults likely provide some camouflage. Like many other animals,
the pattern on the skin breaks up the outline of their bodies and
makes it more difficult for predators (PREH-duh-ters), or ani-
mals that hunt other animals for food, to spot them against the
background habitat. For example, a completely dark snake slith-
ering over a pile of leaves would be more noticeable than a snake
with lighter patches that hide its outline.

Because the neotropical
sunbeam snake spends a good
deal of its time underground,
scientists know little about the
details of its behavior in the
wild. (R. Wayne Van Devender.
The neotropical sunbeam snake finds its food by following

scent trails or by simply spotting a mammal, lizard, or an egg.
It is a constrictor (kun-STRIK-tuhr), which means that it coils
its body around the animal it wants to eat, then tightens the
coil until the animal passes out or dies. It then releases the coil,
slides its head around, and eats the prey. As noted, it wraps its
body around eggs but does not crush them.
During breeding season, male neotropical sunbeam snakes
fight over females, sometimes biting one another in quite vi-
cious battles. The males have sharp spurs near the vent. These
spurs can apparently cut the female quite deeply during mat-
ing. About two months after mating, captive females commonly
lay from two to four eggs at a time, although they can lay eight
or more. Baby snakes in the wild hatch in May. When they
reach four to five years old, they can begin to have their own
babies.
NEOTROPICAL SUNBEAM SNAKES AND PEOPLE

This is not a typical pet species, probably because of its ten-
dency to spend much of its time underground. The Conven-
tion on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) lists
this species as one that people cannot freely buy and sell.
CONSERVATION STATUS
This species is not listed as endangered or threatened.

Books
Greene, H. W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley:
McDiarmid, R. W., J. A. Campbell, and T. Touré. Snake Species of the
World. Vol. 1. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Washington, DC:
The Herpetologists’ League, 1999.
Savage, J. M. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2002.
Wilson, L. D., and J. R. Meyer. The Snakes of Honduras. 2nd ed.
Milwaukee: Milwaukee Public Museum, 1985.
Web sites
“New World Sunbeam Snake.” Vida Preciosa International Inc.
http://www.vpi.com/5VPIBreeders/NewWorldSunbeamSnake/
NewWorldSunbeamSnake.htm (accessed on September 11, 2004).
“Mexican Burrowing Python, Loxocemus.” Glasgow Zoopark. http://www
.glasgowzoo.co.uk/articles/coldblooded/mexburrowingpyth.php (accessed
on September 11, 2004).
“Mexican Burrowing Snake.” Utah’s Hogle Zoo. http://www.hoglezoo
.org/animals/view.php?id=42 (accessed on September 11, 2004).
Other sources
“Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora.” http://www.cites.org (accessed on September 9, 2004).

BOAS
Boidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Boidae
class Boas come in many sizes, from small to very large. The adults
of some species grow to less than 1 foot (about 0.3 meters) in
subclass
length, but some are immense. The boa constrictor (kun-
order STRIK-tuhr), for example, reaches nearly 14 feet (4.3 meters)
monotypic order in length, and the green anaconda can grow to 25 feet (7.7 me-
ters) in length and 300 pounds (136 kilograms). Among all the
suborder boa species, females are usually larger than males.
▲ family The boas are split into two subfamilies. One includes the sand
boa, rubber boa, rosy boa, and eleven other species, none of which
grows to much more than 4 feet (1.2 meters) in length. They all
have small eyes, narrow heads on thick necks, large scales on the
end of their snouts, and short tails. The tail in a snake is the part
of the body behind the vent, a crosswise opening on the belly side
of the snake and toward the rear of the animal. The other sub-
family includes the anacondas, boa constrictors, and other mostly
larger snakes. The smallest is the Abaco boa, which reaches just
31.5 inches (81 centimeters) in length, and the largest is the green
anaconda, which can be about ten times as long. Members of this
subfamily have large heads on smaller necks, large eyes, and long
tails. The anacondas are different in that they have distinctively
soft and loose skin.
Depending on the species, boas may be red, orange, yellow,
green, brown, or gray and may or may not have patterns of
blotches or spots on their backs. Some have scales that shine
in different colors when the light strikes them in certain ways,
and, in a few, the color of the skin changes completely from

dark in the daytime to light at night. For example, the Fiji Is-
land boa can switch from black to pale pink within six hours.
Two features that all boas share are the presence of heat sen-
sors on the front of the face and two little bits of bone, known
as spurs, that look like small claws. One spur lies on each side
of the vent. The spurs are always noticeable in males but are
sometimes small and not easily seen in females.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Boas live in many places around the world, including South
America, Central America, North America, Europe, Africa, and
Asia. They are also present in New Guinea and on many is-
lands throughout their range.
HABITAT
From fields to forests and marshes to deserts, boas live in
many different habitats. Some of the sand boas make their
homes in deserts, while others, like the viper boas, live in wet
forests. Some species prefer warm climates, but others are able
to exist in very cold areas, like southern Mongolia in Asia. The
boa constrictor is unusual in that it can survive well in a wide
variety of habitats, from deserts to rainforests in warmer cli-
mates and also grasslands in cooler areas.
DIET
While boas may spend some time slinking through their
habitats looking for animals to eat, most of them are ambush
hunters, which means that they find a good spot, wait mo-
tionless for a prey animal to wander by, and then strike out to
grab it. The heat sensors on their faces help them “see” the heat
coming from the prey, which helps them to hunt at night. The
sand boas ambush prey by burying themselves in the sand and
waiting for lizards or small mammals. Amazon tree boas coil
around tree branches to ambush birds, and Puerto Rican boas
sit still in the entrances to caves and watch for bats. Green ana-
condas, which are also called water boas, often lurk underwa-
ter until a passing fish or other animal comes within striking
distance. Members of the boa family are constrictors, which
means that the snake will kill its prey by looping its body
around the animal and squeezing, cutting off the animal’s air
until it is dead. While most boas eat small mammals, birds, or
reptiles, the green anaconda and a few of the giant species eat
quite large animals, including deer and crocodilelike caimans
Boas 343
(KAY-muhns). Some reports, although ex-
tremely rare, indicate that green anacondas
have killed and eaten humans.

Boas frequently come out during the day
A BIG MOUTHFUL to sunbathe, or bask, which warms their bod-
People are often surprised that a snake ies. They are most active, however, at night.
that looks so small can even get its mouth Some of their most interesting behaviors are
around what look to be impossibly large seen in the ways they defend themselves.
animals that make up its diet. A green When threatened, many sand boa species roll
anaconda, for example, can eat an entire the body into a ball with the head buried in
deer. Snakes are able to do it, in part, the middle, and some of the short-tailed
because their lower jaws are different from species poke out the tail to trick the attacker
those in a human. Unlike a person’s lower into thinking it is actually the head. The
jaw, a snake’s jaw is split into left and right snake can survive a bite to the tail much bet-
sides that are connected by stretchy ter than a bite to the head. The Fiji Island
muscle and tissue, called ligament (LIH- boa flattens its head and neck much like a
guh-ment). As the snake’s teeth grasp the cobra, which makes the snake look bigger
prey animal and draw it into the mouth, the and may frighten off an attacker. Some of the
lower jaw—one side at a time—moves larger boas hiss, strike, and bite when they
forward and pulls the animal farther inside. feel threatened. They may also ooze a bad-
The snake’s head and then its neck stretch smelling material from the vent area.
like elastic to become much wider than During breeding season, the males of some
normal, so the prey can fit inside its body. species wrestle over females, sometimes bit-
ing one another. In most species, the females
give birth to baby snakes. A few, like the Cal-
abar ground boa (sometimes mistakenly called a ground
python, which confuses it with the python family), lay eggs.
BOAS AND PEOPLE

Many of the smaller species have little contact with humans.
Some people hunt the larger boas for their skins and/or meat or
to make medicines. Several species are popular in the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
species is Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild in the near future. In addition, four are Vulnerable,
which means that they face a high risk of extinction in the wild
in the near future, and two are Near Threatened and are at risk
of becoming threatened with extinction in the wild in the future.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists three species as Endan-
gered. The low numbers of these snakes result from loss of their
habitat and, in the case of the endangered Mona boa, from cats
and rats that have been introduced to the area and prey on the
snakes. In addition to these listed snakes, one species may be ex-
tinct, that is, no longer alive. Scientists have only one record of
this species, called Cropan’s boa or Corallus cropanii, which dates
back to the mid-1900s.
Boas 345
Boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BOA CONSTRICTOR
Boa constrictor
Physical characteristics: Boa constrictors are usually brown with

darker brown and somewhat triangular markings running down the
back. The markings may become reddish on the tail, which explains
their other common name: redtail boa. The snakes have heads that
are wider than their necks and long tails that they use to cling to tree
branches. Boas can become quite large, with the longest reaching 13.8
feet (4.2 meters).
Geographic range: They are found in Mexico, throughout Central

America, in much of South America, and on various nearby islands
along the coasts of these areas.

The boa constrictor lives in many
habitats, including evergreen
and deciduous jungles,
rainforests, near-desert areas,
grasslands, and farm fields.
(Illustration by Marguette
Dongvillo. Reproduced by
permission.)
Habitat: The boa constrictor lives in many habitats, including ever-

green and deciduous jungles, rainforests, near-desert areas, grasslands,
and farm fields. Boas are good climbers and are often found in trees.
Diet: Boa constrictors usually dine on small mammals, like rats and
squirrels, but also on birds, iguanas (ee-GWA-nuhs), and other large
lizards. Large boas, which do most of their hunting on the ground,
sometimes eat bigger animals, such as porcupines. Young boas are
much more likely than adults to hunt for prey in trees.
Behavior and reproduction: Boas hunt for food mostly at night,

spending the day inside cracks in tree trunks, in burrows made by
tunneling animals, or in some other hiding place. Scientists know lit-
tle about their mating behavior in the wild. Females, which give birth
to baby snakes rather than eggs, may have twenty-one to sixty-one
young at a time. The babies are about 19.5 inches (49.5 centimeters)
long at birth. The young can have their own young once they are two
to four years old.
Boa constrictors and people: Boa constrictors are rather common

in the pet trade. They are often seen in farm fields, where the snakes
find, kill, and eat many pest animals.
Conservation status: This snake is not endangered or threatened.

■
Boas 347
Emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus)
EMERALD TREE BOA

Corallus caninus
Physical characteristics: The emerald tree boa has a bright green

back with white, diamond-shaped markings. The snakes have large,
almost heart-shaped heads and long tails. They are not venomous
(VEH-nuh-mus), that is, not poisonous, but have long front teeth—
sometimes up to 1.5 inches (3.8 centimeters). Adults can grow to
about 7.3 feet (2.2 meters) in length.
Geographic range: The emerald tree boa lives in the northern half
of South America, near the Amazon River.

Habitat: This tropical species spends most of its
life in trees, often in those with branches that hang
over rivers.
Diet: An ambush hunter, the emerald tree boa

waits patiently in trees for birds or small mammals,
including monkeys, to approach. It then strikes
out, grasps the animal with its long front teeth, and
wraps its prey with its strong body. It then squeezes
the animal to death before eating it.
Behavior and reproduction: This snake spends

most of its time coiled around or looped over
branches in trees. From this perch, it watches for a
passing bird or other animal for its next meal. This
is a live-bearing species, which means that the fe-
males give birth to baby snakes rather than laying
eggs. The babies are often red or orange, but some-
times green. All change to green as they get older.
The emerald tree boa waits
Emerald tree boas and people: Emerald tree boas are sought in patiently in trees for birds or
the pet trade, but laws are helping to protect them in many countries. small mammals to approach.
It then strikes out, grasps the
animal with its long front teeth,
Conservation status: This species is not endangered or threatened. and wraps its prey with its strong
■ body. It then squeezes
the animal to death before
eating it. (Illustration by
Marguette Dongvillo.
Boas 349
Green anaconda (Eunectes murinus)
GREEN ANACONDA
Eunectes murinus
Physical characteristics: A long and large-bodied snake, the green

anaconda can reach a length of 25 feet (7.6 meters) and 300 pounds
(136 kilograms). An average adult is about 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.6 me-
ters). It is a dark green snake with round, black spots down the back
and a black stripe behind each eye.
Geographic range: This snake lives in the northern half of South

America and on the West Indies island of Trinidad.
Habitat: Also known as the water boa, the green anaconda is often
found in freshwater marshes, swamps, ponds, and slow-moving

The green anaconda can reach
lengths of 25 feet (7.6 meters)
and 300 pounds (136
kilograms). (Joe McDonald/Bruce
permission.)
streams or along their shores. The young often climb onto low
branches along the water’s edge.
Diet: Prey include birds, fish, turtles, crocodilelike caimans, and

mammals, such as deer and monkeys. The snake kills the animals by
coiling its body around them and squeezing.
Behavior and reproduction: Green anacondas are ambush hunters,

waiting in the water near the shoreline for prey animals to approach.
They sometimes wander onto land to sunbathe, or bask. The breed-
ing season is in the dry season, when several males will approach a
female for a chance to mate with her. The females give birth to twenty
to forty-five baby snakes. Some of the young can be quite large, rang-
ing from about 2 to 3 feet (61 to 91.4 centimeters) in length.
Green anacondas and people: Green anacondas and people have

little contact. Their large size and bad temper make them poor pets.
Although green anacondas can and do eat humans on extremely rare
occasions, most stories of such activity are untrue.
Conservation status: This species is not endangered or threatened.

■

Books:
Brazaitis, P., and M. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York: Cres-
cent Books, 1992.
Boas 351
Cleave, Andrew. Snakes and Reptiles: A Portrait of the Animal World.
New York: Magna Books, 1994.
de Vosjoli, Philippe, Roger Klingenberg, and Jeff Ronne. The Boa
Constrictor Manual. Santee, CA: Advanced Vivarium Systems, 1998.
Martin, James. Boa Constrictors. Minneapolis, MN: Capstone Press,
1996.
Minton, Sherman A., and Madge Rutherford Minton. Giant Reptiles. New
York: Scribners, 1973.
Murphy, John C., and Robert W. Henderson. Tales of Giant Snakes: A
Historical Natural History of Anacondas and Pythons. Malabar, FL:
Krieger Publishing, 1997.
O’Shea, Mark. A Guide to the Snakes of Papua New Guinea. Port
Moresby, Papua New Guinea: Independent Publishing, 1996.
Pope, Clifford Millhouse. The Giant Snakes: The Natural History of the
Boa Constrictor, the Anaconda, and the Largest Pythons, Including
Comparative Facts about Other Snakes and Basic Information on
Reptiles in General. New York: Knopf, 1961.
Stafford, Peter J., and Robert W. Henderson. Kaleidoscopic Tree Boas:
The Genus Corallus of Tropical America. Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1996.
Stebbins, Robert C. A Field Guide to the Western Reptiles and Amphibians:
Field Marks of All Species in Western North America, Including Baja
California. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985.
Tolson, P. J., and R. W. Henderson. The Natural History of West Indian
Boas. Taunton, U.K.: R & A Publishing, 1993.
Web sites:
“Anaconda.” Nashville Zoo. http://www.nashvillezoo.org/ anaconda.htm
“Boa constrictor.” Enchanted Learning.com. http://www.enchantedlearning
.com/subjects/reptiles/snakes/Boa.shtml (accessed on September 17,
2004).
“In the Dark.” Animal Planet.com. http://animal.discovery.com/
convergence/snakes/dispatches/dispatch2.html (accessed on Septem-
ber 17, 2004).

PYTHONS
Pythonidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Pythonidae
Some of the largest snakes in the world are pythons. One, class
the reticulated python, even holds the world’s record for the
subclass
longest wild snake at 33 feet (10.1 meters). That particular
snake was killed in 1912 in Sulawesi, also known as Celebes, order
in Indonesia. Besides the reticulated python, however, only two monotypic order
other pythons grow to be longer than 20 feet (6.1 meters). In
fact, the pygmy pythons of Australia are less than 2 feet suborder
(61 centimeters) long when full grown. ▲ family
Pythons look much like boas. They both have cat’s-eye pupils
and little claw-like bits of bone, known as spurs, on each side
of the vent, which is the slitlike opening on the belly side of
the snake. They both also have heat vision and can “see” heat
with little pits on the scales of their lips. Pythons and boas dif-
fer, however, in the location of these pits. In boas, they fall be-
tween scales, but a python’s pits are in the middle of the scales.
Both use the heat sensors to help them locate prey or food an-
imals. Another major difference between the pythons and boas
is that all pythons lay eggs, while all but three species of boas
give birth to baby snakes.
Some pythons are almost completely one color, but many
have patterns of blotches or bands on their backs. Often, the
snake’s scales are iridescent (IH-rih-DEH-sent), which means
that they shine different colors depending on how the light hits
them. A number of these snakes, including the Papuan python,
can actually change color. This species can switch from having
a bright yellow body and light gray head to completely dark
brown from head to tail.
Pythons 353
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pythons are found in southern Asia;
southeastern China and Southeast Asia; the
Philippines; Papua, New Guinea, and In-
donesia; and Australia. They also live in the
central and southern region of Africa, which
SEVEN NEW PYTHON SPECIES is known as Sub-Saharan Africa.
In 2000 and 2001, the number of python
HABITAT
species grew by seven. The seven new
species resulted not when someone found Depending on the species, pythons may live
a new snake in the field, but when scientists in thick forests, open forests, rainforests, rocky
decided that they had wrongly lumped and scrubby areas high on hillsides, deserts,
those seven species in with other python grasslands, swamps, or other freshwater areas.
species. Once they were removed and given Some stay on land all their lives, while others
new species names, the python family grew spend much of their time climbing in trees. A
from twenty-five species to thirty-two. As few survive quite well in the desert, but oth-
studies into this family continue, scientists ers prefer the wetter areas, living in rainforests,
expect that they may find more species or in some cases actually in a lake or other wa-
hidden inside the thirty-two, and the python ter area for up to six months a year.
family will grow yet again.
DIET
Pythons are meat eaters and mostly feed
on mammals and lizards, although some may take an occasional
bird, and a few enjoy other species of snakes. They may crawl
around looking for prey animals, but more often than not, they
hunt by ambush. To ambush a prey, the snake remains still and
waits for an animal to happen by and then lashes out to grab it.
Although it is very, very rare, some of the largest python
species, including reticulated, African, and Indian pythons,
have been known to coil around and then eat humans.

Constriction (kun-STRIK-shun) is one of this family’s best-
known behaviors. After grabbing a prey animal in its jaws, the
python wraps its body around the animal and constricts or
squeezes so hard that the prey cannot breathe. When the ani-
mal dies or passes out, the snake uncoils and moves its head
around to swallow the meal whole.
When they feel threatened, many will hiss, ooze a bad-
smelling material from the vent area at the beginning of the
tail, and possibly strike and/or bite. The ball python gets its
name because it curls up in a ball when it feels it is in danger.

Pythons are mostly active at night, although they often will
sunbathe, or bask, during the daytime in a warm spot. One
species, the diamond python of Australia, hibernates, or enters
a deep sleep, during the winter to survive the cold months. Sci-
entists know little more about python behavior.
Pythons are an egg laying species. Females of small species,
such as the pygmy python, lay up to ten eggs at a time. Larger
females, such as the reticulated python, may lay more than one
hundred. The eggs usually stick together in a clump. Females
coil their bodies around the eggs, which protects them from
other animals and keeps them warm. Some mothers can even
heat up their bodies during this time by tightening and loos-
ening the muscles. Occasionally, a female may leave the eggs
while she goes out to sunbathe and then return to wrap the
eggs in her heated body. Once the eggs hatch, the baby snakes
usually look much like the adults, although they are sometimes
more brightly colored.
PYTHONS AND PEOPLE

People hunt pythons for their meat and skin and to make
folk medicines. They are also popular in the pet trade, but most
of the pet snakes now are born from other captive snakes rather
than taken from the wild. Although some of the largest species
are able to kill and eat humans, this hardly ever happens.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Ram-
sey’s python of Australia is Endangered, which means that it
faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild. The Asiatic rock
python is listed as Near Threatened, which means that it is
likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also lists a certain group,
called a subspecies, of the Indian python as Endangered, or in
its range. Overcollecting is a major problem for these snakes,
and many countries now have strict rules in place to protect
the pythons.
Pythons 355
Black-headed python (Aspidites melanocephalus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BLACK-HEADED PYTHON
Aspidites melanocephalus
Physical characteristics: The black-headed python has a shiny

black head and neck on a beige body. Its body is striped with medium-
to-dark brown bands. Adults usually reach no more than 5 feet
(1.5 meters) in length.
Geographic range: This species lives across northern Australia.
Habitat: This snake usually remains in wooded areas, but some

travel into rainforests, grasslands, and dry and rocky areas.
Diet: Black-headed pythons eat mostly lizards and other snakes,

including venomous (VEH-nuh-mus) or poisonous species. They will
also eat birds and mammals once in a while.

Black-headed pythons eat mostly
lizards and other snakes,
including venomous species.
(Illustration by Brian Cressman.
Behavior and reproduction: Active at night, this species spends part

of its time in tunnels, or burrows, made by other animals. It is also
able to dig burrows itself. The females, which are usually larger than
the males, lay up to eighteen eggs at a time. Each egg measures about
3.5 inches (8.9 centimeters) long and hatches into a baby snake of
approximately 2 feet (61 centimeters) in length. The babies look much
like the adults but are more brightly colored. After four or five years,
the young are old enough to have their own babies.
Black-headed pythons and people: Because it lives far away from

people, the black-headed python and people rarely see or bother one
another.
Conservation status: Although the World Conservation Union

(IUCN) does not list it as threatened, scientists know little about the
number of these snakes or how well they are surviving. ■
Pythons 357
Green python (Morelia viridis)
GREEN PYTHON
Morelia viridis
Physical characteristics: The green python is bright green in color

and may have a pattern of small blue markings, sometimes forming
a thin stripe down its back. It may also have a few white, yellow,
and/or black scales scattered here and there on the green back. It has
long straight front teeth and a long tail. Adults usually range from
4.5 to 6 feet (1.4 to 1.8 meters) in length; a few reach more than
7 feet (2.1 meters).
Geographic range: The green python lives in New Guinea and sev-
eral nearby islands. A small group also makes its home on the Cape
York Peninsula of far northeastern Australia.

The green python rests in
branches much of the time by
looping its body back and forth
over a branch and drooping its
head downward. (JLM Visuals.
Habitat: The green python, which is also known as the green tree
python, lives in forests, often climbing up and through tree branches.
Diet: Although they are capable of climbing, adults usually hunt on

the ground. They eat mainly rats and other rodents, although they
will also feed on a bird occasionally, capturing it with their long teeth.
Young snakes, in particular, eat lizards.
Behavior and reproduction: This snake rests in branches much of

the time by looping its body back and forth over a branch and droop-
ing its head downward. This pose almost looks as if someone had
rolled the snake into a spiral and carefully laid it over the limb. The
snake is most active at night and does the majority of its hunting
then. In one of its hunting tactics, it keeps its body still while wig-
gling just the tip of its tail. The motion lures in lizards, which the
snake attacks and kills. Females, which are usually larger than males,
have up to thirty eggs at a time. The 1.6–inch (4–centimeter) eggs
hatch into young snakes that are 11 to 14 inches (28 to 36 centime-
ters) long. Young snakes may be bright red with scattered yellow and
white scales or vivid yellow with small red and white markings. They
switch to green as they grow older. Once they reach three years old,
the young can start having their own babies.
Green pythons and people: Some people hunt this snake for its meat.
Conservation status: This snake is not considered endangered or

threatened. ■
Pythons 359
Reticulated python (Python reticulatus)
RETICULATED PYTHON
Python reticulatus
Physical characteristics: One of the largest snake species known,

the reticulated python can reach as much as 33 feet (10.1 meters)
long. Normally, however, adults are about 12 to 15 feet (3.7 to 4.6
meters), although 20-foot (6.1-meter) individuals are often found.
The snake has a beautifully patterned back of yellow, black, and
brown.
Geographic range: Its range includes the Philippines and Indone-

sia, India’s Nicobar Islands, and much of Southeast Asia.
Habitat: The reticulated python usually lives in or near freshwater

swamps, rivers, and lakes, often making its home in thick or open
forests, caves, or rocky areas.

Diet: Also known as the regal python, it eats
many animals, including monkeys, rats and other
rodents, dogs and cats, pigs, deer, lizards, and large
birds. They will also kill and eat humans, although
this is very rare.
Behavior and reproduction: This snake spends a

good deal of its time either climbing in trees or
swimming in the water. It tends to be more active
at night, especially if it lives near people. It rests in
hiding places, such as burrows made by other ani-
mals, or inside hollow logs. The reticulated python
hunts by either sneaking up on an animal or by re-
maining still and letting the animal come to it. Large
females can lay more than one hundred eggs at a
time, while smaller females lay less than two dozen.
Each egg, which measures 4 to 5 inches (10 to 13 centimeters) long, One of the largest snake species
hatches into a 2- to 3-foot (61- to 91-centimeter) baby snake. The ba- known, the reticulated python
can reach as much as 33 feet
bies look like the adults. Once the young snakes reach their third or (10.1 meters) long. (Illustration
fourth year, they are old enough to start having babies of their own. by Brian Cressman. Reproduced
by permission.)
Reticulated pythons and people: People hunt this snake for its
lovely skin, its meat, and for use in folk medicines. Some ranchers
kill the snake because they are afraid it will eat their farm animals,
while others destroy it because they worry it will eat their children
or another person. In addition, the snakes are popular in the pet trade,
although their large size soon makes them difficult to keep.
Conservation status: Reticulated pythons are not listed as endan-

gered or threatened, but scientists know little about their numbers in
the wild. ■
Books
Barker, David G., and Tracy M. Barker. Pythons of the World. Vol. 1.
Australia. Lakeside, CA: Advanced Vivarium Systems, Inc., 1994.
Books, 1992.
Cleave, Andrew. Snakes and Reptiles: A Portrait of the Animal World.
New York: Magna Books, 1994.
Cogger, Harold G. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Sydney, Australia:
Reed New Holland, 2000.
Pythons 361
Mattison, Chris. Snake: The Essential Visual Guide to the World of
Snakes. New York: DK Publishing Inc., 1999.
McDonald, Mary Ann. Pythons. Minneapolis, MN: Capstone Press, 1996.
Minton, Sherman A., and Madge Rutherford Minton. Giant Reptiles. New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973.
Murphy, John C., and Robert W. Henderson. Tales of Giant Snakes: A
Historical Natural History of Anacondas and Pythons. Malabar, FL:
Krieger Publishing Company, 1997.
O’Shea, Mark. A Guide to the Snakes of Papua New Guinea. Port
Moresby, Papua, New Guinea: Independent Publishing Group, 1996.
Pope, Clifford Millhouse. The Giant Snakes: The Natural History of
the Boa Constrictor, the Anaconda, and the Largest Pythons, Including
Comparative Facts About Other Snakes and Basic Information on
Reptiles in General. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961.
Torr, Geordie. Pythons of Australia: A Natural History. Sydney, Australia:
University of New South Wales Press, 2000.
Web sites
“Boas and Pythons.” Singapore Zoological Gardens. http://www
.szgdocent.org/cc/c-boa.htm (accessed on September 17, 2004).
“Green Tree Python.” WhoZoo. http://www.whozoo.org/Intro98/jennglaz/
jennglaz21.htm (accessed on September 17, 2004).
“Indian Python.” Bagheera in the Wild. http://www.bagheera.com/
inthewild/van_anim_python.htm (accessed on September 17, 2004).
“Pythons, Boas, and Anacondas: What’s the Difference?” San Diego Zoo.
http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-python.html (accessed on
“Royal Python.” Canadian Museum of Nature. http://www.nature.ca/
notebooks/english/python.htm (accessed on September 17, 2004).

SPLITJAW SNAKE
Bolyeriidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Bolyeriidae
One species Splitjawsnake
(Casarea dussumieri)
The splitjaw snake has an upper jaw bone split into front class
and back halves that are hinged together at a point just below subclass
the eye. With this unusual split in the jaw, the bone holding
the upper teeth in the front of the mouth can bend up and order
down, while the bone holding the back teeth can stay in place. monotypic order
No other bird, mammal, reptile, amphibian, or fish has such a
suborder
strangely jointed jaw. For many years, this snake was consid-
ered to be a member of the boa family, but its odd jaw was so ▲ family
unusual that scientists felt it should be in its own family. De-
spite its listing in its own family, the splitjaw snakes often go
by common names that still include the word “boa.”
Two members of this family existed in the 20th century, but
only one has survived to enter the 21st century. The smooth-
scaled splitjaw, also known as the smooth-scaled Round Island
boa, is now believed to be extinct. The other species, the keel-
scaled splitjaw, still exists today. The main difference between
the two snakes is the presence or absence of small ridges, or
keels, on the scales. Only the keel-scaled splitjaw has the ridges.
In the splitjaws, as in other snakes, the ridges make the skin
look a bit dull. Smooth scales, on the other hand, usually give
snakes a shiny appearance.
The keel-scaled splitjaw is a thin snake with six-sided, or
hexagonal (HEHK-SAE-guh-nuhl), scales running down its
back. In many snake species, the back scales overlap, but the
splitjaw’s back scales barely touch each other, if at all. The snake
has a long tail that makes up at least one-quarter of its entire
Splitjaw Snake 363

body length. In snakes, the tail begins at the vent, a slitlike
opening on the belly side. Its head is wider and flatter than the
neck and is quite long, with an often noticeable black stripe
behind the eye. Sometimes a white stripe lies alongside the
black face stripe. The snake has a catlike pupil, but since its
eye color is quite dark, the pupil is usually difficult to see. The
upper body is light-to-dark brown, and the cream-colored belly
is speckled with brown.
Some snake species have bits and pieces of leftover hip bones.
In humans and other walking animals, the hip bones link to
the leg bones, but since snakes have no legs, they do not need
them. In splitjaws, no bits of hip bone remain. Adult keel-scaled
splitjaws generally reach about 4 feet (1.3 meters) in length.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Also known as the Round Island casarea boa, the keel-scaled
splitjaw lives only on Round Island, which is located in the In-
dian Ocean east of Madasgascar and just northwest of the is-
land of Mauritius. At one time, this snake made its home on
other small islands near Round Island and on the much-larger
Mauritius, but now they live on just the one island. Round Is-
land covers only 374 acres (151 hectares) and was created from
lava ejected from a volcano. In the 1960s and 1970s, Round Is-
land also had another species of splitjaw. During that period,
observers on the island discovered a smooth-scaled splitjaw and
watched the snake over a two-decade period. They were able
to identify the snake from sighting to sighting by a distinctive
scar on its body. They saw that lone snake on Round Island for
the last time in 1975, and no one has ever seen a smooth-scaled
splitjaw again. The discovery of the living snake was quite for-
tunate, because scientists would otherwise have never known
of this species. While fossils of many other living and extinct
snake species have been found, no one has ever found and iden-
tified a fossil from the smooth-scaled splitjaw.
HABITAT
The keel-scaled splitjaw prefers to live in the lush palm-
covered rainforest of Round Island. Because much of the rain-
forest is now gone, however, the snake is surviving among
stumps, scraggly bushes, and what few areas of thick forest it
can find. The snake stays underground much of the time and
therefore relies on proper soil conditions. Unfortunately, hu-

mans introduced animals, such as rabbits and
goats, to the island. These animals eat plants
and have completely wiped out many of the
plants native to Round Island. Without the
plants and their roots to hold the soil in
place, rain can wash away and wind can blow
away the soil that makes up the snake’s habi- ISLAND SNAKES
tat. Now, scientists estimate that 90 percent
How do snakes, such as the keel-scaled
of the soil has disappeared.
splitjaw, get to islands? Although most
people do not consider snakes to be
DIET swimmers, many of them can swim quite
A picky eater, the keel-scaled splitjaw well for at least short distances. This explains
snake eats little other than lizards, especially how they reach islands close to shore, but
the day gecko and two types of skink. The sometimes snakes are found on islands far
splitjaw catches the slender and often-quick out in the ocean. In this case, some of them
lizards during the day by remaining motion- may have floated by climbing onto a large
less and waiting for a lizard to accidentally branch that was broken off a coastline tree
come too close. The snake then strikes out and fell into the surf, or possibly they may
and grabs the passing lizard. At night the have stowed away on a boat or a plane and
splitjaw tries a different method. It hunts slithered on shore after landing on the
down the lizards using its senses of smell and island. Another possibility is that a bird
sight. While holding most of its body close snatched up a snake on the mainland and
to the ground, the snake raises up its head a held it in its claws to kill and eat later, only
few inches (6 centimeters or so) and flicks to accidentally drop it when it was flying over
its tongue. The tongue picks up scent chem- an island. Even though snakes can reach
icals in the air. It then slowly sneaks up on islands in many ways, some islands still have
the lizard by slithering forward almost in a few, if any, of these animals. For example,
straight line, and when it gets near enough, only one species of land-living snake occurs
strikes out to grab the animal. on Hawaii. The snake, called the Brahminy
blind snake, came to Hawaii from Asia
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION probably in a shipping carton.
The keel-scaled splitjaw snake is mainly
active at night, although it does do some
hunting during the day. It usually stays on or under the ground,
probably spending a good deal of its time in small moist tun-
nels, or burrows, which provide a safe hiding place. Splitjaw
snakes will also climb up shrubs and tree limbs, sometimes
reaching heights of 8 feet (2.5 meters). Scientists knew very lit-
tle about the reproduction of this species until the Jersey
Wildlife Preservation Trust, a group in the United Kingdom
that tries to save endangered animals by breeding them in cap-
tivity, were able to get two captive snakes to mate successfully
Splitjaw Snake 365

Splitjaw snake (Casarea dussumieri)
in 1982. The female laid eggs. Since then, other female keel-
scaled splitjaws have laid eggs, too. No one has observed the
snakes mating in the wild, but in captivity, they seem to mate
most successfully from March to July and lay eggs from May
to October. A female typically lays three to eleven soft-shelled
eggs at a time, possibly laying them in a hidden spot, such as
within a pile of leaves or inside a hollow tree trunk. Females
may stay with the eggs for a while. When they hatch in about
three months, the young are bright orange.
SPLITJAW SNAKES AND PEOPLE

People rarely see this snake in the wild.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service consider the Round Island casarea split-
jaw to be Endangered, or facing a very high risk of extinction
in the wild throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
It once lived on the nearby and much larger Mauritus Island,

The splitjaw snake has an upper
jaw bone split into front and
back halves that are hinged
together at a point just below
the eye. (Illustration by
Marguette Dongvillo.
but habitat loss, combined with the presence of non-native

species, wiped out the splitjaws. On Round Island, the snakes
had to survive the loss of the rainforest. In the 1970s, people
became aware of the problems faced by the snakes and other
animals on Round Island and set out to remove the non-native
goats and rabbits that were eating the native plants, and there-
fore destroying the soil conditions needed by the snake. Now,
to protect the rainforest further, only scientists and conserva-
tionists are allowed to visit Round Island. Plans are under way
to remove non-native animals from a few other nearby small
islands where the splitjaws once lived and possibly release some
captive-bred splitjaws there. The hope is that the snakes will
survive to breed and produce a wild population.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists the smooth-scaled
splitjaw as Endangered, but the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) lists it as Extinct. No one has seen that species, also
known as the Round Island bolyeria boa, since 1975.
Books
World’s Wildlife. New York: DK Publishing, 2001. Page 379.
Day, David. The Doomsday Book of Animals. London: London Editions
Limited, 1981.
Splitjaw Snake 367

Web sites
“Round Island Keel-Scaled Boa (Casarea dussumieri).” http://www
.arkive.org/species/GES/reptiles/Casarea_dussumieri/more_info.html

WOODSNAKES AND
SPINEJAW SNAKES
Tropidophiidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Tropidophiidae
The woodsnakes and spinejaw snakes are small-to-medium- class
sized snakes that resemble boas. Colors range from gray to
subclass
brown, and most have faint blotches or stripes. Some have
smooth scales, and others have scales with ridges, or keels. order
Among those with smooth scales, the Oaxacan dwarf boa has monotypic order
scales that shine different colors depending on how the light
hits them. Scales that do this are known as iridescent (IH-rih- suborder
DEH-sent). On the other hand, some members of this family ▲ family
have dull-looking scales with noticeable keels. The Cuban black
and white dwarf boa even has scales that change color from
darker during the daytime to lighter at night.
The smallest member of this family is the Cuban dusky trope,
which reaches at most 12 inches (30 centimeters) long. The
largest is the dusky dwarf boa, which can grow to 41 inches
Some people believe that this family should be split in two
with one keeping the name Tropidophiidae and the other falling
under a new family called Ungaliophiidae. Occasionally, some
books will place these snakes under the family Boidae, but al-
though some have the common name of dwarf boas, they are
not actually boas.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
They are found from Brazil to Mexico and in the West In-
dies. Some species are found in both Malaysia and Borneo.
Woodsnakes and Spinejaw Snakes 369

HABITAT
Different members of this family may pre-
fer dry and open, shrubby forests; rainforests;
the rocky sides of hills, as well as cliffs; farm
fields; and even caves. Usually, they try to
find a spot within the habitat that has con-
WORLD TRAVELERS ditions falling about halfway between wet
Humans have helped many species and dry. Only two species make their homes
move from one place to another. high in mountains. Several species within
Sometimes, people purposely introduce a this family are so rarely seen that they are
new species. For example, people who only known by their scientific names.
move to a new country frequently bring
along a favorite plant to put it in the garden DIET
and remind them of the homeland. Often, Much of the information about the diet of
however, animals hitchhike with people these snakes comes from captive snakes
when they travel. The woodsnakes and rather than those in the wild. The West In-
spinejaw snakes are no exception. The dian species of the genus Tropidophis eat
Panamanian dwarf boa has made its way anoles, which are small, long-tailed lizards.
from its home in Central America to both Species in the genus Exiliboa feed on small
Europe and the United States by stowing salamanders and on frog eggs, while those in
away in bunches of bananas. the genus Trachyboa make both fishes and
amphibians part of their diet. Amphibians in-
clude such animals as salamanders and frogs.
The dusky dwarf boa, which is the largest member of the fam-
ily, will eat small mammals and birds. In captivity, many larger
snakes in this group will eat baby mice.

The snakes spend a good deal of time actively, but slowly,
slithering through their habitat, apparently on the hunt for
food. Scientists suspect that they also find hiding places, where
they remain still and wait for the meal to come to them. This
tactic, called ambush, is very effective for snakes like these that
blend into the background very well. Most of the woodsnakes
and spinejaw snakes live on the ground, but a few will also
climb a few feet into trees or shrubs. The bromeliad wood-
snakes are the best climbers in the family and will slink into
plants, known as bromeliads (broh-MEE-lee-ads), that grow on
the trunks and branches of tall trees.
Most of the woodsnakes and spinejaw snakes are active
mainly at night, but they also come out during the day to sun-
bathe, or bask. When they feel threatened, the majority of the

species will roll their bodies into a ball, rather than strike and
bite as many other snakes do. Members of the genus Trachyboa
coil into a flat disk instead of a ball, burying the head in the
center of the disk. If an attacking animal, or predator (PREH-
duh-ter), bites at a woodsnake, a bad-smelling material may ooze
out of the snake’s vent, a slitlike opening on the belly side of
the animal. The odor is sometimes enough to cause the preda-
tor to leave. Only rarely will the snake bite back at an attack-
ing animal. Some species in the genus Tropidophis have a rather
unusual way of protecting themselves from predators. If a preda-
tor bothers them enough, they will begin to bleed from the
mouth, nostrils, and eyes. Because the bleeding, or hemorrhag-
ing (HEHM-rihj-ing), can start automatically—even though the
snake has no injury—it is called autohemorrhaging (aw-toe-
HEHM-rihj-ing).
Female woodsnakes and spinejaw snakes give birth to baby
snakes, instead of eggs. Few people have studied this snake, so
little additional information is available about their reproduc-
tion or behavior.
WOODSNAKES, SPINEJAW SNAKES, AND PEOPLE

Some are occasionally captured for the pet trade, but for the
most part, people have little if any contact with these snakes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
This species is not listed as endangered or threatened. One
species, the Navassa woodsnake, was noted as extinct in the
1990s, likely due to changes in its habitat and deaths from mon-
goose attacks. A mongoose is a ferretlike, meat-eating animal
that is an excellent hunter.

Southern bromeliad woodsnake (Ungaliophis panamensis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SOUTHERN BROMELIAD WOODSNAKE
Ungaliophis panamensis
Physical characteristics: Also known as the bromeliad boa,

bromeliad dwarf boa, and banana boa, the southern bromeliad wood-
snake is a thin, light gray or tan snake with black triangular marks on
its back. It has smooth scales along its body with one large scale on
top of its snout. Adults reach about 30 inches (76 centimeters) in length.
Geographic range: They live in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama

in Central America and also in Colombia in northern South America.
Habitat: It lives in a variety of forests, except those of the moun-

tains, often crawling among the plants that grow on the upper
branches and high up in the trunks of trees. It also spends consider-
able time on the ground.

Diet: In captivity, southern bromeliad wood-
snakes will eat lizards or rodents, although young
snakes typically will only eat lizards. Scientists
know little about their diet in the wild, but it prob-
ably includes lizards and frogs.
Behavior and reproduction: A mild-mannered

snake, this species does not bite human handlers.
Even when threatened, it will not bite and instead
simply coils into a ball to wait for the danger to
pass. It has another defense, however, which it will
use if it feels particularly frightened. That defense
is an ooze that seeps from its vent and has a strong
enough smell to scare off most attackers. Females
do not lay eggs and instead have baby snakes. The
young are about 6 inches (15 centimeters) long at
birth. Scientists know little else about this snake’s
behavior or reproduction.
Southern bromeliad woodsnakes and people:

People rarely see this snake in the wild or in pet
stores.
Conservation status: Scientists know so little about this snake, in- Much of the information about
southern bromeliad woodsnakes
cluding how many of them live in the wild, that they cannot make
comes from captive snakes
any statements about its conservation status. ■ rather than those in the wild.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra.
Books
Brazaitis, P., and M. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York: Cres-
cent Books, 1992.
Crother, Brian I., ed. Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles. San Diego:
Duellman, William E., ed. The South American Herpetofauna: Its Origin,
Evolution and Dispersal. Monograph of the Museum of Natural History,
Number 7. Lawrence: The University of Kansas, 1979.

McDiarmid, Roy W., Jonathan A. Campbell, and T’Shaka A. Touré. Snake
Species of the World. Washington, DC: The Herpetologists’ League,
1999.
Schwartz, Albert, and Robert W. Henderson. Amphibians and Reptiles of
the West Indies. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1991.
Tolson, P. J., and R. W. Henderson. The Natural History of West Indian
Boas. Taunton: R & A Publishing Limited, 1993.
Zug, G. R., L. J. Vitt, and J. P. Caldwell. Herpetology. 5th ed. San Diego:
Web sites
“Talking Taino: Lizards and Snakes.” Times of the Islands. Summer 2004.
http://www.timespub.tc/Natural%20History/Archive/Summer2003/
ttsnake.htm (accessed on September 15, 2004).

FILE SNAKES
Acrochordidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Acrochordidae
Also known as wart snakes or elephant-trunk snakes, the file class
snakes have baggy skin that lies in loose folds. The skin is cov- subclass
ered with tiny scales and small, bristly outgrowths that make
the skin seem quite rough. This rough skin looks rather like order
the surface of a file, and some say it also looks as if it is cov- monotypic order
ered with small warts; it is the appearance of their skin that suborder
gives them the common name “file” snakes. Although for many
years people thought that the little file snake was venomous ▲ family
(VEH-nuh-mus), or poisonous, and dangerous to humans, sci-
entists now know that none of the three file snake species, or
types, has a bite that can harm a person.
File snakes spend nearly their entire lives in the water. A file
snake has both its eyes and its nostrils, or nose holes, located
on the top of its short head, so it can breathe the air and see
above the water surface while the rest of the body remains un-
derwater. The nostrils also have little valves, or flaps, that can
close up when the snake dips completely below the water’s sur-
face. The tail is somewhat flattened from side to side and helps
the snake swim. Male and female file snakes look very much
alike, except that the females have slightly larger heads, thicker
bodies, and shorter tails. The tail on a snake is the part of the
body that extends back from a slit on the belly. File snakes range
in length from about 20 to 76 inches (0.5 to 2 meters). The lit-
tle file snake is the smallest member of the family, averaging 20
to 28 inches (51 to 71 centimeters) in length but sometimes
reaching 40 inches (1 meter). The Arafura file snake grows to
File Snakes 375

about 67 inches (1.7 meters), and the Java file
snake grows to 76 inches (2 meters).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The file snakes live from India to South-
east Asia and Australia. They inhabit north-
A DIFFERENT WAY TO SHED ern Australia, the Solomon Islands east of
A little file snake sheds its skin New Guinea, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
differently from the typical land-living
snake, which turns its skin inside out as it HABITAT
scoots out of the old skin. Instead, the little The file snakes usually live in warm, shal-
file snake first wriggles its body free of its low waters. The Arafura and Java file snakes
loose skin, so that the skin is separate from live in freshwater streams; lagoons, or shal-
the body but still in place around it. Then low bodies of saltwater near the sea; and
it works its way free, sometimes knotting rivers. In the dry season, the Arafura file
its body to help it escape from the old skin. snake is also found in billabongs (BILL-uh-
The skin remains right side out. bongs), which are dried-up streambeds. Dur-
ing the rainy season, it will slither into
flooded grasslands. The Java file snake, on
the other hand, occasionally swims into the salty ocean water
for short periods of time. Little file snakes can live in both fresh-
water and saltwater areas, from the ocean to swamps near the
coastline and to inland rivers, sometimes up to 6 miles (9.6
kilometers) out to sea and in water up to 66 feet (20 meters)
deep. Little file snakes have salt glands, small groups of cells
that may help them control the amount of salt in their bodies.
Salt glands are also seen in many other animals that live in salty
waters. Scientists have not studied this gland in detail, how-
ever, so they are unsure how important it is to the snake’s sur-
vival in saltwater.
DIET
The three file snake species eat mostly fishes, and they do
not seem to care whether the meal is alive or dead when they
find it. The little file snake also eats crustaceans (krus-TAY-
shuns). Crustaceans include shelled animals, such as shrimp
and crayfish. The Java file snake adds freshwater eels to its diet
of mainly catfishes. The Arafura file snake can eat very large
fishes. According to one report, a snake that measured
44.5 inches (113 centimeters) in length ate a 19-inch-long
(48-centimeter-long) fish—nearly half the snake’s size—in just
two minutes.

The file snakes rarely leave the water, but they occasionally
move from one body of water to another during the wet and dry
seasons or when ocean water levels rise and fall due to the tides.
During the daytime, they stay among roots, in holes in the muddy
water bottom, or in other hiding places and come out to hunt for
food at night. Using the bristles in the outgrowths on their skin,
file snakes can sense changes in the murky, or dark, water, which
helps locate animals that they might otherwise be unable to see.
To hunt, a file snake either will strike out and grasp a passing
fish with its mouth or will quickly wrap its body around the fish
and hold it until the snake can reach around with its head to bite
and eat the fish. Unlike constrictor (kun-STRIK-tuhr) snakes that
wrap around and squeeze their prey to death before eating it, the
file snake coils around the prey only to hold it temporarily until
it can quickly gulp it down. Although they can swim quite well,
adults usually move slowly along the bottom. Scientists know very
little about the behavior of young file snakes.
Java and little file snakes have young every other year, and
Arafura file snakes have young even less often. All of the three
species lay eggs, probably from the middle of the wet season
to late in the wet season. The little file snake has about five
eggs at a time, the Arafura file snake has about seventeen, and
the Java file snake lays an average of twenty-six eggs. At least
among the Arafura file snakes, larger females have a larger
number of young.
FILE SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Some people collect file snakes as food and for their skin,
which is used for leather. Since the snake reproduces only once
every two years, or even less often, such collecting over the
years could lead to dangerous drops in the numbers of snakes.
People only rarely collect file snakes for the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
File snakes are not considered threatened, but some popula-
tions may have low numbers. Habitat loss, as well as habitat dam-
age from water pollution, or dirtying and poisoning of water,
may hurt their ability to survive into the future. In areas with
large fish populations, however, file snakes can become very nu-
merous. Scientists have counted 100 or more Arafura file snakes
on every 2 acres (0.8 hectare) of some Australian billabongs.
File Snakes 377

Little file snake (Acrochordus granulatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LITTLE FILE SNAKE
Acrochordus granulatus
Physical characteristics: The little file snake is rough skinned, with

a thick body and a small head. Its back is dark brown with yellow-
ish to reddish stripes. It has loose, baggy skin. Little file snakes are
the smallest of the three file snake species, at about 20 to 28 inches
(51 to 71 centimeters) long.
Geographic range: The little file snake lives from the western coast
of India through the tropical regions of Southeast Asia (including In-
donesia and the Philippines) to New Guinea and northern Australia.
Habitat: This snake is mainly a saltwater animal, although it can

also live in freshwater. It usually is found in shallow water just a few
feet deep, but it has also been seen in ocean water up to 6 miles (9.6
kilometers) from shore and 66 feet (20 meters) deep.
Diet: The little file snake eats mainly the spiny-finned fishes called
gobies (GO-bees) and other goby-like fishes and crustaceans.

Behavior and reproduction: This snake rarely
leaves the water. It can easily stay underwater for
two hours and, if necessary, up to five hours at a
time. Although it is a very good swimmer, it usu-
ally moves slowly along the muddy water bottom.
It is active mainly at night, when it hunts for food.
These snakes probably mate in the fall. The females
lay eggs about once every other year. A typical lit-
ter has five eggs, but there may be as few as one
egg or as many as twelve. Larger females have
larger numbers of young.
Little file snakes and people: Some people hunt

little file snakes for their skin, which is used as
leather.
Conservation status: The little file snake is not

considered to be endangered or threatened. ■ The little file snake can easily
stay underwater for two hours
and, if necessary, up to five
FOR MORE INFORMATION hours at a time. (Illustration by
Wendy Baker. Reproduced by
permission.)
Books:
Creagh, Carson. Reptiles. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1996.
Mattison, Chris. The Encyclopedia of Snakes. New York: Facts on File,
1995.
Web sites:
“File Snakes.” Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents. http://www
.szgdocent.org/cc/c-file.htm (accessed on September 10, 2004).
File Snakes 379

VIPERS AND PITVIPERS
Viperidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Viperidae
class Vipers and pitvipers are mainly known for the pair of short
subclass hollow fangs that usually lie flat in the upper jaw but swing
down when the snake opens its mouth to inject its venom. The
order
members of this family are typically rather thick snakes with
monotypic order large triangular-shaped heads, usually catlike eye pupils, and
suborder short tails. The tail in a snake is the part of the body behind the
vent, a slitlike opening on the belly side of the animal. Those
▲ family snakes that spend much of their time climbing among shrubs
and trees have longer tails. Some vipers and pitvipers have
zigzag, diamond-shaped, or other patterns on their backs, but
for the most part, vipers and pitvipers have no showy colors and
instead simply blend into the background, which often makes
them difficult to spot.
The pitvipers are unusual because each has a rattle on the

end of the tail and a small but deep pit on either side of the
face. The rattle is made of little segments of fingernail-like ma-
terial that make a noise when they knock against one another.
The snake gets a new segment every time it sheds, but the old-
est segments frequently fall off. The pits on the snake’s face are
sensitive to temperature, so the pitvipers have infrared (IN-
fruh-red) vision, which is the ability to detect, or to “see,” heat.
Vipers and pitvipers come in different sizes. The smallest
member of the family is the dwarf puff adder, which grows to
about 12 inches (30.5 centimeters). The largest are some of the
pitvipers, which reach 11.8 feet (3.6 meters) in length.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Vipers and pitvipers are found in North, Central, and South
America and in Africa, Europe, and Asia.
HABITAT
Most members of this family live on land, but some, such as
the cottonmouth, spend a good part of their time in the water.
Vipers and pitvipers make their homes in warm tropical cli-
mates and in cooler temperate climates that have distinct sea-
sons, including cold winters. Temperate species often move
from one habitat to another during the spring, summer, and
fall and then hibernate through the winter. For example, North
America’s eastern massasauga rattlesnake spends the early
spring near wetlands, moves into drier nearby fields for the hot
summer months, and hibernates back near the water in un-
derground burrows made by crayfish or small mammals. Dur-
ing hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun), the animal enters a state
of deep sleep that helps it to survive the frigid weather.
DIET
Vipers and pitvipers eat mice, rats, and lizards, but they will
also feed on birds, frogs, and other animals. A few of the small-
est species eat locusts, a type of grasshopper.
Vipers and pitvipers are predators (PREH-dih-ters) and use
their venom when hunting prey or sometimes when defend-
ing themselves. The venom attacks the blood system of the
prey, producing burning pain and other symptoms, and later
stopping the heart. A few vipers and pitvipers have venom
that also attacks the nervous system. Some species slowly
slither along looking for prey animals, but others rely on their
camouflage-like colors to hide them until an unsuspecting an-
imal happens by. In either case, the snake lashes out at the
prey animal with great speed, opening its mouth to swing
down its fangs and biting the animal to inject the venom—all
in the blink of an eye. The prey never even sees the snake un-
til it is too late.

The defense behaviors of the vipers and pitvipers are perhaps
their best-known feature. The snakes coil up into a flat spiral
with the head curved up from the middle of the coil. Some also
hiss, jerk forward with the head, rattle the tail, or blow up the
Vipers and Pitvipers 381

body, which makes the snake look larger.
Each of the behaviors may be enough to scare
off a predator. Many of the warmer climate
species remain active all year long, but the
temperate species may hibernate for many
weeks. Those living high up in the mountains
FIGHTING SNAKE BITES and other places with especially cold winters
typically hibernate for several, sometimes up
Although many snakes are harmless to
to eight, months a year.
humans, some produce venom and can be
quite deadly. People who have been bitten Males mate every year in the spring or fall,
by a venomous snake often receive sometimes wrestling with other males over
antivenin (an-tee-VEH-nuhn) to stop the the chance to mate with a female. Females,
venom from doing its damage. To make especially those in colder climates, often skip
antivenin, a snake handler forces a a year or more between matings. The females
venomous snake to bite and release its of most species produce eggs, but these hatch
venom into a container. When enough is inside her body so that she gives birth to baby
collected, the venom is injected into a snakes. A few species, such as the night
horse. The horse’s body, which is much adders, lay eggs instead. Recent research sug-
larger than a human’s, fights off the venom gests that some mothers may linger around
by making special proteins, called the young for a few days, possibly providing
antibodies. Laboratory technicians collect some protection against predators that may
these antibodies to make antivenin. hunt them for food.
Usually, one type of antivenin is good at
attacking only one type of venom, so a VIPERS, PITVIPERS, AND PEOPLE
medical doctor tries to learn exactly what While viper and pitviper bites of humans
species of snake bit the patient before are quite rare, they do occur often enough
giving the antidote or cure. and cause enough deaths to be a concern in
some areas. For this reason, people often kill
vipers and pitvipers, along with any other
snakes that remotely resemble them. In addition, people hunt
and kill these snakes to use in medicines.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), seven
species are Critically Endangered; four species are Endangered;
seven species are Vulnerable, and one species is listed as Data
Deficient. The Critically Endangered species face an extremely
high risk of extinction in the wild, while the Endangered species
face a very high risk, and the Vulnerable face a high risk. Sci-
entists have too little information on those noted as Data De-
ficient to make a judgment about the threat of extinction. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists one U.S. and one foreign

species as Threatened or likely to become endangered in the
foreseeable future, and one foreign species as Endangered or in
its range. Overall, the loss of habitat and outright killing of the
snakes by humans are the greatest risks the snakes face.

Horned viper (Cerastes cerastes)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS HORNED VIPER
Cerastes cerastes
Physical characteristics: A thick snake with a short tail, the horned

viper has a triangle-shaped head and a long scale over each eye that
pokes up like a horn. Some individuals have a ridge over their eyes
instead of the two tall horns. They have brown blotches down a gray,
yellow- or red-tinged back, and the back and head scales have ridges,
or keels. Adults are quite small, usually growing to just 11.8
to 23.6 inches (30 to 60 centimeters), although a few reach 2.8 feet
(85 centimeters).
Geographic range: Horned vipers are found in northern Africa and

the eastern Sinai.

Unlike most snakes, the horned
viper can dig into the ground and
bury itself. It waits, often with just
its horns above the ground, for a
prey animal to walk nearby and
then strikes and bites the animal.
(©Gregory G. Dimijian/Photo
Researchers, Inc.)
Habitat: This species lives mostly in sandy areas, sometimes marked

with stones and rocks.
Diet: They eat other animals of sandy habitats. These may include
small mammals, lizards, and birds.
Behavior and reproduction: This snake is active at night. It hides

during the day beneath rocks or in underground tunnels made by
other animals. Unlike most snakes, the horned viper can dig into the
ground and bury itself. It waits, often with just its horns above the
ground, for a prey animal to walk nearby and then strikes and bites
the animal. When it slithers, the horned viper slides sideways across
the sand in what is known as sidewinding. This is an egg-laying snake,
and the females lay between ten and twenty-three eggs at a time.
Horned vipers and people: Since it hides during the day, people
rarely see the horned viper. It does, however, sometimes bite people,
but the bites are not thought to be that dangerous.

threatened. ■

Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)
COTTONMOUTH
Agkistrodon piscivorus
Physical characteristics: The cottonmouth gets its common name

from the white, cottonlike color inside its mouth. Also known as the
water moccasin, it is a large thick snake. Younger adults have brown
or reddish bands on a yellowish background, while older individuals
are usually all brown, greenish brown, or black. Juveniles have tails
that are tipped with yellow or green. In the wild, adults may reach
5.9 feet (1.8 meters) in length and weigh 10 pounds (4.6 kilograms).
Geographic range: They are found in the southeastern quarter of

the United States.
Habitat: The cottonmouth spends most of its time in or near the

water, although it will sometimes crawl some distance onto land.

The cottonmouth spends most of
its time in or near the water,
although it will sometimes crawl
some distance onto land. (Joe
McDonald/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Diet: Cottonmouths will eat almost any animals they find. This
includes birds, eggs, living and sometimes dead fishes, frogs, small
alligators and turtles, snakes and other cottonmouths, and mammals.
Behavior and reproduction: Cottonmouths spend much of their time

coiled up and out in the open. They hunt for food by swimming or
slithering around looking for it or by staying still and waiting for the
prey to mistakenly come a little too close. When they feel threatened,
cottonmouths will strike and bite, but usually they remain motionless
until the threat passes. Snakes that live in warmer areas are active all
year, but those living in colder areas hibernate during the winter. Dur-
ing mating season, males sometimes fight one another for the chance
to mate with a female. Females give birth to baby snakes instead of eggs
in August or September. They have up to sixteen young at a time.
Cottonmouths and people: Although most cottonmouths are con-

tent to leave people alone, bites do occur. The venom is dangerous
to humans and can be fatal. Humans also pose a great risk to the
snakes by draining wetlands and otherwise destroying their habitat
and also by killing the snakes out of fear.

threatened. ■

Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus)
TIMBER RATTLESNAKE
Crotalus horridus
Physical characteristics: The timber rattlesnake is a thick snake,

often with dark, sometimes V-shaped blotches running down a black,
dark or light brown, yellowish, or gray back. It has a large triangle-
shaped head at one end and a black rattle-tipped tail at the other.
Adults often reach nearly 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length, and some grow
to more than 6 feet (1.8 meters).
Geographic range: They are found in much of the eastern United

States.
Habitat: Timber rattlesnakes prefer rocky ledges on hills, although

they travel into nearby forests, especially in the warmer months.

Timber rattlesnakes have only
six to twenty meals a year, but
when they do eat, they hunt for
mammals, and sometimes birds,
lizards, frogs, insects, and other
snakes. (Joe McDonald/Bruce
permission.)
Diet: They have only six to twenty meals a year, but when they do
eat, they hunt for mammals, and sometimes birds, lizards, frogs, in-
sects, and other snakes.
Behavior and reproduction: Timber rattlesnakes spend much of

their time either sunbathing, also known as basking, or sitting still to
wait for their next meal to wander within striking distance. In the
winter, this snake hibernates either alone or in groups. Females only
mate once every two, three, or four years, giving birth to between
three and nineteen live baby snakes at a time. The young snakes must
reach four to nine years old before they can mate and have their own
young.
Timber rattlesnakes and people: Bites to humans are uncommon

but can be dangerous, although rarely fatal.

threatened. ■

Black-headed bushmaster (Lachesis melanocephala)
BLACK-HEADED BUSHMASTER
Lachesis melanocephala
Physical characteristics: As its name says, the top of the black-

headed bushmaster’s head is black. The back of this large snake has
black diamond-shaped blotches on a dark or light brown or yellow-
ish background. Adults often reach 6.6 feet (2 meters) in length but
can grow to 7.9 feet (2.4 meters).
Geographic range: They are found in Costa Rica, possibly reach-

ing into Panama.
Habitat: This species lives in wet or moist forests in valleys and

other low places.
Diet: The black-headed bushmaster apparently eats mainly mammals.
Behavior and reproduction: A land-living snake, the black-headed

bushmaster remains still much of the time, waiting for animals to
wander by. If it is hungry, it will strike out and bite the passing an-
imal. When it is not hunting, it often stays in underground tunnels

made by other animals. If threatened, it may shake
its tail. This is an egg-laying species, and females
lay up to sixteen eggs. Unlike many reptiles, the
female remains with her eggs until they hatch.
Black-headed bushmasters and people: If they

are left untreated, humans bitten by this snake may
die.
Conservation status: This species is not consid-

ered endangered or threatened. ■
Books Black-headed bushmaster adults

often reach 6.6 feet (2 meters)
Brazaitis, Peter, and Myrna E. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York: in length but can grow to 7.9
Crescent Books, 1992. feet (2.4 meters). (Illustration by
Campbell, Jonathan A., and Edmund D. Brodie Jr. Biology of the Pitvipers. Dan Erickson. Reproduced by
permission.)
Tyler, TX: Selva, 1992.
of Latin America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989.
of the Western Hemisphere. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003.
Ernst, Carl H. Venomous Reptiles of North America. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
Gloyd, Howard K., and Roger Conant. “Snakes of the Agkistrodon
Complex: A Monographic Review.” Contributions to Herpetology, Vol. 6.
Oxford, OH: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, 1990.
Harding, James. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region.
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997.
Holman, J. Alan, and James Harding. Michigan Snakes. East Lansing,
MI: Michigan State University Extension, 1989.
Jena, I. Snakes of Medical Importance and Snake-bite Treatment. New
Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1985.
Mallow, D., D. Ludwig, and G. Nilson. True Vipers: Natural History and
Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing
Company, 2003.
Nilson, G., and C. Andrén. “Evolution, Systematics and Biogeography of
Palearctic Vipers.” In Venomous Snakes: Ecology, Evolution and
Snakebite, edited by R. S. Thorpe, W. Wüster, and A. Malhotra. Symposia
of the Zoological Society of London. London: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Palmer, T. Landscape with Reptile: Rattlesnakes in an Urban World. New
York: Ticknor and Fields, 1992.
Schuett, Gordon W., Mats Höggren, Michael E. Douglas, and Harry W.
Greene, eds. Biology of the Vipers. Eagle Mountain, UT: Eagle Mountain
Publishing, 2002.
Spawls, S., and B. Branch. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Sanibel
Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Books, 1995.

AFRICAN BURROWING
SNAKES
Atractaspididae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Atractaspididae
The African burrowing snakes have small heads, rounded at class
the front. Their heads are no larger in diameter than their necks.
subclass
Only the quill-snouted snake has a head that comes to a point.
The members of this family have small, sometimes very tiny, eyes order
with round pupils. Most have fangs, or long, pointed teeth, at monotypic order
the rear of the mouth, but some have hollow fangs at the front
of the mouth. These front fangs swing out to inject venom, or suborder
poison, into their prey, animals that they hunt for food, or their ▲ family
predators (PREH-duh-ters), the animals that hunt them for food.
These small to medium-sized snakes are long and thin; adults
range in length from about 12 to 40 inches (30 to 102
centimeters), from head to tail tip. Most are black or brown
with a different-colored ring around the neck. A few have bright
stripes. All have smooth scales, instead of the ridged scales seen
in many other snakes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Most African burrowing snakes live in the central and south-
ern regions of Africa, known as sub-Saharan Africa, but a few
make their homes in Israel or in Jordan.
HABITAT
Just as their name suggests, this group of snakes likes to live
in burrows, or tunnels, underground. They are especially fond
of sandy soils. Some like the damp soil of lowland forests, but
others can live quite well in the drier sands of grasslands and
areas that are almost desertlike.
African Burrowing Snakes 393

DIET
African burrowing snakes typically eat
other animals that like to live underground.
Depending on the species, or type, of snake,
the meals may include lizards, blind snakes,
worm lizards, centipedes (sen-tuh-PEEDS),
A TAIL OF DISGUISE and frogs. The larger African burrowing
Among the African burrowing snakes, snakes will also eat rodents, a group of ani-
the yellow and black burrowing snakes mals that includes mice. Some species will
have an unusual color pattern that helps eat a variety of different animals, but some
them survive. An attacking animal could are very particular. One kind of quill-snouted
end the life of one of these snakes with a snake, for example, eats only large worm
well-aimed bite to its head, but the snake lizards. Although scientists are unsure how
is able to persuade the attacker to bite its the snakes successfully attack and kill such
tail instead. The snake does it by curling up a large animal, they suspect that this snake
its body into a coil and hiding its bright stabs the lizard to death with its hard and
yellow head inside the coil. Then it raises pointed head. Other picky diners are the
its tail, which is also colored yellow, and “centipede eaters,” which rarely make a meal
waves it back and forth. When the attacker out of anything except the small, many-
takes a bite of the snake, all it gets is the legged animals called centipedes. The snake
tail. The snake can often slither off, injured grabs the centipede and chews it with its rear
but still alive. fangs to inject venom. When the venom
knocks out or kills the centipede, the snake
turns it around to swallow it head first.

Also known as mole vipers or burrowing asps, members of
this family are known best for their underground lifestyles. Some
African burrowing snakes only crawl through tunnels that other
animals make, but some can force their heads through loose
sand and “dig” their own tunnels. Most of these snakes (except
the burrowing asp) have fangs at the rear of the mouth, and so
they must take a full bite to get any benefit from their fangs.
A burrowing asp, on the other hand, has two long, hollow fangs
at the front of the mouth that it uses to inject venom into a prey
animal or to protect itself from a predator. This unusual snake
holds just one of its two backward-curving fangs outside its mouth
and, keeping its mouth closed, stabs sideways and backward with
its head to hook the bare fang into the prey or predator. This un-
usual backward-curved fang can make the snake quite dangerous
to humans who mistakenly believe that they can safely hold the
snake behind the head. With a quick backward flick of the head,

the snake can force its fang into a human’s hand. This unique
venom-delivery system has given several other common names
to the burrowing asp, including side-stabbing snake and stiletto
snake. A stiletto is a type of thin, sharp knife.
During breeding time, many species come out of their un-
derground tunnels to find mates. The females of all except one
species of African burrowing snake lay eggs. Typically, the fe-
male will lay two to fifteen oblong-shaped eggs, either in moist
soil or inside an old and unused termite nest. The eggs hatch
in six to eight weeks into young snakes that are about 6 to 8
inches (15 to 20 centimeters) long. The exception is the Jack-
son’s centipede eater, which gives birth to two or three live
young that are about 4 inches (10 centimeters) long.
AFRICAN BURROWING SNAKES AND PEOPLE

Most African burrowing snakes are not dangerous to hu-
mans, but some have venom powerful enough to make people
sick and sometimes kill them. Bites typically occur at night,
when people accidentally step on a snake or turn over in bed
and roll onto a snake that has crawled under the covers. For
the most part, however, African burrowing snakes are gentle
animals that rarely bite humans. The burrowing asps are dif-
ferent. When humans even slightly bother a burrowing asp, it
will strike again and again.
CONSERVATION STATUS
A few species of African burrowing snake live in very small
areas, but no species is endangered or threatened.

Southern burrowing asp (Atractaspis bibronii)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SOUTHERN BURROWING ASP
Atractaspis bibronii
Physical characteristics: Also known as Bibron’s burrowing asp or

the side-stabbing snake, the southern burrowing asp has backward-
curved fangs at the front of its mouth. This snake has a thick body,
with smooth, purplish-brown to black scales down its back and, usu-
ally, a dark-gray belly. A few have dark blotches on a whitish to cream-
colored belly. Females can reach 24.4 inches (62 centimeters) in
length, and males can grow to about 26 inches (66 centimeters).
Geographic range: This snake is found in the southern half of

Africa.

Habitat: These snakes spend much of their lives
underground in savannas, flat plains covered with
grass and a few trees. They also live in dry, nearly
desert habitats and near the coast in thick, brushy
areas.
Diet: The southern burrowing asp eats other rep-

tiles, rodents, and frogs.
Behavior and reproduction: True to their name,

these snakes can dig through the soil. Much of their
digging is done to make hollow compartments un-
der rocks. They usually remain underground, but
sometimes they come to the surface at night after
a rainstorm. They have an unusual smell, but scientists still are un- Southern burrowing asps usually
sure if that smell has any purpose, such as attracting mates or remain underground, but
sometimes they come to the
scaring off attackers. In the summer female southern burrowing asps
surface at night after a
each lay four to eleven oblong eggs, which hatch into 6-inch-long rainstorm. (Illustration by Bruce
(15-centimeter-long) young snakes. Worden. Reproduced by
permission.)
Southern burrowing asps and people: When people and burrow-
ing asps live in the same area, snakebites are somewhat common. A
bite can lead to pain and swelling, but it will not kill humans.

■
Books:
Sanibel Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Books, 1998.
Lovett, Sarah. Extremely Weird Snakes. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publi-
cations, 1999.
1995.
Montgomery, Sy. The Snake Scientist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.
Spawls, Stephen, and Bill Branch. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa: Nat-
ural History, Species Directory, Venoms, and Snakebite. Sanibel Island,
FL: Ralph Curtis Books, 1995.
Spawls, Stephen, et al. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa: Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. San Diego: Academic Press,
2002.

Web sites:
“Ecoviews: Africa Really Does Have Some Dangerous Snakes.” Univer-
sity of Georgia Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. http://www
.uga.edu/srelherp/ecoview/Eco16.htm (accessed on August 26, 2004).

COLUBRIDS
Colubridae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Colubridae
Number of species: 1,700 species
The colubrids (KAHL-yuh-bruhds) make up the largest class
group of snakes; they include almost 75 percent of all the subclass
world’s snake species, or types of snakes. These snakes come
in many sizes, shapes, and colors. Despite the many differences order
among the snakes in this family, colubrids share a few features. monotypic order
Most have wide scales on their bellies and, usually, nine large suborder
scales on the tops of their heads. Most colubrids also have
glands, or groups of cells, behind each eye. These glands ▲ family
squeeze out a mixture of chemicals that, in some species, oozes
through enlarged back teeth, known as rear fangs. When a col-
ubrid bites down on a prey animal, this venom, or poison, trick-
les into the prey animal; the venom slows down, knocks out,
or kills the animal, which the colubrid then eats. Unlike the
cobras and vipers, whose fast-acting venom can knock out or
kill an animal in moments, the colubrids produce venom that
is not as strong and usually takes many minutes to work. The
boomslangs and a few other species are exceptions to the
rule; they have venom powerful enough to kill humans. An-
tivenin (an-tee-VEH-nuhn), a remedy that neutralizes, or
makes ineffective, the poison of the snake, is available to treat
the bites.
Colubrid snakes range widely in size, with some species
growing to about 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) and others reach-
ing 12 feet (3.7 meters) in length. Depending on the species,
males may be larger than females, or females may be larger than
males.
Colubrids 399
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Colubrid snakes occur almost everywhere in the world. The
only places they do not live are Antarctica; the far northern
reaches of Europe, Asia, and North America; and central and
western Australia.
HABITAT
The snakes in this family make their homes in many different
places. Some spend most of their time underground, some climb
into trees and shrubs, some slither about mostly on the ground,
and others live mainly in water. Most of the water-living
colubrids like freshwater habitats, but a few, like the crab-eating
water snake, can live in saltier water. A particularly unusual col-
ubrid is the Southeast Asian flying snake, which not only climbs
trees but also soars from one tree branch to another. These snakes
do not actually fly but instead flatten out their bodies and soar
from a higher branch to a lower one.
DIET
Depending on the species, colubrids may eat mammals,
lizards, baby turtles, frogs and toads, fishes, earthworms, scor-
pions, tarantulas, some insects, and any number of other ani-
mals that will fit in their mouths. Some colubrids will eat almost
anything that comes their way. Others will eat only a handful
of different food items, and a few are extremely picky about
their meals. For example, the rainbow snake dines on eels and
little else, and the egg eaters of Africa swallow only whole bird
eggs. In some species, snakes that eat one type of prey as young-
sters continue eating that type of prey into adulthood. Many
common garter snakes that grow up eating earthworms, for ex-
ample, stick to a mostly earthworm diet as adults.

Scientists have not studied the activities of most of the 1,700
colubrid species in any detail, because many of them live un-
derground or in trees, or else they have excellent camouflage
(KA-mah-flahzh), a sort of disguise, which makes them difficult
to watch. Scientists do, however, have a lot of information about
the more common snakes and even some particularly odd types.
The most obvious features of many colubrids are their defensive
methods. Often, snakes make their bodies appear bigger to scare
off attacking animals, known as predators (PREH-duh-ters). For

instance, the false water cobras spread their
necks into a hood, giving them the look of
much larger snakes. Some colubrid snakes
will open their mouths wide and might even
strike and bite. Many, including the northern
ribbon snake, give off bad-smelling substances
to convince predators that they should leave A SNAKE MELTING POT
them alone.
When considering all of the snakes in
A wide variety of colubrid snakes find that the world, nearly three of every four species
the best way to keep away from predators is is a member of the family Colubridae.
to move away as quickly as possible. Other Scientists have been struggling for many
snakes act like venomous (VEH-nuh-mus), years to decide for sure if all of these
or poisonous, species, or they have coloring snakes should remain in one large family
that copycats the coloring of venomous or be split up into several smaller families.
species. For example, the scarlet kingsnake For now, however, they are all in one large
has no dangerous venom, but it looks very family that is divided into smaller groups,
much like the venomous eastern coral snake, called subfamilies. Not everyone agrees on
and the milk snake, that has no dangerous the arrangement of the snakes in these
venom, will wiggle its tail just as a venomous subfamilies or even on the number of
rattlesnake does. subfamilies, however, so plenty of work is
Many colubrids that live in cool climates, left to do.
particularly those with very cold winters, will
hibernate (HIGH-bur-nayt), or become inac-
tive and sleep deeply, to help them survive the frigid (FRIH-
juhd) weather. Although most snakes do not dig, they will use
other animals’ underground homes as places to hibernate. Snakes
will also sometimes hibernate among tree roots; inside old, rot-
ting tree stumps; or in any other protected spot they can find.
During mating season, which usually happens once a year,
the males of many colubrid species will wrestle with one an-
other. In these fights two snakes usually twist their bodies
around each other while trying to tip over the opponent. The
winner approaches the female to mate. In some species, the
male flicks his tongue at the female and presses his head against
the female’s back before mating. Tongue flicking is also used
in hunting. Snakes do not really have a sense of smell. When
a snake flicks out its tongue, it picks up scent (SENT) chemi-
cals from the air. The snake then presses its tongue against the
roof of its mouth and “smells” the scent, or odor, in that way.
Most colubrid snakes lay eggs, but some females give birth
to live snakes. Typically, the females lay eggs in a hole or tun-
nel in the ground or under some rotting leaves. The smaller
Colubrids 401
species have fewer young than the larger species. Some of the
smallest colubrids, such as the worm snakes, may lay only three
eggs at a time, while larger species, like mud snakes, may lay
more than thirty eggs. The diamond-backed water snake gives
birth to nearly fifty live young at a time. For some species, the
female’s duties are complete as soon as she gives birth, but for
others, the female will stay near her nest and protect her eggs.
COLUBRIDS AND PEOPLE

Humans are much more dangerous to colubrids than colu-
brids are to humans. People collect the snakes for pets or for
food and, occasionally, for their skins, which are made into
leather. For their part, most colubrids are of no danger to hu-
mans. Even those species with large or grooved rear teeth that
can inject humans with mild venom typically do little more
harm with their bites than to cause a bit of swelling at the bite
spot. A few unusual species, including the boomslangs and twig
snakes of Africa, have venom powerful enough to kill humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists one species as
Extinct, meaning that none is still alive. Six species are Criti-
cally Endangered, meaning that they face an extremely high
risk of extinction in the wild, and seven are Endangered, mean-
ing that they face a very high risk of extinction. Eight are con-
sidered Vulnerable, meaning that their risk of extinction is high,
and four are Near Threatened, meaning that they may face the
risk of becoming threatened with extinction in the near future.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists seven U.S. species and
one foreign colubrid as Threatened.
The danger to most colubrid populations comes from the de-
struction of their habitat, or their preferred living areas, and
their collection for the pet trade, food, or leather. While many
species are finding it hard to survive, the brown tree snake is
doing very well. This slender snake grows to 4.5 to 6.5 feet (1.4
to 2 meters) in length. It is native to Indonesia, New Guinea,
Australia, and the Solomon Islands, but it seems to have hitched
a ride on military ships during World War II to the Pacific is-
land of Guam. Once there, it quickly adapted to its new home
and has since hunted and eaten to extinction several species of
the island’s native birds and lizards.

Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)
SPECIES
BOOMSLANG ACCOUNTS
Dispholidus typus
Physical characteristics: A long, thin snake, the boomslang comes

in a number of colors, including green, reddish, and black with yel-
low spots inside each of the black scales. The belly is often a creamy
color. The boomslang has a large head and big eyes. Adults are about
4 feet (1.2 meters) long.
Geographic range: The boomslang lives in the central and south-

ern regions of Africa, which is known as sub-Saharan Africa.
Habitat: This snake spends most of its time crawling among the
branches of trees and shrubs in forests and grasslands.
Colubrids 403
Boomslangs spend most of their
time crawling among the
branches of trees and shrubs in
forests and grasslands. (Bill
Ruth/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Diet: It feeds on a variety of animals that it finds in trees and shrubs,

including birds and chameleons (kuh-MEEL-yuns), a type of lizard.
Behavior and reproduction: Active during the day, the boomslang

hunts for food above the ground in trees and shrubs. This snake, which
has rear fangs, will bite and inject venom into prey and into attacking
animals. The boomslang is an egg-laying species, and females lay about
twelve eggs at a time.
Boomslangs and people: If the boomslang feels threatened, it may

bite a person and inject its venom. The venom can be deadly to
humans.

■

Common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)
COMMON GARTER SNAKE

Thamnophis sirtalis
Physical characteristics: The common garter is a somewhat thin

snake that may be brown, greenish, or red and may have blackish
blotches. Garters usually have three long stripes running from top to
bottom: a center stripe that may be almost cream in color and two
yellow stripes along the sides of the body. Adults range from about
20 to 28 inches (51 to 71 centimeters) in length, but some can reach
more than 4 feet (1.2 meters). Females and males look alike, but fe-
males are typically a bit larger than males and have shorter tails. Males’
tails make up about 25 percent of the snake’s overall length, while
female tails make up about 20 percent.
Geographic range: This snake lives in Canada, the United States, and
Mexico. Some populations live as far south as Florida and northern
Colubrids 405
Mexico, while others live as far north as Canada and
into the southern part of the Northwest Territories.
Habitat: Garters thrive in many habitats, includ-

ing marshy spots, fields, and forests, especially near
water. They also will enter freshwater areas for
short periods of time.
Diet: Active during the day, garters eat a variety

of animals, including insects, frogs, and small
fishes, birds, and mammals.
Behavior and reproduction: Common garters

that live in warm southern climates are active all
year long. Those that live in the north hibernate
during the coldest months. Hibernating males be-
Common gartersnakes eat a come active a bit earlier in the spring than the females, and mating
variety of animals, including
insects, frogs, and small fishes, occurs almost as soon as the females awaken. Females give birth to
birds, and mammals. (Illustration about ten to fifteen live young.
by Barbara Duperron.
Reproduced by permission.) Common garter snakes and people: Most people know the garter
as the snake seen in a garden. In fact, some people call it a “garden
snake,” and unfortunately many kill these harmless animals. These
snakes may also die from encounters with cats and dogs, cars, and
lawn mowers. Garters are common pets.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not consider this snake

species to be threatened. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists one
subspecies, called the San Francisco garter snake, as Endangered. The
danger for this subspecies comes from loss of its habitat. A subspecies
is a small group within a species that typically lives in a particular
area and usually has a slightly different look from the rest of the an-
imals in the species. ■

Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum)
MILKSNAKE
Lampropeltis triangulum
Physical characteristics: Although all milksnakes have smooth,

shiny scales, they can look quite different from one region to the next.
Some have large red or brown blotches that are often lined in black
on a gray to tan background; others have bands of red, black, and
yellow or white. A few are solid black. Adults range from 20 to 60
inches (51 to 152 centimeters) in length.
Colubrids 407
Geographic range: The milksnake lives in North
America, Central America, and South America.
They make their homes throughout much of the
New World, from southeastern Canada through all
but the far western United States, into Mexico,
Central America, and south to Ecuador and north-
ern Venezuela.
Habitat: Milksnakes are common in forests and

fields and sometimes live on rocky hillsides.
Diet: Young snakes seem to prefer eating other

snakes, but adults round out their diet with small
mammals, lizards, and bird and reptile eggs. A
Although the milksnake is not milksnake typically kills mammals and lizards by constriction (kun-
dangerous, people often kill it STRIK-shun), which means that it coils its body around the prey
because it defends itself by
shaking its tail, striking, and
animal and squeezes it to death.
biting, the type of behavior that
can make people think that it is Behavior and reproduction: The milksnake is a secretive animal
a dangerous rattlesnake. during the day and usually stays under the bark of a tree, beneath
boards, or in other small hiding places. It becomes active at night,
permission.) when it feeds. Cold-climate milksnakes hibernate during the winter,
often in groups. They mate in the spring. Females lay about ten eggs
at a time, and the eggs hatch in one and a half to two months. When
they reach three to four years of age, the young snakes are old enough
to reproduce, or have their own young.
Milksnakes and people: Although the milksnake is not dangerous,

people often kill it because it defends itself by shaking its tail, strik-
ing, and biting, the type of behavior that can make people think that
it is a dangerous rattlesnake. Because the snake is sometimes found
in barns, people at one time had the mistaken idea that it milked
cows, and so they named it the milksnake. It is sometimes collected
for the pet trade.
Conservation status: The milksnake is not endangered or threat-

ened. ■

Eastern hog-nosed snake (Heterodon platirhinos)
EASTERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE

Heterodon platirhinos
Physical characteristics: The eastern hog-nosed snake has a thick

body and a wide head with an upward-curving snout, or nose area.
Its scales form ridges, or raised areas, and the snake’s back usually is
covered with brown spots scattered over a yellowish, orangey, gray,
or olive green background. The spots, however, may be faded or miss-
ing entirely. Occasionally, a snake may be completely black. Adults
are typically about 30 inches (76 centimeters) long, but they can grow
to more than 45 inches (114 centimeters).
Geographic range: The eastern hog-nosed snake is found in Canada

and the United States. It lives throughout most of the eastern half of
the United States and into southern Ontario, Canada.
Colubrids 409
Habitat: This snake likes drier areas, including
fields and forests.
Diet: Eastern hog-nosed snakes eat mainly toads,

but they will also sometimes eat frogs, salamanders,
and small mammals. Toads will often puff up their
bodies with air to protect themselves from attack-
ers, but hog-nosed snakes have long rear fangs that
puncture and help deflate the toads in much the
same way that a pin lets the air out of a balloon.
Behavior and reproduction: Some people call

this snake a hissing adder, puff adder, or spread
adder, because it spreads out its neck as a cobra
Some people call this snake a does and makes loud hissing noises when threatened. If these defense
hissing adder, puff adder, or moves fail, the snake may strike at the attacker, but almost always
spread adder, because it
spreads out its neck as a cobra
with its mouth closed. It does not actually bite. If necessary, the snake
does and makes loud hissing may follow up by vomiting, smearing its own waste over its body, or
noises when threatened. going into a squirming fit. As a last resort, it will roll onto its back,
open its mouth with its tongue dragging, and play dead. If the at-
permission.) tacker turns the snake onto its belly, it will promptly roll onto its
back again as if it can play dead only when it is upside down. Once
the attacker leaves, the snake turns over and scoots away.
This is an egg-laying snake. Females usually lay about twenty eggs
at a time, although some lay up to sixty.
Eastern hog-nosed snakes and people: People frequently mistake

this harmless snake for a venomous snake and kill it.
Conservation status: The eastern hog-nosed snake is not endan-

gered or threatened. ■

Indigo snake (Drymarchon corais)
INDIGO SNAKE
Drymarchon corais
Physical characteristics: The indigo snakes that live in the south-

eastern United States are shiny black or bluish-black with a reddish
throat. In tropical areas, their colors range from black to brown, gray,
or yellow. Sometimes, the tail is a different color from the rest of the
body. The longest snake in the United States, adults can reach nearly
10 feet (3 meters) long.
Colubrids 411
Although it lives mainly on land,
the indigo snake often prefers
areas near a water source.
(©Joseph T. Collins/Photo
permission.)
Geographic range: This snake lives from the southeastern United

States south to northern Argentina in South America.
Habitat: Although it lives mainly on land, this snake often prefers

areas near a water source, and it will dip into the water to chase prey.
In the United States it tends to live in grasslands and shrubby spots
with sandy soil, but it also may make its home in moist forests.
Diet: The indigo snake eats a variety of animals, including fishes and
frogs, turtles, birds, mammals, and other snakes, including pit vipers.
Behavior and reproduction: Active during the day, this large snake
spends much of its time searching for prey, which it bites at and swal-
lows using its strength and size. Females lay about four to twelve
eggs at a time. When the eggs hatch, the young snakes may be 2 feet
(61 centimeters) long or more.
Indigo snakes and people: People often collect this usually gentle
snake for the pet trade.
Conservation status: Although the IUCN does not consider the in-
digo snake to be threatened, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists it
as Threatened in the United States. This large snake is popular in the
pet trade. Its habitat is shrinking as people build in these areas. ■
Books:

Brazaitis, Peter, and Myrna E. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York:
Crescent Books, 1992.
Harding, James. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region.
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997.
Holman, J. Alan, and James Harding. Michigan Snakes. East Lansing,
MI: Michigan State University Extension, 1989.
Lamar, William W. The World’s Most Spectacular Reptiles and Amphibians.
Lovett, Sarah. Extremely Weird Snakes. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publi-
cations, 1999.
1995.
Mattison, Chris. Snake: The Essential Visual Guide to the World of
Snakes. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1999.
Web sites:
“Eastern Garter Snake.” Iowa Herpetology. http://www.herpnet.net/
Iowa-Herpetology/reptiles/snakes/e.garter_snake.html (accessed on
September 9, 2004).
“Eastern Hognose Snake.” Iowa Herpetology. http:// www.herpnet.net/
Iowa-Herpetology/reptiles/snakes/e.hognose_snake.htm (accessed on
September 9, 2004).
“Eastern Indigo Snake.” University of Georgia Savannah River Ecology
Laboratory. http://www.uga.edu/srel/eastern_indigo_snake.htm (ac-
cessed on September 1, 2004).
“Milk Snake.” Iowa Herpetology. http://www.herpnet.net/Iowa-Herpetology/
reptiles/snakes/eastern_milksnake.html (accessed on September 9,
2004).
Colubrids 413
COBRAS, KRAITS, SEA
SNAKES, AND RELATIVES
Elapidae
▲
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Elapidae
Number of species: More than 300
species
class The cobras, kraits (KRYTS), sea snakes, death adders, and
other members of this family are venomous (VEH-nuh-mus),
subclass
or poisonous, snakes that vary in length from just 7 inches
order (17.8 centimeters) to 16 feet, 8 inches (5 meters). Despite their
monotypic order many differences, all of the snakes in this family, known as
elapids (EH-luh-puds), are alike in some ways. They each have
suborder two “fixed” fangs, or long, pointed teeth that cannot move, at
▲ family the front of the mouth. These short fangs are always pointed
downward and ready to inject venom. Elapids are mostly thin
snakes with heads that are about the same size around as their
necks and with large scoots, or scales, down the back. Many
cobras are well known for their ability to spread out their necks
into a sort of hood.
Some elapids are brightly colored; others are not. Some have
stripes, but others are just one color. Still others have side-to-
side bands of color. The coral snakes, for example, often have
bright bands of different colors.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The elapids live in Africa, Asia, Australia, the United States
and Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Pacific
and Indian Oceans.
HABITAT
This large family has species that can live in almost any habi-
tat, from deserts and dry grasslands to rainforests and even

oceans. Most of the three hundred species,
or types of snakes, in this family live on the
ground, but some elapids spend at least part
of their time underground, and others live
nearly their entire lives in trees or underwa-
ter. Some scientists split this family into two:
the Elapidae encompassing all of the land- SNAKE COPYCATS
living species and a second family, known as
Nature is filled with copycat animals,
the Hydrophiidae, containing the snakes that
and snakes are no exception. The coral
live in water.
snake is one example. These snakes have
powerful venom and, with one bite, can
DIET sicken and often kill attacking animals.
Elapids eat small mammals, birds, snakes, They also have bold red, black, and yellow
lizards, frogs, and fishes. Many of them feed bands, and predators learn to avoid snakes
on whatever they can find, while others eat with those patterns. There are other
only one or two different items. The favorite snakes that live among the coral snakes
food of the southern African Rinkhal’s cobra, but lack their venom. Many of them are
for instance, is toads. Sea snakes find their colored very much like the coral snakes.
meals in the coral reefs where most of them While these “copycats” pose little danger
live, and they eat mainly fishes, eels, or to other animals, predators avoid them
squids. Most species in this family actively because they look so much like coral
hunt for food, slithering or swimming up to snakes. These copycats, known as mimics
prey, an animal they intend to eat, and then (MIM-iks), can be quite common. In coral
striking at them and biting them with their snake habitats, for instance, these mimic
fangs. The fangs release venom, or poison, species are so common that they actually
which slows down the prey’s heartbeat and outnumber true coral snakes by two to one.
breathing, making the animal easy to eat.
Rather than finding prey, the Australian death
adder lets prey come to it. The adder sits still, wriggling only
the tip of its tail, which looks much like an insect grub, the very
young form of an insect. As the animals come closer to take a
bite out of the tasty “grub,” the snake strikes.

One of the most common myths about elapids is that they
can be “charmed,” or controlled through playing music. Film
clips show snake charmers playing the flute and cobras rising
from their baskets because they have been “hypnotized,” or put
into a trance, by the music. Actually, cobras cannot even hear
music. Like all elapids, they can hear low sounds, like the vi-
brations (vie-BRAY-shuns) made by a person stomping on the
ground, but they cannot hear musical notes, which are much
Cobras, Kraits, Sea Snakes, and Relatives 415

higher sounds. The cobra sways back and forth not because it
is listening to the musical beat but because it is following the
movements of the snake charmer, who is swaying to the music.
Depending on the species, an elapid may be active at sunset
and at night or during the daytime. Snakes that live in warm
climates stay active all year, but those that live in colder areas,
hibernate (HIGH-bur-nayt), or remain inactive, in the winter.
During hibernation (high-bur-NAY-shun), the snakes enter a
state of deep sleep that helps them survive the cold weather.
Most elapids reproduce in the spring. In general, males fight
with one another, and the winners mate with the females. Many
elapids lay eggs, but others give birth to live young snakes. The
egg-laying females usually place their eggs under a rock or a
log or in some other hiding place. The eggs hatch in about three
months. The females that give birth to live young do so in a
hiding place. Scientists believe that the king cobras are the only
elapids that provide any care for eggs or young. These snakes
remain with their eggs and will strike out at anything or any-
one who approaches too closely.
COBRAS, KRAITS, SEA SNAKES, THEIR RELATIVES,

AND PEOPLE
More than half of the venomous snake species in the world
belong to this family, which includes cobras, mambas, coral
snakes, land-living kraits, brown snakes, taipans (TY-pans),
death adders, sea kraits, and sea snakes. Some of them are quite
deadly to humans. Nonetheless, snake charmers and other peo-
ple annoy the snakes for entertainment or collect them for their
skins, which are used for belt and shoe leather.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists seven species
as Vulnerable, which means that they face a high risk of ex-
tinction in the wild. Two species are Near Threatened, which
means they are at risk of being threatened with extinction in
the future. Causes for the declines in their numbers may in-
clude loss of their habitats, or preferred living areas, and col-
lecting of snakeskins for leather.

North American coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
SPECIES
NORTH AMERICAN CORAL SNAKE ACCOUNTS
Micrurus fulvius
Physical characteristics: This thin snake has a repeated color

pattern of narrow yellow, wide red, and wide black bands. A narrow
yellow band separates the black and red bands. Adults normally are
18 to 28 inches (45.7 to 71 centimeters) long, but they have been
known to grow to more than 4 feet (1.2 meters).
Geographic range: North American coral snakes live in the United

States and Mexico.
Habitat: The North American coral snake lives in many areas, in-
cluding deserts and forests and even along the shorelines of lakes and
ponds.

North American coral snakes
often hide under leaves or logs
or in some other shelter.
(Illustration by Dan Erickson.
Diet: This snake eats mostly small lizards but sometimes also dines
on frogs and other snakes. It tracks the lizards and snakes by fol-
lowing their scents (SENTS), or smells.
Behavior and reproduction: These secretive snakes often hide un-

der leaves or logs or in some other shelter. When a coral snake feels
threatened, it sometimes pokes out the end of its tail, which may con-
fuse the attacker into thinking the tail is the head. This can give the
coral snake time to get away. Females usually lay fewer than nine
eggs at a time, but they can lay as many as thirteen. Little else is
known about them.
North American coral snakes and people: The coral snake’s venom
is strong enough to kill a human, but antivenin (an-tee-VEH-nuhn)
is available. Antivenin is a substance that neutralizes a snake’s venom,
meaning that it causes the venom to have no bad effect.
Conservation status: These snakes are not endangered or threat-

ened. ■

Black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis)
BLACK-NECKED SPITTING COBRA

Naja nigricollis
Physical characteristics: The black-necked spitting cobra may be

solid black or brown, or it may be striped with black and white. It
has two sharp, thin fangs that it uses to spray its venom. These snakes
can reach a length of 79 inches (2 meters).
Geographic range: This snake lives in western, central, and south-

ern Africa.
Habitat: The black-necked spitting cobra usually lives in grasslands,

but it sometimes enters villages and cities, where it can cause quite
an uproar among human residents, who worry about being poisoned
with its venom.

Although it spends much of its
time on the ground, the black-
necked spitting cobra can easily
climb into bushes and trees.
(Illustration by Dan Erickson.
Diet: The black-necked spitting cobra eats almost anything it finds,

including frogs and toads, birds and their eggs, and other reptiles.
Behavior and reproduction: Although it spends much of its time

on the ground, this cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees. It
is most active at night, but it sometimes moves about during the day.
Females lay eight to twenty eggs at a time.
Black-necked spitting cobras and people: Local people fear this

snake, which can spray venom almost 10 feet (3 meters). The snake
aims for the eyes, and the venom can be very painful and can even
cause blindness if the person is not treated immediately. A bite from
the snake can kill a person.
Conservation status: The black-necked spitting cobra is not

endangered or threatened. ■

King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)
KING COBRA
Ophiophagus hannah
Physical characteristics: The king cobras are snakes of many col-

ors; they may be black, brown, brownish-green, or yellow. These large
snakes usually reach about 9.8 feet (3 meters) in length, but they can
grow to 16.4 feet (5 meters).
Geographic range: The king cobra lives from India through South-
east Asia (the Philippines and into Indonesia).
Habitat: King cobras are animals of the thick jungle and usually
prefer to live near water.
Diet: Their main food items are other snakes, including other ven-
omous species.

King cobras are snakes of many
colors; they may be black,
brown, brownish-green, or
yellow. (Joe McDonald/Bruce
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Unlike most other members of this

family, male and female king cobras will form pairs, make a nest from
leaves and dirt in a growth of bamboo, and protect the nest and, later,
the eggs from attackers. Once the eggs hatch, the parents leave the
nest site, and the young must live on their own immediately.
King cobras and people: When a king cobra bites a person, it can
inject a dose of venom that can kill.
Conservation status: The king cobra is not endangered or threat-

ened. ■

Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
DEATH ADDER
Acanthophis antarcticus
Physical characteristics: The death adder has a thick body, with

bands of light brown to black. Adults are about 20 to 39 inches (0.5
to 1 meter) long.
Geographic range: The death adder is found in Australia.
Habitat: Death adders live in dry areas, including grasslands and

deserts, in eastern and southern Australia. It also sometimes wanders
into cities.
Diet: The death adder eats mainly small reptiles but also frogs and
small mammals.

The death adder eats mainly
small reptiles but also frogs and
small mammals. (Frith
Photo/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Behavior and reproduction: Most members of this family actively

search out prey to eat, but the death adder buries itself, leaving out
just the tip of its tail. The tail tip, which looks like a worm, catches
the attention of their prey. When the prey animals get close, the adder
strikes. The death adder is a secretive snake and is most active at
night. Females give birth to live snakes, instead of laying eggs; they
may have up to twenty young at a time.
Death adders and people: The snake’s venom is very strong and
can kill people. Antivenin is available.
Conservation status: The death adder is not endangered or threat-

ened. ■

Sea krait (Laticauda colubrina)
SEA KRAIT
Laticauda colubrina
Physical characteristics: The sea krait is banded with blue or bluish

gray and black and has a paddle-shaped tail to help it swim. It also
has valves, or flaps, that can close its nostrils, or nose holes, when it
goes underwater. Adults are usually about 39 inches (1 meter) long,
but some sea kraits can reach 55 inches (1.4 meters) in length.
Geographic range: The sea krait is found in New Guinea, on many

Pacific islands, and from India to Southeast Asia.
Habitat: Sea kraits spend most of their lives in the ocean water,
coming ashore only to rest or to lay their eggs. Once in a while, they
may travel into mangrove swamps. Mangroves are tropical trees and
shrubs that form thick masses along coastlines.

Sea kraits spend most of their
lives in the ocean water, coming
ashore only to rest or to lay their
eggs. (Illustration by Dan
Erickson. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: They usually find their food, primarily eels, in coral reefs.
Behavior and reproduction: Most active at night, the sea krait oc-
casionally looks for food in the daytime. In the breeding season, fe-
males leave their saltwater homes to lay up to eighteen eggs at a time
on the seashore.
Sea kraits and people: People are rarely bitten by this gentle snake.
A sea krait’s bite, however, is venomous.
Conservation status: The sea krait is not endangered or threatened.

■
Books:
Brazaitis, Peter, and Myrna E. Watanabe. Snakes of the World. New York:
Crescent Books, 1992.
Broadley, Donald G. FitzSimons’ Snakes of Southern Africa. Johannesburg,
South Africa: Jonathan Ball, 1990.
of Latin America. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 1989.
Cogger, Harold G. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Sydney, Australia:
Reed New Holland, 2000.
Creagh, Carson. Reptiles. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1996.

George, Linda. Coral Snakes. Mankato, MN: Capstone Books, 1998.
Lovett, Sarah. Extremely Weird Snakes. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir
Publications, 1999.
1995.
Spawls, Stephen, and Bill Branch. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa:
Natural History, Species Directory, Venoms, and Snakebite. Sanibel
Island, FL: Ralph Curtis Books, 1995.
Web site:
“King Cobra.” NationalGeographic.com. http://www.nationalgeographic
.com/kingcobra/index-n.html (accessed on September 9, 2004).

Species List by Biome
CONIFEROUS FOREST Blackish blind snake Texas alligator lizard
Blind lizard Blind lizard Texas blind snake
Boomslang Boa constrictor Timber rattlesnake
Common chameleon Boomslang Yellow-margined box turtle
Common garter snake Broad-headed skink
Eastern box turtle Common chameleon
DESERT
Eastern hog-nosed snake Common garter snake
Agamodon anguliceps
Florida wormlizard Common sunbeam snake
Boa constrictor
Flying lizard Crocodile tegu
Cape flat lizard
Frilled lizard Eastern box turtle
Cape spiny-tailed iguana
Green anole Eastern hog-nosed snake
Common chameleon
Green python Florida wormlizard
Common chuckwalla
House gecko Flying lizard
Death adder
Indigo snake Galápagos tortoise
Desert night lizard
Milksnake Gila monster
Desert tortoise
Neotropical sunbeam snake Green python
Gila monster
North American coral snake Indigo snake
Horned viper
Reticulated python Knob-scaled lizard
House gecko
Texas blind snake Komodo dragon
Jackson’s chameleon
Timber rattlesnake Lesser blind snake
North American coral snake
Milksnake
Sandfish
Neotropical sunbeam snake
CONTINENTAL MARGIN North American coral snake
Southern burrowing asp
Green seaturtle Spiny agama
Northern Tuatara
Loggerhead turtle Texas alligator lizard
Prehensile-tailed skink
Texas blind snake
Red-tailed pipe snake
Western banded gecko
DECIDUOUS FOREST Reticulated python
Agamodon anguliceps Sand lizard
Armored chameleon Southern bromeliad GRASSLAND
Black-headed python woodsnake Bachia bresslaui
Species List by Biome xli

Black-headed python Snapping turtle False coral snake
Blackish blind snake Spiny softshell Gharial
Black-necked spitting cobra Stinkpot Green anaconda
Boa constrictor Yellow-margined box turtle Helmeted turtle
Boomslang Little file snake
Common garter snake Matamata
Common sunbeam snake
OCEAN Nile crocodile
Green seaturtle
Death adder Painted turtle
Leatherback seaturtle
Desert tortoise Pig-nose turtle
Little file snake
Eastern box turtle Reticulated python
Loggerhead turtle
Eastern hog-nosed snake Snapping turtle
Sea krait
Galápagos tortoise South American river turtle
Gila monster Spiny softshell
Indigo snake RAINFOREST Stinkpot
Komodo dragon Black-headed bushmaster Yellow-margined box turtle
Lesser blind snake Black-headed python
Milksnake Blind lizard
Nilgiri burrowing snake Boa constrictor SEASHORE
Sand lizard Crocodile monitor Green seaturtle
Six-lined racerunner Emerald tree boa Loggerhead turtle
Southern burrowing asp False coral snake Sea krait
Texas alligator lizard Flying lizard
Texas blind snake Green python
Two-legged wormlizard House gecko UNKNOWN
Western banded gecko False blind snake
Jackson’s chameleon
King cobra
Lesser blind snake
LAKE AND POND WETLAND
Neotropical sunbeam snake
American alligator American alligator
Southern bromeliad
American crocodile American crocodile
woodsnake
Central American river turtle Broad-headed skink
Splitjaw snakes
Common caiman Common caiman
White-bellied wormlizard
Common garter snake Common garter snake
Yellow-margined box turtle
Cottonmouth Cottonmouth
False coral snake Green anaconda
Green anaconda RIVER AND STREAM Helmeted turtle
Helmeted turtle American alligator Komodo dragon
Little file snake American crocodile Little file snake
Matamata Big-headed turtle Nile crocodile
Nile crocodile Central American river turtle Pig-nose turtle
North American coral snake Common caiman Red-tailed pipe snake
Painted turtle Common garter snake Reticulated python
Pig-nose turtle Cottonmouth Sea krait
Reticulated python Crocodile tegu Snapping turtle
xlii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Species List by
Geographic Range
AFGHANISTAN Death adder Milksnake
Gharial Frilled lizard Snapping turtle
Green python
ALGERIA House gecko
BENIN
Common chameleon Little file snake
Boomslang
Horned viper Pig-nose turtle
Helmeted turtle
Sandfish Nile crocodile
AUSTRIA
ANGOLA Sand lizard
BHUTAN
Black-necked spitting cobra Gharial
Boomslang BANGLADESH Reticulated python
Helmeted turtle House gecko
Nile crocodile King cobra
Southern burrowing asp BOLIVIA
Little file snake
Boa constrictor
Reticulated python
ARCTIC OCEAN False coral snake
Leatherback seaturtle South American river turtle
BELARUS White-bellied wormlizard
Sand lizard
ARMENIA
White-bellied wormlizard BOTSWANA
BELGIUM Boomslang
ATLANTIC OCEAN Sand lizard Helmeted turtle
Green seaturtle Spiny agama
Leatherback seaturtle BELIZE
Loggerhead turtle American crocodile BRAZIL
Boa constrictor Bachia bresslaui
AUSTRALIA Central American river turtle Boa constrictor
Black-headed python Common caiman Common caiman
Blackish blind snake Indigo snake Crocodile tegu
Species List by Geographic Range xliii

Early blind snake CANADA COMOROS
Emerald tree boa Common garter snake Helmeted turtle
False coral snake Eastern hog-nosed snake
Green anaconda Milksnake COSTA RICA
Indigo snake Painted turtle American crocodile
Matamata Snapping turtle Black-headed bushmaster
South American river turtle Spiny softshell Common caiman
White-bellied wormlizard Stinkpot Indigo snake
Timber rattlesnake Milksnake
BRUNEI Neotropical sunbeam snake
House gecko CENTRAL AFRICAN Snapping turtle
King cobra REPUBLIC Southern bromeliad woodsnake
Little file snake Black-necked spitting cobra
Red-tailed pipesnake Boomslang CUBA
Reticulated python Nile crocodile American crocodile
Milksnake
BULGARIA White-bellied wormlizard
CHAD
Sand lizard
Boomslang
Sandfish CYPRUS
BURKINA FASO Common chameleon
Black-necked spitting cobra
Boomslang CHINA CZECH REPUBLIC
Helmeted turtle Big-headed turtle Sand lizard
Nile crocodile Common sunbeam snake
King cobra
Red-tailed pipesnake DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
BURUNDI Sand lizard OF THE CONGO
Black-necked spitting cobra Yellow-margined box turtle Black-necked spitting cobra
Boomslang Boomslang
Helmeted turtle Helmeted turtle
Nile crocodile COLOMBIA Nile crocodile
American crocodile Southern burrowing asp
Boa constrictor
CAMBODIA Common caiman
Common sunbeam snake DENMARK
Crocodile tegu
House gecko Sand lizard
Emerald tree boa
King cobra
False coral snake
Little file snake DJIBOUTI
Green anaconda
Red-tailed pipesnake Boomslang
Indigo snake
Reticulated python Helmeted turtle
Matamata
Milksnake Horned viper
CAMEROON Snapping turtle
Black-necked spitting cobra South American river turtle DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Boomslang Southern bromeliad American crocodile
Helmeted turtle woodsnake Milksnake
Nile crocodile White-bellied wormlizard White-bellied wormlizard
xliv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

ECUADOR FIJI Central American river turtle
American crocodile House gecko Common caiman
Common caiman Indigo snake
False coral snake Knob-scaled lizard
FRANCE Milksnake
Galápagos tortoise Sand lizard
Matamata Neotropical sunbeam snake
Milksnake Snapping turtle
Snapping turtle FRENCH GUIANA
American crocodile
Boa constrictor GUINEA
EGYPT Common caiman Black-necked spitting cobra
Common chameleon Emerald tree boa Boomslang
Horned viper False coral snake Helmeted turtle
Sandfish Green anaconda Nile crocodile
Indigo snake
Matamata
EL SALVADOR GUINEA-BISSAU
Milksnake
American crocodile Black-necked spitting cobra
Boa constrictor Boomslang
Common caiman Helmeted turtle
Indigo snake GABON Nile crocodile
Milksnake Black-necked spitting cobra
Neotropical sunbeam snake Boomslang
Helmeted turtle GUYANA
Nile crocodile American crocodile
EQUATORIAL GUINEA Boa constrictor
Boomslang Common caiman
GAMBIA Emerald tree boa
Helmeted turtle
Black-necked spitting cobra False coral snake
Nile crocodile
Helmeted turtle Green anaconda
Nile crocodile Indigo snake
ERITREA Matamata
Boomslang GERMANY Milksnake
Helmeted turtle Sand lizard White-bellied wormlizard
Horned viper
Nile crocodile
GHANA HAITI
Boomslang American crocodile
ESTONIA Helmeted turtle Milksnake
Sand lizard Nile crocodile White-bellied wormlizard
ETHIOPIA GREECE HONDURAS

Agamodon anguliceps Common chameleon American crocodile
Black-necked spitting cobra Boa constrictor
Boomslang GUATEMALA Common caiman
Helmeted turtle American crocodile Indigo snake
Nile crocodile Boa constrictor Milksnake
Species List by Geographic Range xlv

Neotropical sunbeam snake JAMAICA LITHUANIA
Snapping turtle American crocodile Sand lizard
Milksnake
HUNGARY LUXEMBOURG
Sand lizard JORDAN Sand lizard
Common chameleon
Horned viper
INDIA Sandfish MACEDONIA
Gharial Sand lizard
House gecko
KENYA
King cobra
Black-necked spitting cobra
Little file snake MADAGASCAR
Boomslang Armored chameleon
Nilgiri burrowing snake
Jackson’s chameleon House gecko
INDIAN OCEAN Nile crocodile Nile crocodile
Green seaturtle
Leatherback seaturtle LAOS
Loggerhead turtle Big-headed turtle MALAWI
Sea krait Common sunbeam snake Boomslang
House gecko Helmeted turtle
King cobra Nile crocodile
INDONESIA
Red-tailed pipesnake
Blind lizard
Reticulated python MALAYSIA
Common sunbeam snake
Flying lizard Blind lizard
House gecko LATVIA Common sunbeam snake
King cobra Sand lizard False blind snake
Komodo dragon House gecko
Little file snake LEBANON King cobra
Red-tailed pipesnake Common chameleon Little file snake
Reticulated python Sandfish Red-tailed pipesnake
Reticulated python
IRAQ LESOTHO
Sandfish Boomslang MALI
Helmeted turtle Boomslang
Nile crocodile
ISRAEL LIBERIA Sandfish
Common chameleon Boomslang
Horned viper Helmeted turtle
Sandfish Nile crocodile MALTA
Common chameleon
IVORY COAST LIBYA
Boomslang Common chameleon MAURITANIA
Helmeted turtle Horned viper Horned viper
Nile crocodile Sandfish Sandfish
xlvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

MAURITIUS House gecko PACIFIC OCEAN
Splitjaw snake King cobra Green seaturtle
Little file snake Leatherback seaturtle
MEXICO Red-tailed pipesnake Loggerhead turtle
American crocodile Reticulated python Sea krait
Boa constrictor
Cape spinytail iguana NAMIBIA PAKISTAN
Central American river turtle Black-necked spitting cobra Gharial
Common caiman Boomslang
Common chuckwalla Helmeted turtle PANAMA
Desert night lizard Southern burrowing asp American crocodile
Desert tortoise Spiny agama Black-headed bushmaster
Eastern box turtle Boa constrictor
Gila monster NEPAL Common caiman
Green anole Gharial Indigo snake
House gecko King cobra Snapping turtle
Indigo snake Southern bromeliad
Knob-scaled lizard woodsnake
Milksnake NETHERLANDS
Neotropical sunbeam snake Sand lizard
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
North American coral snake Blind lizard
Six-lined racerunner NEW ZEALAND Crocodile monitor
Snapping turtle Tuatara Frilled lizard
Spiny softshell Green python
Texas alligator lizard NICARAGUA House gecko
Texas blind snake American crocodile Little file snake
Two-legged wormlizard Boa constrictor Pig-nose turtle
Western banded gecko Common caiman
Indigo snake PARAGUAY
MOLDOVA Milksnake Bachia bresslaui
Sand lizard Neotropical sunbeam snake Boa constrictor
Snapping turtle Early blind snake
MOROCCO Southern bromeliad White-bellied wormlizard
Common chameleon woodsnake
Horned viper PERU
NIGER Boa constrictor
MOZAMBIQUE Black-necked spitting cobra Common caiman
Boomslang Boomslang False coral snake
Helmeted turtle Sandfish South American river turtle
Nile crocodile
Southern burrowing asp NIGERIA PHILIPPINES
Black-necked spitting cobra Blind lizard
MYANMAR Boomslang House gecko
Big-headed turtle Helmeted turtle Little file snake
Common sunbeam snake Nile crocodile Reticulated python
Species List by Geographic Range xlvii

POLAND SINGAPORE Helmeted turtle
Sand lizard Common sunbeam snake Horned viper
False blind snake Nile crocodile
REPUBLIC OF THE House gecko
CONGO King cobra
SURINAME
Black-necked spitting cobra Little file snake
American crocodile
Boomslang Red-tailed pipesnake
Boa constrictor
Helmeted turtle Reticulated python
Common caiman
Nile crocodile
Emerald tree boa
SLOVAKIA False coral snake
ROMANIA Sand lizard Green anaconda
Sand lizard
Indigo snake
SLOVENIA Matamata
RUSSIA Milksnake
Sand lizard Sand lizard
RWANDA SOLOMON ISLANDS

Black-necked spitting cobra House gecko SWAZILAND
Prehensile-tailed skink Boomslang
Boomslang
Nile crocodile Southern burrowing asp
SOMALIA
Agamodon anguliceps
SAMOA Boomslang SWEDEN
House gecko Helmeted turtle Sand lizard
SÃO TOMÉ AND SOUTH AFRICA SYRIA

PRÍNCIPE Black-necked spitting cobra Common chameleon
Helmeted turtle Boomslang Horned viper
Nile crocodile Cape flat lizard Sandfish
Helmeted turtle
SENEGAL Southern burrowing asp TAIWAN
Black-necked spitting cobra Spiny agama Yellow-margined box turtle
Helmeted turtle
Nile crocodile
Sandfish SPAIN TANZANIA
Common chameleon Black-necked spitting cobra
SERBIA AND Boomslang
MONTENEGRO SRI LANKA Helmeted turtle
Sand lizard House gecko Jackson’s chameleon
Little file snake Nile crocodile
Southern burrowing asp
SIERRA LEONE
Boomslang SUDAN
Helmeted turtle Black-necked spitting cobra THAILAND
Nile crocodile Boomslang Big-headed turtle
xlviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Blind lizard UNITED KINGDOM Boa constrictor
Common sunbeam snake Sand lizard Common caiman
House gecko Crocodile tegu
King cobra Emerald tree boa
Little file snake UNITED STATES False coral snake
Red-tailed pipesnake American alligator Green anaconda
Reticulated python Broad-headed skink Indigo snake
Common chuckwalla Matamata
Common garter snake Milksnake
TIMOR-LESTE Cottonmouth South American river turtle
House gecko Desert night lizard White-bellied wormlizard
Little file snake Desert tortoise
Red-tailed pipesnake Eastern box turtle
Eastern hog-nosed snake VIETNAM
Florida wormlizard Blind lizard
TOGO Gila monster Common sunbeam snake
Boomslang Green anole House gecko
Helmeted turtle House gecko King cobra
Nile crocodile Indigo snake Little file snake
Milksnake Red-tailed pipesnake
North American coral snake Reticulated python
TUNISIA Painted turtle
Common chameleon Six-lined racerunner
Horned viper Snapping turtle
YEMEN
Spiny softshell
Common chameleon
TURKEY Stinkpot
Helmeted turtle
Common chameleon Texas alligator lizard
Horned viper
Texas blind snake
Timber rattlesnake
TUVALU Western banded gecko
ZAMBIA
House gecko Boomslang
URUGUAY Helmeted turtle
UGANDA Boa constrictor Nile crocodile
Black-necked spitting cobra White-bellied wormlizard Southern burrowing asp
Boomslang
Helmeted turtle VANUATU
Nile crocodile ZIMBABWE
House gecko
Boomslang
Helmeted turtle
UKRAINE VENEZUELA Nile crocodile
Sand lizard American crocodile Southern burrowing asp
Species List by Geographic Range xlix

Grzimek&#39;s SALR - Reptiles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Grzimek&#39;s SALR - Reptiles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

grzimek’s

Student Animal Life Resource

Leslie A. Mertz, PhD, author

Madeline S. Harris, project editor

Project Editor Rights and Acquisitions Composition

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

This title is also available as an e-book

Turtles and tortoises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharials . . . . . .101

vi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS

x Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xi

xii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xiii

xiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xv

Words to Know xvii

xviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xix

xx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxi

xxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxiii

xxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Reptiles xxvii

few inches (centimeters) long from the largest, which have

xxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Reptiles xxix

Snakes slither, usually twisting

xxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

REPTILES AS PREDATORS AND PREY

Getting to Know Reptiles xxxi

WHERE REPTILES LIVE

xxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Reptiles xxxiii

xxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

REPTILES AND PEOPLE

Getting to Know Reptiles xxxv

xxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

percent of the eggs from some species of North American tur-

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Getting to Know Reptiles xxxvii

xxxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Reptiles xxxix

2 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

4 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

FOR MORE INFORMATION

6 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

8 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION

Turtles and Tortoises 9

10 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

TURTLES, TORTOISES, AND PEOPLE

Turtles and Tortoises 11

FOR MORE INFORMATION

12 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

14 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION

hind legs and drops in seven to thirty-nine round, brittle (BRIH-

PIG-NOSE TURTLES AND PEOPLE

16 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

FOR MORE INFORMATION

18 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Grzimek's SALR - Reptiles

Grzimek's SALR - Reptiles