Ecological restoration in the Czech Republic

Ecological restoration 

in the Czech Republic 

Editors 

Ivana Jongepierová, Pavel Pešout, Jan Willem Jongepier & Karel Prach

Ecological restoration in the Czech Republic 

Editors 

Ivana Jongepierová, Pavel Pešout, Jan Willem Jongepier & Karel Prach 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic 

Prague 2012

Front cover photograph: 

— Šumava foothills near Želnava. (Z. Patzelt) 

Back cover photographs: 

— Raking hay in Javorůvky NR, Bílé Karpaty PLA. (J.W. Jongepier) 

— Disturbing sites with Gentianella lutescens, Pod Hribovňou NR, Bílé Karpaty PLA. (I. Jongepierová) 

— Removing eutrophic soil layers, Váté písky NR, Bzenec. (I. Jongepierová) 

— Sheep grazing in Central Bohemian Uplands (České středohoří) PLA. (J. Marešová) 

— Elimination of scrub in Vápenice NR, Velký Kosíř Nature Park. (Archive ZO ČSOP Hořepník) 

Editors 

Ivana Jongepierová, Pavel Pešout, Jan Willem Jongepier & Karel Prach 

Reviewers 

Ladislav Miko 

Tomáš Kučera 

Graphic design 

David Jongepier 

Printed by 

Boma Print, Kyjov 

This publication was issued on the occasion of the 8 th European Conference 

on Ecological Restoration held in České Budějovice (Budweis) 9–14 September 2012. 

Published by 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, © AOPK ČR 

ISBN 978-80-87457-31-3 

CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION – NATIONAL LIBRARY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC 

Ecological restoration in the Czech Republic / editors Ivana Jongepierová ... [et al.]. – Prague : Nature Conservation Agency of the 

Czech Republic, 2012. – 147 p. : ill. 

ISBN 978-80-87457-32-0 (pbk.) 

502.5+712 * 502.174 * 502.171:574.4/.5 * 502.171:574.2 * (437.3) 

— landscape assessment – Czechia 

— restoration ecology – Czechia 

— ecosystem management – Czechia 

— habitat protection – Czechia 

— case studies 

363.7 – Environmental protection [2]

Contents 

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 

Nomenclature, abbreviations and explanatory notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 

Restoration ecology and ecological restoration in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 

Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

Active restoration and management of forest habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

Conversion of pine monocultures to mixed deciduous forests in Podyjí National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Can fire and secondary succession assist in the regeneration of forests in a national park? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Restoration of forests damaged by air pollution in the Jizera Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

Spontaneous recovery of mountain spruce forests after bark beetle attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

Grasslands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 

Experimental restoration and subsequent degradation of an alluvial meadow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Restoration management of wetland meadows in the Podblanicko region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 

Recreation of species rich grasslands in the Bílé Karpaty Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 

Grazing of dry grasslands in the Bohemian Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

Resumption of grazing management on abandoned upland grasslands in the Jizera Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 

Restoring heterogeneity in submontane meadows for the butterfly Euphydryas aurinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 

Optimising management at Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 

Restoration of sands as part of the Action Plan for Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 

Restoration of the alpine tundra ecosystem above the timberline in the Giant Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 

Wetlands and streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 

Restoration of the Černý potok stream, Krušné hory Mts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 

Revitalising effects of a near-natural bypass at a migration barrier on the Blanice river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 

Restoration of drained mires in the Šumava National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 

Restoration of the mined peatbog Soumarský Most . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 

Mining and post-industrial sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 

Restoration and conservation of sand and gravel-sand pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 

Coal mining spoil heaps in the Most region: restoration potential of spontaneous succession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 

Restoration of spoil heaps by spontaneous succession in the Sokolov coal mining area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 

Restoration of dry grassland vegetation in the abandoned Hády limestone quarry near Brno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 

Experimental restoration of species-rich deciduous forest on mining deposits in Mokrá limestone quarry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 

Experimental acceleration of primary succession on abandoned tailings: role of surface biological crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 

Abandoned military areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 

Disturbance management, a way to preserve species-rich communities in abandoned military areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 

Restoring disturbance and open vegetation in the former military training area Na Plachtě . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 

Landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 

Reclamation of rural landscapes at Velké Bílovice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 

Restoration of the Včelnička stream catchment, Bohemian-Moravian Uplands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 

Restoration of greenery elements in the Podblanicko region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 

Restoration of standard orchard at Habrůvka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 

Restoration of semi-natural vegetation in old fields in the Bohemian Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 

List of authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 

Society for Ecological Restoration (SER). Working Group for Restoration Ecology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Foreword 

František Pelc 

Despite strong efforts and partly positive results in the field of nature conservation, we have recently witnessed continuing deterioration of 

the natural environment and decrease in biodiversity on a global as well as a national scale. It is therefore no wonder that rather lively discussions 

have been going on between conservationists, biologists and other interested parties on ways of securing the protection of the most valuable 

natural environment, usually concentrated in small fragments, in total covering a few percent of our country’s area. Sometimes this problem 

has unfortunately been centred around two rivalling visions: the approach of ‘conservation’ management (by some considered obsolete), based 

on non-intervention and preference of natural processes, on the one hand, and ‘active’ management (often considered modern), based on systematic 

intervention by man. 

The dispute about what is more correct has led to endless discussions. I am convinced that most protected areas need some kind of active 

management. However, there will always be a wide range of options depending on what we want to protect – from preferring absolute protection 

of natural processes to very specific management simulating e.g. abandoned farming methods or preserving selected sites or protected 

species. Both approaches must be part of an integral concept of modern conservation and restoration of our natural heritage. They are mutually 

complementary and no antipodes. It is important to make clear what to protect and how to achieve this, taking into consideration the natural 

potential and historical context of a given area. Based on this, a long-term, sustainable strategic decision can be adopted, which must however 

not unpredictably be changed in the short term. 

In general it would be desirable to respect the fact that man cannot steer everything in the natural environment, and protected areas are 

no exception. He does not have sufficient knowledge or means. After all, it is just a small step from here to the misused noosphere concept by 

Russian philosopher Vernadský. On the other hand, man has influenced the environment and environmental processes in such a way that many 

natural phenomena cannot be protected or rehabilitated anymore without his intervention. 

The present publication is a representative display of restoration management case studies realised in various environments such as forests, 

wetlands, grasslands as well as specific sites damaged or created by mining or other activities. It should also contribute to the so desirable integration 

of views by scientists, conservationists, foresters, farmers, fishermen and other interested parties, and their application. As such it should 

become the starting point of a more effective use of scientific knowledge to preserve our nature and protect our landscape better. 

Although the case studies mainly deal with so-called active management, I hope their overall impression will contribute to creating a state 

in which the management of protected areas and natural habitats will not be divided into ‘conservational’ and ‘active’, but rather be judged as 

good or bad. 

František Pelc, Director 


6

Introduction 

The Czech Republic, a country in central Europe, used to consist of a fi ne-scale mosaic of natural, semi-natural and anthropogenous 

ecosystems. However, this mosaic has been substantially disturbed in the second half of the 20 th century under the communist regime. Many 

ecosystems were disturbed, degraded or destroyed. 

The traditional nature conservation approach in the Czech Republic was, similarly to other countries, strictly protecting well-preserved 

ecosystems. Only in the past three decades, more active approaches utilising methods of ecological restoration have been adopted. These are applied 

to both existing ecosystems, such as meadows, and newly developing ones, for example sites disturbed by mining or developed on former 

arable land. Recently, also some attempts have been made to restore complete landscapes. 

It is a highly positive trend that near-natural ways of restoration are gradually being accepted, not only in nature conservation but also by 

some decision-makers, mining companies, and increasingly by the public. Another favourable development is the collaboration of academics 

with practical restorationists, NGOs, and state authorities in various restoration projects. 

However, the potential of near-natural restoration is not yet adequately exploited in the Czech Republic. Various heavily disturbed sites have 

been, and still are, technically reclaimed, i.e. restored by means of technical measures, with little regard to natural processes and denying the 

potential of modern ecological restoration methods. This is especially true for forest management and reclamation on heavily disturbed sites. 

Restoration, and especially reclamation, activities are not always aimed at restoring ecologically desirable ecosystems, but often at gaining 

financial profit by private firms. In the latter case such activities lack a scientific background, are expensive and often meaningless. Besides financial 

profit, the reasons for this are ecological ignorance and lack of education. It is therefore necessary to make people aware of the fact that 

near-natural ecosystems usually provide much better ecosystem services to humans than uniform, technically reclaimed land. 

In this publication we discuss the possibilities of ecological restoration and present selected case studies concerning woodlands, grasslands, 

wetlands, mining sites, military training areas, and landscapes as a whole. In this, we have attempted to illustrate Czech restoration activities as 

broadly as possible, although the authors’ willingness and ability to submit contributions has also played a role. The compilation offers the participants 

of the 8 th European Conference on Ecological Restoration held in České Budějovice, September 9–14, 2012 a representative overview 

of ecological restoration efforts in the Czech Republic. 

We also hope it will contribute to a further development of restoration ecology as a branch of science and of practical ecological restoration 

in the country. 

The editors 

7

Nomenclature, abbreviations and explanatory notes 

Nomenclature of plant species follows Kubát et al. (2002), names 

of non-forest plant communities are according to the recent vegetation 

compendium of the Czech Republic (Chytrý 2007, 2011; online 

version available at: http://www.sci.muni.cz/botany/vegsci/vegetace. 

php?lang=en), names of woodland and shrubland communities follow 

Chytrý et al. (2010). 

Butterfly and moth species names follow the national checklist 

(Laštůvka & Liška 2005), names of most other invertebrates as well 

as vertebrate species follow the national red lists (Farkač et al. 2005, 

Plesník et al. 2003). 

— NP – National Park 

— PLA – Protected Landscape Area 

— NR – Nature Reserve (including the categories National Nature 

Reserve, Nature Reserve, National Nature Monument, and Nature 

Monument) 

— SCI – Sites of Community Importance under Natura 2000 

— SPA – Special Protection Area in agreement with the Birds Directive 

— Landscape management programmes: several subsidy schemes 

financed by the Ministry of the Environment (Landscape Management 

Programme, River System Revitalisation Programme, 

etc.) 

Fig. 2. 

Chytrý M. (ed.) (2007): Vegetace České republiky 1. Travinná a 

keříčková vegetace. Vegetation of the Czech Republic 1. Grassland 

and heathland vegetation. – Academia, Praha. 

Chytrý M. (ed.) (2011): Vegetace České republiky 3. Vodní a mokřadní 

vegetace. Vegetation of the Czech Republic 3. Aquatic and wetland 

vegetation. – Academia, Praha. 

Chytrý M., Kučera T., Kočí M., Grulich V. & Lustyk P. (eds) (2010): 

Katalog biotopů České republiky (Habitat Catalogue of the Czech 

Republic). Ed. 2. – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Farkač J., Král D. & Škorpík M. (eds) (2005): Červený seznam 

ohrožených druhů České republiky. Bezobratlí. Red list of threatened 

species in the Czech Republic. Invertebrates. – Agentura 

ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Kubát K., Hrouda L., Chrtek J. jun., Kaplan Z., Kirschner J. & Štěpánek 

J. (eds) (2002): Klíč ke květeně České republiky (Key to the flora of 

the Czech Republic). – Academia, Praha. 

Laštůvka Z. & Liška J. (2005): Seznam motýlů České republiky 

(Checklist of Lepidoptera of the Czech Republic). – Available at: 

http://www.lepidoptera.wz.cz/ (version 8. 8. 2010). 

Plesník J., Hanzal V. & Brejšková L. (eds) (2003): Červený seznam 

ohrožených druhů České republiky. Obratlovci (Red list of threatened 

species in the Czech Republic. Vertebrates). – Příroda 22: 

1–184. 

Fig. 1. 

8

Restoration ecology and ecological restoration in the Czech Republic 

 

In the Czech Republic, restoration ecology was introduced as a 

science in the middle 1990s (Prach 1995), however various restoration 

and reclamation activities, including conservation management, have 

a longer tradition. 

The first local restoration attempts concerned the reclamation of 

mining sites and had been realised already in the first half of the 20 th 

century. Large-scale reclamation activities started in the two largest 

coal mining districts in the 1960s. For a long time these were based 

on technical approaches only, although spontaneous succession was 

demonstrated to be a very convenient and cheap way of spoil heap 

restoration already in the early 1980s (Prach 1982). The current state 

of mining site restoration is evident from the ‘Mining and post-industrial 

sites’ section. 

The fi rst ideas about active management of nature reserves appeared 

already in the 1950s, but were not put into practice at that time 

(Petříček 1999). In the 1980s, conservation management was mostly 

carried out by volunteers, predominantly in nature reserves with species-rich 

meadows, where regular cutting was necessary to sustain the 

species richness. 

After the collapse of the communist regime in 1989 the position 

of nature conservation changed radically, when the Ministry of 

the Environment was established, led at that time by ministers well- 

educated in the natural sciences. Following this, the modern Act on 

Nature and Landscape Protection was adopted in 1991. In 1994 the 

Landscape Management Programme was set up, from which not only 

conservation management but also restoration activities (Petříček 

1999, Petříček & Míchal 1999), mainly in nature reserves, have been 

financed to this day (€6–8 million/yr). 

Today, the restoration of secondary grasslands is advanced in the 

country, but financial support from the Ministry of the Environment 

has recently decreased. A certain compensation for this reduction is 

offered by Agri-environmental schemes launched in 2004, but these 

are – due to their uniformity and inflexibility – considered very problematic 

in terms of preserving and restoring grassland biodiversity. 

However, currently attempts are being made to turn them into a more 

environmentally-friendly instrument. 

In the past decade, modern methods of grassland recreation, such 

as sowing regional seed mixtures, have been applied (Jongepierová 

2008). More information on grassland restoration and recreation is 

given in the ‘Grasslands’ section. 

In the 1990s, a special River System Revitalisation Programme 

was launched by the Ministry of the Environment, which also included 

pond restoration and construction, partly aimed at increasing 

water retention in our landscape. However, the fi nances were often 

Fig. 1. 

9

Already in the 1970s and the early 1980s, a multidisciplinary 

study of spontaneous succession on abandoned arable land was initiated 

by M. Rejmánek (Osbornová et al. 1990). Later, attention was 

also directed to various industrial sites, such as spoil heaps after coal 

mining (Prach 1987), sedimentary basins (Kovář 2004), sand pits 

(Řehounková & Prach 2006), stone quarries (Novák & Prach 2003), 

and extracted peatlands (Bastl et al. 2009). 

Several case studies presented in this volume show how the 

knowledge acquired from these studies can successfully be applied in 

ecological restoration. 

Fig. 2. 

- 

 

inappropriately invested into technical projects which benefited nature 

only marginally (Simon et al. 1998). Recently, river corridor restoration 

has shifted very slowly into a more ecological direction. The 

only unambiguous progress made in the case of rivers over the past 

two decades is the great improvement of their water quality, also a 

kind of restoration. Examples of restoration of watercourses and other 

wetlands are presented in the ‘Wetlands’ section. 

Serious problems persist in the restoration of forests (‘Forests’ section), 

especially in terms of restoring near-natural species composition. 

Most forests in the country have been converted to monospecific, 

mostly Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) 

plantations, resulting in soil degradation, acidification, decreased water 

retention, and an overall decrease in species diversity (Fanta 2007). 

The emphasis on timber production, still advocated by the majority 

of our foresters, means that the use of natural regeneration and other 

near-natural measures are not easily accepted. 

The need for restoration of complete landscapes is very urgent 

in the Czech Republic. In the second part of the 20 th century, nearly 

all water courses were channelised, the area of arable land expanded, 

huge amounts of pesticides and fertilisers polluted the water, the soil 

was degraded, and landscape connectivity was disrupted. Since some 

parts of the country have suffered heavily, restoration of the landscape 

structure and functions (at least in part) is highly desirable. Some examples 

of landscape restoration are given in the ‘Landscapes’ section 

of this publication. 

Extensive military training areas can be considered a special type 

of landscape. The Czech Republic, with a border dividing NATO 

Germany and Warsaw Pact Czechoslovakia during the communist 

regime, had many such areas. In spite of all the negative aspects, military 

training areas have mostly retained some landscape structures 

from the mid-20 th century with a low to zero eutrophication level 

(Kopecký & Vojta 2009). Repeated disturbances have also preserved a 

mosaic of different successional stages here. Therefore, military training 

areas are very valuable from the viewpoint of nature conservation, 

and restoration activities substituting military activities are desirable 

in some parts (see more in the ‘Abandoned military areas’ section). 

These areas could be partially left to spontaneous processes to create 

new ‘wilderness’, accompanied by re-introduction of large herbivores 

and predators (rewilding). 

In a way, each restoration has to do with ecological succession. 

Restoration measures attempt to substitute, mimic, accelerate, slow 

down, modify, return, or at least interfere with spontaneous succession 

(Prach et al. 2007). The Czech Republic can boast a long tradition 

of research into this process at various human-disturbed sites. 

References 

Bastl M., Štechová T. & Prach K. (2009): The effect of disturbance on 

the vegetation of peat bogs with Pinus rotundata in the Třeboň 

Basin, Czech Republic. – Preslia 81: 105–117. 

Fanta J. (2007): Lesy a lesnictví ve střední Evropě (Forests and forestry 

in central Europe) 1–6. – Živa 55: 18–21, 65–68, 112–115, 

161–164, 209–212, 257–260. 

Jongepierová I. (ed.) (2008): Louky Bílých Karpat. Grasslands of the 

White Carpathian Mountains. – ZO Č SOP Bílé Karpaty, Veselí 

nad Moravou. 

Kopecký M. & Vojta J. (2009): Land use legacies in post-agricultural 

forests in the Doupovské Mountains, Czech Republic. – Applied 

Vegetation Science 12: 251–260. 

Kovář P. (ed.) (2004): Natural recovery of human-made deposits in 

landscape (Biotic interactions and ore/ash-slag artificial ecosystems). 

– Academia, Prague. 

Novák J. & Prach K. (2003): Vegetation succession in basalt quarries: 

pattern on a landscape scale. – Applied Vegetation Science 

6: 111–116. 

Osbornová J., Kovářová M., Lepš J. & Prach K. (eds) (1990): Succession 

in abandoned fields. Studies in Central Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. 

– Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht etc. 

Petříček V. (ed.) (1999): Péče o chráněná území I. Nelesní společenstva 

(Management of nature reserves I. Non-forest communities). – 

Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Petříček V. & Míchal I. (eds) (1999): Péče o chráněná území II. Lesní 

společenstva (Management of nature reserves II. Forest communities). 

– Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Prach K. (1982): Vegetace na substrátech vzniklých těžbou nerostných 

surovin (Vegetation on substrates created by mining). – Acta ecologica 

naturae ac regionis 1982: 49–50. 

Prach K. (1987): Succession of vegetation on dumps from strip coal 

mining, N. W. Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. – Folia Geobotanica et 

Phytotaxonomica 22: 339–354. 

Prach K. (1995): "Restaurační ekologie" či ekologie obnovy? (Restoration 

ecology). – Vesmír 74: 143–144. 

Prach K., Mars R., Pyšek P. & van Diggelen R. (2007): Manipulation of 

succession. – In: Walker L.R., Walker J. & Hobbs R.J. (eds), Linking 

restoration and ecological succession, pp. 121–149, Springer, 

New York. 

Řehounková K. & Prach K. (2006): Spontaneous vegetation succession 

in disused gravel-sand pits: role of local site and landscape 

factors. – Journal of Vegetation Science 17: 583–590. 

Simon O., Just T. & Ondráková D. (1998): Metodika hodnoceni 

činností v jednotlivých mikropovodích z hlediska vlivu na vody 

(Methods for the evaluation of activities in micro-watersheds 

regarding their impact on water quality). – Výzkumný ústav 

vodohospodářský T. G. Masaryka, Praha. 

10

Forests

Introduction 

 

Historical changes in forest conditions 

The Czech Republic has 2,657,379 ha of forest covering 33.8% of 

our country. On the European scale, this slightly above-average cover 

does not have a corresponding level of forest quality, as for forest stand 

health, tree species composition, spatial structure, or related biodiversity. 

A total of 67% of our woodland consists of predominantly coniferous 

stands (i.e. with more than 75% of conifer species). The current 

proportion of coniferous tree species (74%) is more than twice that of 

conifers (35%) in natural stands, according to reconstruction (Anonymus 

2011b). 

Forest management has a rich history. It began in the Neolithic 

age in the lowest and therefore warmest regions approximately 

4,000–5,000 years ago. These beginnings were not purposeful forms 

of management, but only they just indicate man’s influence on forests. 

As society developed, this impact spread to higher elevations. 

Medieval colonisation of highlands had a strong impact on forests. 

Pressure on forest use grew as the technology for cutting and processing 

large diameter trees developed, and forests were intensively used 

for grazing, burning charcoal, litter raking, etc. The bad state of the 

forests and a looming energy collapse (coal was not yet a standard 

source of energy) led to issuing the so-called Theresian patents (in 

1754 and 1756), which meant a fundamental change in the society’s 

view of forests in the 18 th century. Forest uses diminishing yields and 

degrading the production potential were restricted (e.g. litter raking, 

grazing, etc.), and forest management regulations were introduced, 

including the first forest management plans. 

Planning played a major role in the change of forest conditions. 

Thanks to the application of procedures adopted from the German 

forestry school, open and untended stands were restored according 

to a plan, primarily by the planting of Norway Spruce (Picea abies) 

and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). These long-term, targeted efforts not 

only provided the expected results in gradually increasing production 

(growth increment) and instantly raising timber supplies in forests, 

but also led to the creation of standardised, production-focused forestry. 

Thus forestry entered the 19 th century as an established form of 

human activity. It also conditioned the current state of our forests. In 

that time the production advantages of using spruce and pine were 

unquestioned, although repeated regeneration of coniferous monocultures 

soon began to show its drawbacks: soil podzolisation and 

corresponding decrease in potential soil production, a significant decline 

in forest stability due to biotic and abiotic factors, and of course a 

decrease in forest stand biodiversity. Due to these changes many forest 

species are currently declining rapidly and are endangered, some have 

even gone extinct (Farkač et al. 2005). 

Forest restoration rehabilitating 

functional ecosystems 

In the second half of the 20 th century conditions worsened, and 

the acid rain catastrophe which struck the Czech Sudeten Range 

clearly indicated that the state of the forests needed improvement. Research 

aimed at restoration of the pollution-stricken forests started in 

the former Czechoslovakia in the 1960s. From today’s point of view 

Fig. 1. 

Forests 13

Fig. 2. 

 

the application of its findings were the first tangible results of forest 

restoration management and restoration ecology in a broader sense. 

The main issue here was the reinstatement of basic forest functions. 

Restoration of the production potential was to be the icing on the cake 

and was, in the earliest stages, not a goal considered to be attainable 

in the near future. A good example is the restoration of forests in the 

Jestřebí Mountains in the Trutnov region (Tesař et al. 2011). 

In protected areas the acid rain catastrophe in mountain forests 

was another reason for the first extensive forest restoration. The 

Krkonoše National Park, in existence since 1963, was one of the most 

affected areas, where 8,000 ha of forest were destroyed. In 1992–2001 

the most extensive and costly action aimed at restoring forest functions 

and natural forest conditions ever taken in the Czech Republic 

was carried out here. Thanks to financial support of the Dutch FACE 

Foundation 5,200 ha of forest were restored (i.e. natural species composition 

and spatial differentiation of stands, leading to development 

of natural conditions). FACE invested USD 19.5 million into this project 

(Anonymus 1998). Forest restoration management projects were 

also started up in other protected areas, such as the Jizera Mts. and 

the Eagle Mts. 

Purpose and aims of forest 

restoration management 

The planning and implementation of restoration management in 

forests affected by air pollution (either in protected areas or outside of 

them) was automatically perceived as unquestionable and to be undertaken 

without delay. In the earliest stages, however, the aims of 

restoration management on the general level were not dealt with. A 

major change in the competency of state nature conservation authorities 

codified in the Act on Nature and Landscape Protection enabled 

a rapid start to take measures in forests in protected areas (Anonymus 

2011a). It then became necessary to answer basic questions about the 

purpose and aims of restoration management. 

Generally, forest restoration management can be broken down 

into three approaches, each with different aims relating to different 

functions of the forests to be restored: 

1. Forest restoration to rehabilitate a functional ecosystem without 

emphasising production functions. This is exemplified by the situation 

in the Jestřebí Mts. (see above), where part of the strategy is 

also the restoration of the previously stable production potential. 

These cases of restoration management are not limited to protected 

areas. 

2. Conversion to a near-natural forest, subsequently leaving the 

forest to spontaneous development. Th is is, in contrast, almost 

always applicable to forests in protected areas and with specific 

aims. Nonetheless, of the three approaches, this one has been least 

applied. A special variant of this approach is “zero management”, 

i.e. spontaneous regeneration of forest where strong disturbances 

have taken place either in large areas or affecting basic forest functions 

(such as wind damage followed by bark beetle infestations, 

or fires). The ecosystem is in its initial development phase, but its 

restoration is left to the spontaneous effects of natural forces. Here 

man is merely an observer of the phenomena taking place. 

3. Restoration of forests to a certain state (even if conditioned by 

man) allowing endangered species to survive and requiring longterm, 

more-or-less active management, i.e. restoration management 

with protection of biological diversity as the priority. This 

approach is currently mostly applied to forests in protected areas, 

but this does not always have to be the case. Even the Forest Act 

defines a category of ‘Special-purpose forests’, with ‘Forests necessary 

for preserving biodiversity’ as a subcategory. 

Forest restoration aimed at leaving the 

forest to spontaneous development 

If Approach 1 represents the restoration of mountain ecosystems, 

then Approach 2 typically includes introduction of missing tree species 

important for development dynamics, and spatial management 

of forest stands, which are then left to develop spontaneously. In 

1992–2012, missing or underrepresented fi r was most often introduced, 

or in some cases supported, in stands dominated by beech in 

forest reserves. This is a very good illustration of forests having been 

influenced by man in various ways (selective cutting, occasional grazing, 

occasional removal of decomposing wood, or formerly managed 

beech stands on fir–beech sites surrounded by spruce monocultures), 

which have been designated protected areas with the aim of remediating 

their state and then leaving them to spontaneous development 

(Vrška et al. 2002). Fir is either actively introduced to stands by underplanting 

the beech storey or to small areas affected by disturbance. 

At other sites where part of the original population has remained, 

natural regeneration of fir is supported, either by passive protection 

from wildlife browsing, or actively by increment thinning in the beech 

storey. 

Nature conservation authorities and forestry organisations are 

more or less in agreement on these procedures, however there is certainly 

less agreement on the question of what state forests should be 

left in for spontaneous development. There is of course no single answer 

to this question. In the field of forest restoration management 

it is however an issue which has yet to be assessed comprehensively, 

both within and outside of the Czech Republic. 

14 Forests

Forest restoration management 

for biodiversity protection 

The youngest, yet very important, approach to forest restoration 

management is Approach 3, which was developed in nature conservation 

at the end of the 20 th century in the Czech Republic. The preservation, 

restoration, and subsequent stabilisation of forest biodiversity, 

especially when endangered species are involved, mostly concerns 

low-altitude forests, i.e. forests located under the beech wood belt. In 

contrast to forests at mid-level altitudes, these forests are not characterised 

by a dramatic change in tree species composition, but by longterm 

intensive forest management comprising of coppice systems with 

short rotation periods to produce fuel wood, agroforestry, pasturing 

in forests, pruning of branches to create hollows in tree trunks, etc. 

Man’s intensive and long-lasting influence including a wide variety 

of forest management techniques has allowed for the survival of 

species dependent on sunnier and warmer microhabitats. In the 1950s 

coppicing was strongly limited in order to increase forest productivity 

and the cultivation of species of higher quality. It is now only used for 

black locust control, primarily in South Moravia. Oak and hornbeam 

coppice forests have been converted using whole-area soil preparation 

after which they were reforested with pine. At sites adjacent to stands 

where oak is managed, no change in species composition has taken 

place, but for example standard large-scale oak shelterwood systems, 

although not posing problems in terms of production and maintaining 

the production potential of the site, do not create sufficient conditions 

for the survival of critically endangered insect species. 

Therefore, restoration management forms focusing on protecting 

biodiversity have met with varied reactions. Currently this issue 

is dealt with by means of experiments with forest grazing (in the Bohemian 

Karst PLA and Podyjí NP) and to a somewhat greater extent 

with restoring coppice systems (at Křtiny Training Forest Enterprise 

of Mendel University Brno and in Podyjí NP). 

From the perspective of biodiversity there is also a clear incongruity 

between active management using old management techniques 

and leaving forests to spontaneous development. This is caused inter 

alia by the fact that, logically, we do not have ‘traditional’ forest reserves 

at lower elevations, in contrast to mid-altitude and mountain 

regions (e.g. Žofín and Boubín Virgin Forests). Therefore, we do not 

yet have knowledge about the disturbance dynamics of forests below 

the beech vegetation zone. At the same time, forests influenced by 

man secondarily left to spontaneous development have not yet had 

sufficient time for disturbance patterns to develop fully: zero management 

principles have been used here for not more than a few decades. 

In contrast to lower altitudes, the restoration of biodiversity at 

middle and high altitudes is linked to forests which we consider natural 

(Miko & Hošek 2009) and where there is no fundamental conflict 

between zero management or minimal maintenance management 

and biodiversity. Here, biodiversity is linked to decomposing wood 

and to the natural species composition of forests. 

Future issues 

Of the total forest area of the Czech Republic, 28.4% is located in 

protected areas (Anonymus 2011a). One of the main issues for the 

future is clarifying the aims of restoration management, especially in 

protected areas, a process which is taking place alongside the gradual 

renewal of management plans for each area. These plans can lead to 

further decisions about the management methods to be used. 

Forests left to spontaneous development form a specific subgroup. 

They currently make up 0.95% of the forest area, and consensus has 

yet to be reached on their total target area (for example, in 2011, a 

Fig. 3. 

Forests 15

Fig. 4. 

 

proposal of 4% was not accepted by the coordinating committee of 

National Forest Programme II). The question in what state we want to 

leave restoration management forests for future spontaneous development 

still needs a comprehensive study. 

A more serious issue is that of selecting a method of permanent 

forest management in protected areas and outside them – especially 

in special-purpose forests for the preservation of biodiversity. As opposed 

to forests intentionally left to spontaneous development, which 

will never make up more than a few percent of the forest area, the 

forest area in protected areas with permanent management will exceed 

20%. Their specific management, especially in low-altitude areas, 

is linked with the adoption of earlier management forms (e.g. 

coppice systems), as well as with compensation for loss of profit for 

non-state forest owners due to nature conservation measures. In 

state-owned forests, a clear policy should be adopted for registering 

the profit loss by entities operating in them as well as for disputable 

subsequent state-to-state payments (Nature Conservation Agency of 

the Czech Republic). Considering assumed future limits on financial 

resources for special-purpose forest management, today most attention 

should be focused on selecting important biodiversity protection 

areas, which will be given funding priority to preserve specific forms 

of management. 

Four case studies in forest restoration management present examples 

of both spontaneous processes (through zero management) as 

well as the results of long-term active approaches in forest restoration. 

These examples come from mountain forests and low-altitude forests. 

The study of mountain forest restoration in the Jizera Mts. presents the 

results of 20 years of restoring mountain ecosystems damaged by air 

pollution in a protected landscape area. On the other hand, the study 

from the Šumava Mts. gives an example of spontaneous regeneration 

of a mountain forest after large-scale disturbance in the Core Zone of 

Šumava NP. A rare, and therefore important, example of spontaneous 

forest development after fire comes from Bohemian Switzerland 

(České Švýcarsko) NP. Forest restoration management in the Podyjí 

NP is presented as a case of gradual conversion of forests earlier dominated 

by pine to mixed deciduous forests with a rich spatial structure 

in order to protect the biodiversity of low-altitude forests. 

References 

Anonymus (1998): Forest rehabilitation in Krkonoše and Šumava 

National Parks. Final report. – United Nations Framework Convention 

on Climate Change. (Available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_mechanisms/aij/activities_implemented_jointly/items/1976. 

php & http://unfccc.int/kyoto_mechanisms/aij/activities_implemented_jointly/items/1729.php; 

version February 2012) 

Anonymus (2011a): Aktualizace státního programu ochrany přírody 

a krajiny České republiky (Update of the State Programme for 

Nature and Landscape Protection). – Ministerstvo ž ivotního 

prostředí, Praha. 

Anonymus (2011b): Zpráva o stavu lesa a lesního hospodářství 

České republiky v roce 2010 (Report on the state of forests and 

forest management in the Czech Republic 2010). – Ministerstvo 

zemědělství, Praha. 


ohrožených druhů České republiky. Bezobratlí. (Red list of threatened 

species in the Czech Republic. Invertebrates). – Agentura 


Miko L. & Hošek M. (2009): Příroda a krajina České republiky – zpráva 

o stavu 2009 (Report on the state of nature and landscape of 

the Czech Republic 2009). – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny 

ČR, Praha. 

Tesař V., Balcar V., Lochman V. & Nehyba J. (2011): Přestavba lesa 

zasaženého imisemi na Trutnovsku (Conversion of forest affected 

by air pollution in the region of Trutnov). – Mendelova univerzita, 

Brno. 

Vrška T., Hort L., Adam D., Odehnalová P. & Horal D. (2002): Developmental 

dynamics of virgin forest reserves in the Czech Republic 

I – The Českomoravská vrchovina Upland (Polom, Žákova hora 

Mt.). – Academia, Praha. 

Fig. 5. 

 

16 Forests

Active restoration and management of forest habitats 

 

With more than a third of its area covered by forests, the Czech 

Republic is among the European countries with a high forest cover, 

and woodland organisms constitute a substantial portion of its biodiversity. 

Czech forest cover increased from ~25% to 33.7% between 

1790 and 2010, and the standing timber stock per unit area nearly 

doubled between 1930 and 2010. More than half of the forests is 

owned by the state and run by state-owned companies. Over a quarter 

is part of conservation areas. Some forest reserves belong to the oldest 

on the continent and date back to the mid-19 th century. 

The above picture seems optimistic not only in comparison with 

the usual reports on forest destruction in the tropics, but thanks to the 

large share of state forests also in comparison with western Europe, 

where state-owned land is rather easily accessible to nature conservation. 

However, the picture drawn by information on the state of forest 

biodiversity based on facts from distribution atlases and other biological 

data is strongly different. Not only has forest expansion taken 

a dramatic toll on non-forest biodiversity, the newly created forests 

are also biologically inferior. This, together with a dramatic decline 

in old-forest biodiversity, contributes to the fact that many forestdwelling 

organisms are highly endangered or locally extinct, although 

they were common some 50–100 years ago (Beneš et al. 2002, Farkač 

et al. 2005, Konvička et al. 2005). The rather peculiar fact that most 

forests in conservation areas are production forests managed under a 

uniform clear-cut system is only partly to blame for the current poor 

forest biodiversity. 

Fig. 1. 

- 

 

Fig. 2. 

 

 

Naturally, conifers would constitute ~35% of trees in the Czech 

forests, with Silver Fir (Abies alba) accounting for nearly two thirds 

and Norway Spruce (Picea abies) nearly a third of all conifers. Today, 

however, conifers cover ~75%, and spruce alone more than half of 

forested land. While silver fir cover has declined to

nature reserves and other protected forests. The virtually only alternative 

to clear-cutting in forests of protected areas used to be absence of 

active management. This has led to increased canopy closure and decline 

of disturbance-dependent species. The vital role of disturbances 

in sustaining biodiversity, and thus the key role of an active approach 

to the management of habitats of many endangered species have yet to 

be fully recognised in the Czech Republic. 

Wood pasture 

Pasture of domesticated animals in forests has been banned from 

the territory of the Czech Republic for more than 250 years. With the 

exception of some fragments found in game reserves, grazed woodlands 

are thus virtually non-existent here. Serving as hunting grounds 

for the nobility, game reserves have often been spared from logging 

and fuel extraction. In the past century, they have also been partly 

spared from forestry intensification, increased canopy closure and related 

changes. The fragments of pasture woodlands in game reserves 

thus host a number of highly threatened organisms associated with 

open woodlands, old trees and dead wood. Last century, the game 

reserves fell into state hands, and many are still owned by the state. 

Today, despite their high value for biodiversity conservation, many 

game reserves lack any relevant protection status. Due to a recent increase 

in demand for revenues from state-owned forests, even the last 

fragments of grazed forests are in serious danger of, or are already succumbing 

to clear-cutting and replacement by plantation-like stands 

with a closed canopy. 

Although giant oaks and silver firs – typical attributes of pasture 

woodlands – have always drawn attention, nature conservation in the 

Czech Republic has yet to realise the importance of wood pasture. 

Many formerly grazed woodlands have been designated reserves of 

“virgin” or “primeval” forest; whereby the presence of massive trees 

often served as evidence of forest “virginity”. Hands-off management 

applied to such forest reserves has led to an inevitable biodiversity 

decrease due to canopy closure, substitution of the main tree species 

(oak, fir) by other species, and to gradual disappearance of tree veterans 

(e.g. Vrška et al. 2002, Vrška et al. 2006) and other valuable habitats. 

After it had been prohibited by law for more than two centuries, 

it is no wonder that wood pasture is returning painstakingly slowly. 

Following nearly a decade of discussions within the conservation 

community, wood pasture was started only recently as an experiment 

rather than management in Podblanicko, the Bohemian Karst near 

Prague, and Podyjí NP along the upper Dyje (Thaya) river. 

Coppicing 

The only actively coppiced woodlands today are stands of exotic, 

invading black locust (Robinia pseudacacia), which have no conservation 

value. Nevertheless, coppices uncut for over 50 years currently 

cover several thousand hectares, mostly in lowlands and foothills. 

Although many open woodland specialists have disappeared, the old 

coppices still retain continuity and are key habitats for a number of 

endangered organisms, including e.g. Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus), 

Violet Click Beetle (Limoniscus violaceus) and Lady's-Slipper Orchid 

(Cypripedium calceolus). Rather than being restored, the old coppices 

are often clear-cut and replanted, even in conservation areas. In most 

nature reserves and national parks, on the other hand, coppices are 

being sacrificed to succession. 

After nearly having been forgotten, coppicing was reintroduced in 

the Czech Republic as a hot novelty by the end of last century. Active 

coppicing was first restored near the town of Moravsky Krumlov in 

the mid-1990s. Led by economic rather than conservation reasons, it 

was the first and by far the largest (>100 ha) attempt to date (Utinek 

2004). However, the area has now been destroyed by clear-cutting. Recently, 

coppicing was restored in the Bohemian Karst, Moravian Karst 

and Pálava PLAs, and in Podyjí NP. Active coppices are confined to 

small areas of mostly 1–2 ha, and coppicing has yet to be accepted 

as conservation management and a sometimes even economically viable, 

nature-friendly alternative to commercial forest management. 

Pollarding 

Although pollarded trees were much more common in the past, 

pollarding is still the most widespread traditional woodland management 

in the country. Pollarded willows (Salix sp.) are found in many 

areas, mostly in or near towns and villages. In extensively managed 

agricultural landscapes or human settlements, pollards often facilitate 

survival of fauna associated with veteran trees and tree hollows, including 

e.g. Hermit Beetle (Osmoderma barnabita), Red Click Beetle 

(Elater ferrugineus) and Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus) (Šebek et al. 

2010). Thanks to a recent increase in fuel-wood prices, pollarding is 

probably the most commonly restored traditional woodland management. 

Conclusion 

The past decade has seen efforts by a growing number of conservationists 

and forestry experts in introducing active conservation 

management in woodlands in protected areas. However, the process is 

 

 

Fig. 3, 4. 

 

 

18 Forests

Fig. 5, 6. 

 

 

 

 

slow, mostly due to reluctance of their more conservative colleagues. 

On the other hand, the rapid decrease in biodiversity in conservation 

areas makes it inevitable to shift the emphasis from conservation of 

vaguely defined communities and “natural” processes to evidencebased 

biodiversity conservation. Although not much has been done 

in the field during the past decade, the attitude of the professionals 

concerned, including biologists, conservationists and foresters, has 

substantially changed. The road to restoration of traditional woodland 

management and active biodiversity conservation in the Czech 

woodlands is certainly not free of obstacles. It is, however, open. 

Acknowledgements 

Most of the data on forests in the Czech Republic are the result of 

the Forest Inventory performed by the Forest Management Institute, 

Brandys nad Labem (www.uhul.cz), and are available on its website. 

Martin Škorpík and Dušan Utinek kindly supplied the most recent information 

on the progress of traditional woodland management restoration. 

Tomáš Vrška kindly commented on the manuscript. The author 

was supported by the Czech Ministry of Education (6007665801, 

LC06073). 

Utinek D. (2004): Conversions of coppices to a coppice-with-standards 

in Urban Forests of Moravský Krumlov. – Journal of Forest 

Science 50: 38–46. 

Vrška T., Hort L., Adam D., Odehnalová P. & Horal D. (2002): Dynamika 

vývoje pralesovitých rezervací v ČR I – Českomoravská vrchovina 

(Polom, Žákova hora) (Developmental dynamics of virgin 

forest reserves in the Czech Republic I – The Českomoravská 

vrchovina Upland). – Academia, Praha. 

Vrška T., Hort L., Adam D., Odehnalová P., Král K. & Horal D. (2006): 

Dynamika vývoje pralesovitých rezervací v Č R II – Lužní lesy 

(Cahnov-Soutok, Ranšpurk, Jiřina) (Developmental dynamics 

of virgin forest reserves in the Czech Republic II – The lowland 

floodplain forests). – Academia, Praha. 

References 

Beneš J., Konvička M., Dvořák J., Fric Z., Havelda Z., Pavlíčko A., 

Vrabec V. & Weidenhoffer Z. (2002): Motýli České republiky: 

Rozšíření a ochrana I, II (Butterflies of the Czech Republic: distribution 

and conservation I, II). – Společnost pro ochranu motýlů, 

Praha. 





Konvička M., Beneš J. & Čížek L. (2005): Ohrožený hmyz nelesních 

stanovišť: ochrana a management (Endangered insects of open 

habitats: conservation and management). – Sagittaria, Olomouc. 

Šebek P., Čížek L., Hauck D. & Schlaghamerský J. (2010): Viability of 

an Osmoderma barnabita population in a pollard willow stand 

at Vojkovice (Czech Republic). – In: Anonymus (ed.), 6th European 

symposium and workshop on the conservation of saproxylic 

beetles, June 15–17, 2010, Ljubljana, pp. 18–19, University of Ljubljana, 

Biotechnical Faculty, Ljubljana. 

Forests 19

Conversion of pine monocultures to mixed deciduous forests in Podyjí 

National Park 

Location 

Protection status 

Ecosystem types 

Restored area 

Financial support 

Costs Ca. €240/ha in 1992–2008 

Podyjí NP, southeast Czech Republic, on the border with Austria 

48°52'32" N, 15°53'25" E; altitude 375–430 m 

NP, SCI 

 

Hercynian oak-hornbeam forests (Carpinion), Herb-rich beech forests (Fagion sylvaticae) 

Approx. 900 ha in the central part of the NP, 96 ha of which in the Pyramida experimental area 

Landscape management programmes, operational budget of the Podyjí NP Authority 

Initial conditions 

Young forests used to consist mainly of coniferous monocultures 

(Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies). Medium-aged and older forests were 

more often mixed – two-layered – with conifers in the main layer (Pinus 

sylvestris, Picea abies, Larix decidua), and broad-leaved trees in 

the sublayer (Quercus petraea, Carpinus betulus, Tilia cordata etc.). 

Most deciduous trees developed from coppice because the mature coniferous 

layer was the first generation after mixed broad-leaved coppice 

had been converted. Deciduous forests with or without a minor 

admixture of conifers represented a smaller part of the area. They 

were mostly oak woods and mixed hornbeam–oak forests. The texture 

of the forests was not highly differentiated and consolidated into 

larger blocks; structural differentiation was limited to a maximum of 

two layers (main layer coniferous, sub-layer deciduous), tree species 

composition significantly lacked Fagus sylvatica, and there was no 

deadwood in the form of standing or lying dead logs left in situ. 

Objectives 

The end goal of our conversion efforts is structurally differentiated 

mixed deciduous forest with a finer structure and more ragged edges. 

In its main aspects the tree species composition should approach the 

potential composition. 

1. The main part of these forest stands will be left to spontaneous 

development. 

2. The stands located in the Buffer Zone of the NP will be continually 

managed. In these stands special attention is paid to the presence 

of admixed species (Prunus avium, Pyrus communis, Sorbus 

spp., etc.). Trees of the target species which have naturally died are 

left in situ to decompose in the forest. The fine texture of the forest 

will create varied, constantly changing light and temperature conditions 

to support viable populations of protected plant species 

(Decocq 2004) and animal species, especially xylophagous insects 

(Götmark 2007). Silvicultural management is based on selection 

principles, mainly the target thickness method (Diaci et al. 2006). 

Fig. 1. 

20 Forests

Methods 

1. Classification of the initial situation in 1992 – five forest types 

(Fig. 2), according to: 

a) current tree species composition; 

b) spatial structure of the forest (degree of structural differentiation); 

c) forest management methods. 

2. Repeated assessment of changes (2003, 2008, planned in 2013): 

a) proportions of different forest types; 

b) size of textural features; 

c) number of textural features; 

d) tree species composition. 

3. Economic evaluation of the conversion measures: 

a) data from primary records (continuously archived since 

1992); 

b) phase calculations; 

c) forest stand regeneration – from principal felling to established 

plantation. 

Restoration measures and monitoring 

1992 Cessation of conventional management of even-aged 

pine and spruce stands. 

Cessation of afforestation with pine, spruce and 

larch. 

1992–1993 Compilation of NP management plan and classification 

of the initial state of the forest. 

1994 Start of beech planting and active restoration management. 

2003 First evaluation of changes in the forest and of the 

entire experimental area. 

2008 Second evaluation of changes in the forest and of the 

entire experimental area. 

2013 Third evaluation of changes in the forest and of the 

entire experimental area + economic and silvicultural 

modelling. 

 

Fig. 2. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

 

 

Forests 21

Results 

Changes in the total area of forest types (FTs) are shown in Fig. 

3 and changes in the spatial distribution of the FTs in Fig. 4, both for 

the Pyramida experimental area. The rapid decrease in FT3- area is 

the result of the first management measures – opening of the canopy 

of the pine forests planted in the 1970s and 1980s and supporting subdominant 

deciduous trees. These measures facilitated the conversion 

of FT3- to higher-quality FT3+ forest, where further canopy opening 

takes place and the first interventions have led to spatial differentiation 

of the forest. The area of FT2- and FT2+ stands has remained 

more or less the same during the studied period, since they are the 

result of the actively managed FT3+ stands, but at the same time convert 

to spatially and species-differentiated FT1 forest. 

The development of textural differentiation of Pyramida is shown 

in Fig. 5. The most important result is the differentiation of compact 

and fully closed structurally simple forests in the SE part of the experimental 

area. This is where the first differentiating measures were 

carried out followed by the first beech plantings. The average size of 

the textural elements decreased from 0.81 ha (1992) to 0.48 ha (2008). 

The total number of structural elements increased from 177 (1992) to 

197 (2008). 

Changes in tree species composition in the experimental area are 

given in Tab. 1. The results clearly illustrate the fast change (from a 

silvicultural point of view) in species composition. The decrease in 

the percentage of conifers to 58% of the original number (1992) was 

achieved thanks to intensive work on scattered subdominant broadleaved 

trees and massive introduction of beech in various ways. 

forest type area [ha] 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

forest type: 

0 

1992 2003 2008 

year 

Fig. 3. - 

 

Other lessons learned and future prospects 

The key factor in forest restoration is a clear formulation of the 

long-term target and working methods for the forest managers. Using 

the forest type classification, practically applicable forest management 

guidelines can be produced by finding a balance between theory 

and its practical application. However, in practice the attainability of 

favourable results largely depends on mutual respect and good interpersonal 

relations. 


The study was carried out with the support of project MSM 

6293359101. 

1 

2+ 

2- 

3+ 

3- 

Fig. 4. 

Fig. 5. 

22 Forests

Tab. 1. 

 

Species 1992 [%] 2003 [%] 2008 [%] 

Pinus sylvestris 39.0 32.2 23.7 

Larix decidua 11.0 4.6 3.7 

Picea abies 10.5 9.0 7.9 

Σ Conifers 60.5 45.8 35.3 

Quercus spp. 27.5 32.7 34.8 

Carpinus betulus 8.5 13.2 16.3 

Fagus sylvatica 0.5 2.5 5.4 

Betula pendula 1.7 3.1 3.7 

Tilia cordata 0.3 1.1 2.0 

Other deciduous species 1.0 1.6 2.5 

Σ Deciduous 39.5 54.2 64.7 

References 

Decocq G., Aubert M., Dupont F., Alard D., Saguez R., Wattez-Fanger 

A., Foucault B. de, Delelis–Dusollier A. & Bardat J. (2004): Plant 

diversity in a managed temperate deciduous forest: understorey 

response to two silvicultural systems. – Journal of Applied Ecology 

41: 1065–1079. 

Diaci J. (ed.) (2006): Nature-based forestry in Central Europe. Alternatives 

to industrial forestry and strict preservation. – University 

of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Forestry and 

Renewable Forest Resources, Ljubljana. 

Götmark F. (2007): Careful partial harvesting in conservation stands 

and retention of large oaks favour oak regeneration. – Biological 

Conservation 140: 349–358. 

Fig. 6. - 

 

Forests 23

Can fire and secondary succession assist in the regeneration of forests in a 

national park? 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Bohemian Switzerland NP, near the NE edge of the village of Jetřichovice, northwest Czech Republic 

50°51'19"–50°51'35" N, 14°24'07"–14°24'31" E; altitude 245–393 m 

NP 

Predominantly acidophilous beech and beech-pine forests (mostly Luzulo-Fagion sylvaticae) 

13.5 ha 

Bohemian Switzerland NP Authority 

€2,470 (fence construction and erosion-control measures) 


Most of the indigenous forests in the Bohemian Switzerland NP 

were in the past transformed into coniferous monocultures. Traditionally, 

also geographically non-indigenous trees such as White 

Pine (Pinus strobus), European Larch (Larix decidua), Douglas Fir 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra) were 

used in local forest management (Drozd et al. 2010). Pinus strobus, in 

particular, has found extremely advantageous conditions for its development 

here (nowadays representing 4% of trees) and is gradually 

occupying all suitable habitats (Patzelt 2007). 

The Raven’s Rock (Havraní skála) site has become widely known 

since June 22, 2006, when a wildfire broke out, developing into one 

of the largest forest fires of the Czech Republic in the past 30 years 

(Vonásek 2008), leaving approximately 18 hectares of burnt forest behind. 

The original forest consisted mainly of Pinus strobus and Scots 

Pine (Pinus sylvestris) with rare occurrence of European Beech (Fagus 

sylvatica) and Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea). Norway Spruce (Picea 

abies) grew at the feet of the hillsides, while rocky outcrops were often 

occupied by Silver Birch (Betula pendula). The age of the forest was 

max. 130 years. Before the fire, management had aimed at reducing 

the invading Pinus strobus. Approximately 100 m 3 had been felled 

and left in situ, which was one of the factors which, besides the hot 

weather and minimum precipitation, contributed to the high intensity 

of the fire. 

Subsequently, the fi re-affected area was not managed according 

to regular forestry methods (felling and planting). Instead, the National 

Park Authority decided to leave it to spontaneous development 

(except for the clearing of a strip along a tourist trail for safety reasons). 

This constituted a unique opportunity to study the secondary 

succession following the fire and to ask the question: can the natural 

processes initiated by the fire be used to convert forests invaded by the 

alien Pinus strobus to forests consisting of native species? 

Objectives 

Currently, there are two basic forest management targets in the 

Bohemian Switzerland NP: (i) gradual reconstruction of the currently 

prevailing coniferous monocultures to achieve near-natural forests 

with dominant Fagus sylvatica and admixed Abies alba, Quercus petraea 

and other trees, and (ii) removal of the invading non-indigenous 

tree species. 

The aim of the study of secondary post-fire succession is to acquire 

information on the interspecific competition of trees in various 

successional stages, the behaviour of the main invasive species (Pinus 

strobus), the rate of recovery of tree species confined to later successional 

phases (Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus betulus, etc.) and also on the 

development of the spatial structure and texture of the future forests. 

This raises one key question: can planned fire management become an 

alternative form of forest restoration in the National Park? 

Methods 

Most of the area (approx. 13.5 ha) was fenced to prevent damage 

by game and to restrict direct access to the plot by National Park 

visitors. This enclosure was sampled by means of a regular network 

(approx. 30 × 30 m) of permanent sample plots (PSPs) to monitor the 

course of succession. Since 2007 regeneration has been studied and 

measured annually in 135 square PSPs of 1.5 × 1.5 m. Each of the plots 

is studied in detail and all tree and shrub individuals are recorded and 

divided into five height classes: (i) one-year-old seedlings, (ii) up to 

30 cm, (iii) 30–60 cm, (iv) 60–130 cm, (v) over 130 cm (see Fig. 2a). 

Fig. 1. 

24 Forests

a) b) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 2. 

 

 

 

Results 

Only one year after the fire, in 2007, the area was massively colonised 

by the youngest stages of pioneer tree species, i.e. seedlings and 

juvenile individuals prevailed (height class up to 30 cm). This year is 

characterised by establishment of the highest number of subsequently 

developing individuals (Figs. 2 and 3). The dominant species was pine 

(Pinus sp. – it was impossible to distinguish different species of seedlings) 

followed by Populus tremula, Betula pendula and Salix caprea, 

respectively. 

Year 2008 was characterised by intensive growth (Figs. 2 and 4). 

All the height classes were already present in the studied plot, although 

still dominated by height class (ii). Seedlings were rare, found mostly 

in areas with harsher habitat conditions and delayed succession. Selection 

(self-thinning) was observed as a key process (see sharp drop 

in the total number of growing tree individuals in the burnt area in 

Fig. 2). Species composition also changed dramatically, with deciduous 

pioneer trees predominating: Populus tremula, followed by Betula 

pendula, and Salix caprea. Pines, already differentiated into the 

species Pinus sylvestris and P. strobus, represented rather marginal 

groups. There was a significantly higher proportion of Pinus sylvestris 

compared to P. strobus. This could lead to the assumption that in our 

conditions P. strobus is less adapted to fire and the subsequent succession. 

In terms of height growth both pines were well behind the 

pioneer species Betula pendula, Populus tremula, and Salix caprea. 

Further gradual thinning of the lower height classes took place 

in 2009 and 2010. A slight increase in number of individuals was recorded 

only in the highest class (v). Year 2010 saw a second wave of 

seedling establishment. The proportion of tree species did not change 

significantly. Also a visible reduction in Populus tremula individuals 

was recorded while the numbers of other pioneer trees more or 

less stagnated (Betula pendula thus becoming the dominant species). 

There was also a slight increase in the “other species” group, mainly 

represented by species of later developmental stages (e.g. Fagus sylvatica, 

Quercus petraea, Picea abies, Carpinus betulus, Alnus spp.). This 

trend signalises the future shift to the next succession stage – from 

initial to transition forest. 


Recent experience shows that traditional clearing or at least control 

of the Pinus strobus invasion in Bohemian Switzerland NP can be 

successful only if it is performed consistently, on a long-term basis, 

and within an area clearly separated from the adjacent areas. Management 

is not always fully efficient as it is not performed all over the 

area and control is carried out for too short a period (Němcová 2007). 

Consistent application of efficient long-term procedures increases labour 

consumption and financial costs of the traditional (silvicultural) 

restoration management. The management set out by the National 

Park’s management plan requires about €1.2 million annually (Drozd 

et al. 2010). To cover this, fundraising outside the budget is necessary. 

Fig. 3. 

Fig. 4. - 

 

Forests 25

forests in Northern Bohemia have been affected by forest fires during 

a substantial part of the Holocene. Recent human-induced accidental 

wildfire thus can imitate natural fire disturbances which the local pine 

forests experienced in the past. Local firing gradually applied over the 

area, generating complete succession series, would clearly lead to the 

desirable diversification of uniform forests, reduction in the number 

of non-indigenous species, and to an increase in forest biodiversity in 

the National Park: many anthracophilous fungi, mosses, and vascular 

plants have been found on the burnt sites, and bird and small ground 

mammal species diversity has increased as well (Marková et al. 2011). 

Attractiveness for tourists also plays a role in the National Park – after 

the fire, Raven’s Rock has attracted numerous expert excursions 

as well as the general public (in contrast to the unattractive clear cuts 

produced in traditional management). Obviously it is necessary to 

consider all the pros and cons. 

Fig. 5. 

In contrast, the costs of managing the area after the fire did not include 

more than the construction of a fence and erosion-control measures. 

Considering the promising results of secondary post-fire succession, 

the possibilities as well as the risks of prescribed firing should be 

discussed as an alternative (cheaper, faster, and closer to nature) form 

of restoration management. Fire is a natural disturbance factor which 

has always been present in nature. The latest anthracological research 

in the region (Novák et al. 2012) indicates that similar sites of pine 


The study was carried out with the support of project MSM 

6293359101. Many thanks go out to Vilém Jurek for his help with collection 

of data in the field and to Dana Šteflová from the NP Authority 

for kind backing of the field research. 

References 

Drozd J., Härtel H & Klitsch M. (2010): Péče o lesní ekosystémy 

v Národním parku České Švýcarsko. (Management of forest ecosystems 

in Bohemian Switzerland National Park.) – Ochrana 

přírody 65/1: 18–20. 

Marková I., Adámek M., Antonín V., Benda P., Jurek V., Trochta J., 

Švejnohová A. & Šteflová D. (2011): Havraní skála u Jetřichovic 

v národním parku České Švýcarsko – vývoj fl óry a fauny na 

ploše zasažené požárem. (Raven’s Rock (Havraní skála) near 

Jetřichovice in Bohemian Switzerland National Park – flora and 

fauna post-fire succession.) – Ochrana přírody 66/1: 18–21. 

Němcová I. (2007): Problémové introdukované druhy rostlin v ČR 

(Problematic introduced plant species in the Czech Republic). – 

Ms.; Bachelor thesis, Palacký University, Olomouc. 

Novák J., Sádlo J. & Svobodová-Svitavská H. (2012): Unusual vegetation 

stability in a lowland pine forest area (Doksy region, Czech 

Republic). – The Holocene [1]. Doi: 10.1177/0959683611434219. 

Patzelt Z. (2007): Národní park České Švýcarsko. (Bohemian Switzerland 

National Park.) – Ochrana přírody 62/1: 2–5. 

Vonásek V. (2008): Statistické informace o zásazích jednotek požární 

ochrany a požárech za období leden – září 2006. (Statistics on 

firefighter actions and fires over the period January – September 

2006.) – Ministerstvo vnitra České republiky. (Available at: http:// 

aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/statistiky/2006/pozary/ledzari.html) 

Fig. 6. 

 

26 Forests

Restoration of forests damaged by air pollution in the Jizera Mountains 

Location 



Restored area 269 km 2 


Costs 

Jizera Mountains, northeast Bohemia 

50°49' N, 15°20' E; altitude 325–1,124 m 

PLA 

František Pelc 

Forest communities with prevailing herb-rich and acidophilous montane beech forests (Fagion sylvaticae 

and Luzulo-Fagion sylvaticae), climax montane and waterlogged spruce forests (Piceion abietis) 

Landscape management programmes, Forest Stabilisation Programme, Operation Programme Environment, 

Forests of the Czech Republic; private funds from the non-profit sector, particularly the Foundation 

for the Preservation and Restoration of the Jizera Mountains 

€2.6 million (Ministry of the Environment, 1992–2011), €400,000 (Foundation for the Preservation and 

Restoration of the Jizera Mountains), €1.44 million (Operational Programme Environment through Forests 

of the Czech Republic) 


In most of the Jizera Mts. native montane forests have been replaced 

by Norway Spruce (Picea abies) plantations of genetically inappropriate 

provenance. Thus, natural forest communities composed 

of local tree populations have been preserved only in fragments and 

patches of various sizes. In the 1980s, approximately one third of forests 

was found to be heavily damaged by strong air pollution from 

fossil-fuel power stations in Poland, Saxony and the current Czech 

Republic, and by inappropriate forest management, thus affecting biogeochemical 

soil properties. 

In order to save timber for economic reasons, forest stands were 

cut on more than 90 km 2 during one decade (1980–1990), which 

caused extensive soil erosion. This seriously threatened the ecological 

integrity of the forest as a vegetation unit on the central plateau at an 

altitude of over 850 m, and homogenous Hairy Small-Reed (Calamagrostis 

villosa) grassland massively expanded. 

In the early 1990s, extensive areas were reforested with genetically 

non-native Picea abies and allochtonous Blue Spruce (Picea pungens). 

In the 1980s, environmentally controversial aerial liming had been 

repeatedly applied here. Reproduction by seed, even in native populations 

of Picea abies, European Beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Silver Fir 

(Abies alba), was very low and efforts to enhance vegetative reproduction 

did not appear to be effective. 

Fig. 1. 

 

Forests 27

Fig. 2. 

 

 

In the 1990s, due to technological improvements and closure of 

some power stations, air pollution declined (Fig. 3). Consequently, 

the health of forest trees and their ability to reproduce by seed has 

improved. Nevertheless, the atmospheric deposition load in the area 

remains high. Ungulate game numbers have exceeded the carrying 

capacity of the Jizera Mts. ecosystem several times, strongly limiting 

forest recovery as well (Paschalis & Zajackowski 1994, Pelc 1994). 

Fig. 4. 

 

 

- 

 

 

Objectives 

Achieving healthier, ecologically more stable forests with a nearnatural 

species composition and spatial structure by using native forest 

tree populations better able to face possible future stress factors, 

e.g. air pollution, climate change and insect pests. 

Methods 

In the early 1990s, the option of leaving the forests without any 

regeneration support was rejected, although there would have been 

some unquestionable advantages to this, e.g. deposition and low costs. 

A long-term strategy for forest restoration and stabilisation was established 

and under the Territorial System of Ecological Stability (a 

multi-level national ecological network) restoration biocentres were 

defined based on forest management principles (Pelc 1992, 1999, Pelc 

et al. 1993) (Fig. 5). These were included in forest management plans 

or realised as independent projects. 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

 

50 

kg/ha 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

1991 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

year 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. 

 

28 Forests

Fig. 6. - 

 

- 

 

One project was prepared for the preservation and reproduction 

of native or otherwise valuable tree populations: locally adapted 

varieties of Picea abies, Fagus sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus, Abies 

alba, Betula carpatica, Pinus mugo, Ulmus glabra, and Sorbus aucuparia. 

Their conservation was partially secured by means of existing 

and newly designated nature reserves and by delimiting gene pools. 

Collecting seeds, growing saplings and planting these, preferably in 

biocentres, was included in an agreement of the Forests of the Czech 

Republic and the Jizera Mts. PLA Authority. 

Restoration measures 

1990s The extinction risk of the local Picea abies population 

(particularly its peat-bog ecotype) was reversed 

by securing more than 700 kg of seed, i.e. potentially 

10 million seedlings enabling reforestation for ten 

years. 

During deforestation, planting of Picea pungens and 

Pinus mugo of Carpathian origin was stopped. The 

latter had contaminated native Pinus mugo populations 

in the 1970s and 1980s. 

Since 1992 Increased collection of Fagus sylvatica seeds, particularly 

from the 6 th and 7 th forest vegetation zones, as 

well as Betula carpatica seeds, to be used in restoring 

humid stands in the 8 th forest vegetation zone. 

Use of local Pinus mugo in reforestation. 

Inventory of Abies alba trees. 

Collection of seeds from populations of other native 

tree species, such as Ulmus glabra, Sorbus aucuparia 

and Acer pseudoplatanus, especially at altitudes of 

over 750 m. 

2001 Jizerskohorské bučiny NR was established as a 

unique tree gene pool, covering more than 2,600 

ha. Four other Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies gene 

pools, covering more than 2,270 ha in total, were also 

delimited. Here, sensitive stand restoration methods 

have been applied and the gene pool potential has 

been preserved. 

2011 Forests of the Czech Republic submitted and 

launched a project on enhancing forest stability in 

the Jizera Mts. PLA. 

Results 

Despite some problems, partial successes have been achieved in 

implementing the long-term strategy. This is clearly indicated by the 

increasing proportion of Fagus sylvatica, and also tree composition 

has gradually become more natural. 

In the representative Frýdlant Forest Management Unit, the Fagus 

sylvatica proportion increased from 2,445 ha in 1992 to 2,761 ha in 

2001. Currently, 3,051 ha are covered by deciduous tree species, an 

increase by almost 20% in 20 years. The Picea pungens distribution, 

on the other hand, declined from 1,996 ha in 1992 to 1,487 ha in 2001 

and 938 ha in 2011, i.e. less than half the area of 20 years ago (Fig. 7). 

The number of Abies alba trees able to set seed is approximately 

1,400 individuals, which is less than 0.05% of full-grown trees in natural 

forests of the Jizera Mts. The year 1998 was the most successful in 

this regard, because 1,750 kg of cones, 200 kg of seeds, i.e. hundreds 

of thousands of seedlings were harvested. 

In total more than five million saplings have been used for improving 

the species and genetic composition in forest restoration 

and stabilisation during the last two decades. Suchopýr, a public service 

company, has contributed to forest restoration with more than 

150,000 genetically valuable saplings, whereas Čmelák, another public 

service company, produced 65,000 Abies alba saplings, almost 200,000 

Fagus sylvatica saplings and almost 36,000 Ulmus glabra saplings. 

Even greater numbers of genetically native and valuable saplings were 

provided by Dendria, a silvicultural company: more than 2 million 

saplings of Fagus sylvatica, over 2 million of local Picea abies and hundreds 

of thousands of Abies alba, Ulmus glabra, Betula carpatica, Acer 

pseudoplatanus, Pinus mugo and other forest tree species. 

In the Jizerskohorské bučiny NR, after an agreement with the 

Forests of the Czech Republic, 75 hectares were left to spontaneous 

development under a specific monitoring scheme. 

Restoration of damaged forests was included in the delimitation 

of the Territorial System of Ecological Stability. 

Lessons learned and future prospects 

Problematic issues, which may generate risks in the future, include 

the following: 

1. The central plateau is inhabited by large and increasing even-aged 

stands of mostly Picea abies and P. pungens, which might face disruption 

within a few decades. 

2. Nature conservation and foresters should prioritise stabilisation 

and restoration of biocentres by using natural regeneration and 

ha 

3500 

3000 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

1991 2001 2010 

Fig. 7. 

 

 

year 

Forests 29

Fig. 8. - 

 

genetically appropriate saplings, and by increasing their diversity 

in terms of species and distribution. 

3. High game numbers remain locally a limiting factor in the increase 

of species diversity. However, also in case their numbers 

are reduced, it will be necessary to secure protection of natural 

regeneration stands and plantings. 

4. Except for research projects, reappearing plans of large-scale 

measures, including aerial fertilising and liming, must be rejected, 

as they pose serious risks to montane ecosystems due to the 

heterogeneity and complexity of their biogeochemical processes. 

5. In the interests of biodiversity conservation and natural processes 

and representative research, a large forest area needs to be left to 

spontaneous development. 

6. It is necessary to update the agreement between the Forests of the 

Czech Republic, the Jizera Mts. PLA Authority and non-profit 

organisations on protection, reproduction and use of the native 

forest tree gene pool with special regard to legislation and the ecological 

condition of the forests. 

Public support 

One of the positive elements of the project has been fruitful cooperation 

between Forests of the Czech Republic, the Jizera Mts. 

PLA Authority and interested non-profit organisations, especially the 

Foundation for the Preservation and Restoration of the Jizera Mountains, 

Suchopýr, and Čmelák. We have also managed to raise the interest 

of foresters in rational utilisation of the native tree gene pool and 

forest stabilisation in biocentres. 

Mountains). – In: Anonymus (ed.), Sborník k 25 letům Chráněné 

krajinné oblasti Jizerské hory, pp. 14–22, Správa CHKO Jizerské 

hory, Liberec. 

Pelc F. (1994): Záchrana a využití původního genofondu dřevin pro 

obnovu imisemi poškozených lesních ekosystémů v CHKO Jizerské 

hory (Conservation and utilisation of the native tree gene pool 

in the restoration of forest ecosystems damaged by air pollution in 

the Jizera Mts. PLA). – Ochrana přírody 7: 194–200. 

Pelc F. (1999): Program revitalizace imisně poškozených lesních 

ekosystémů Jizerských hor (Programme for the restoration of forest 

ecosystems damaged by air pollution in the Jizera Mountains). 

– Sborník Severočeského muzea, Přírodní vědy 21: 5–16. 

Pelc F., Mesčerjakov V. & Schwarz O. (1993): Rescue project of endangered 

gene-pool of tree species on the territory of PLA Jizera 

Mts. and its utilization for revitalization of forests damaged by air 

pollution (Project for Prince Bernhard Fund). – Ms.; final report, 

Správa CHKO Jizerské hory, Liberec. 

Schwarz O., Hošek J., Anděl P., Hruška J., Hofmeister J., Svoboda 

T. & Petržílka L. (2009): Soubor map atmosférické depozice, 

překročení kritických zátěží síry a dusíku pro lesní ekosystémy 

a lišejníkové indikace imisní zátěže v KRNAP a CHKO Jizerské 

hory (Critical Load Maps for atmospheric deposition of sulphur 

and nitrogen in forests ecosystems and lichen pollution indicators 

in Krkonoše NP and Jizera Mts. PLA). – Lesnická práce, Kostelec 

nad Černými lesy. 

Fig. 9. 

- 

 

- 

- 

 


I would like to thank Mr J. Antl (Čmelák), Mrs A. Hnídková (Suchopýr), 

and Mr I. Machovič (Dendria) for providing documents 

and expert estimations of the production of plant material, and Mr J. 

Hušek (Jizera Mts. PLA Authority) and Mr L. Dostál (Forests of the 

Czech Republic) for providing some recent information. 

References 

Paschalis P. & Zajackowski S. (eds) (1994): Protection of forests ecosystems: 

selected problems of forestry in Sudety Mts. – Fundacicja 

Rozwoj SGGW, Warszawa. 

Pelc F. (1992): Ekologické aspekty lesního hospodářství v Jizerských 

horách (Ecological aspects of forest management in the Jizera 

30 Forests

Spontaneous recovery of mountain spruce forests after bark beetle attack 

 

Location 



Central part of the Šumava Mts. (Bohemian Forest), southwest Czech Republic 

48°56'–8°59' N, 13°25'–13°29' E; altitude 1175–1280 m 

NP, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, SCI 

Montane Calamagrostis spruce forests (Piceion abietis), represented by the Calamagrostio villosae-Piceetum 

association with the tree layer dominated almost exclusively by Spruce (Picea abies) with some Rowan (Sorbus 

aucuparia) at the edges 


The area is covered by extensive complexes of both natural and 

management-influenced spruce forests. Climax mountain spruce 

forests occur in a mosaic with edaphically conditioned waterlogged 

and bog spruce forests, and treeless bogs. The current spruce forests 

originated partly from natural regeneration, and planting and sowing 

in clear-cuts after windstorm and bark beetle outbreaks in the 19 th 

century. Waterlogged and bog spruce forests have remained the least 

influenced by management. 

A large complex of mountain spruce forests situated in the central 

part of the Šumava Mountains was affected by a bark beetle outbreak 

in the 1990s. A non-intervention approach was adopted in some Core 

Zones of the National Park, while interventions against the bark beetle, 

in the form of salvage logging, were applied in all other parts of 

the Šumava Mts. 

This study was performed as part of a long-term observation of 

recovery of spruce forests affected by bark beetle with and without 

interventions. 

Abiotic conditions 

The bedrock is predominantly gneiss, partly combined with granodiorites. 

Podzols are the prevailing soil type. 

Fig. 2. - 

 

 

Methods 

Permanent research plots, 400 m 2 each, were selected in representative 

parts of available stands of spruce forests both with and 

without interventions. In this study, we compared two types of plots: 

1. Dead canopy, i.e. climax mountain spruce forest attacked by bark 

beetle in 1997 resulting in spruce mortality, left without intervention. 

Eight plots were established. 

2. Clear-cut climax mountain spruce forest attacked by bark beetle 

and completely cut in 1997. The plots were artificially reforested 

with spruce (Picea abies) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia). Five plots 

were established. 

Vegetation composition was evaluated between 1998 and 2007 using 

four phytocenological samples of 100 m 2 in each plot. Seedlings 

and saplings of trees were recorded by species, height and age categories. 

The data were analysed with multivariate methods and repeated 

measurement ANOVA. 

Results 

Fig. 1. 

 

 

Typical species of mountain spruce forests, such as Lycopodium 

annotinum, Dryopteris dilatata, Homogyne alpina, Oxalis acetosella 

and Soldanella montana, prospered under the dead canopy and even 

increased their cover. These species failed in the clear-cuts and were 

replaced mostly by grass and sedge species (Fig. 3). Three endangered 

herb species (Lycopodium annotinum, Soldanella montana, Streptopus 

amplexifolius) were found in plots under the dead canopy. The number 

of indicator species of mountain spruce forests and the number 

and cover of bryophytes were significantly higher under the dead 

canopy (Jonášová & Prach 2008). 

Forests 31

A substantial part of the natural regeneration was formed by 

spruce in both types of plots, with rowan being the second most numerous 

species. Pioneer species, such as Birch (Betula pubescens), 

Willow (Salix sp.) and Aspen (Populus tremula), appeared in the first 

years on the disturbed soil surface after salvage logging (Jonášová & 

Prach 2004). The total numbers of Spruce and Rowan were significantly 

higher under the dead canopy in 1998 and 2002. The numbers 

in 2007 were similar, but in clear-cuts these numbers were achieved by 

plantings (Fig. 4). The height and age structure of spruce regeneration 

was reduced in clear-cuts compared to plots under the dead canopy 

(Jonášová & Prach 2004). 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. 

 

 

Conclusions 

Our results indicate that non-intervention in mountain spruce 

forests attacked by bark beetle is a much better option for the restoration 

of these forests than any forestry measures. The disturbance 

caused by salvage logging had a significant negative effect on vegetation 

and natural regeneration of indigenous species of mountain 

spruce forests, which led to the need for artificial reforestation. The 

non-intervention approach achieved, at no cost, similar numbers of 

Spruce and Rowan as with artificial reforestation. The age and height 

structure of the future forest and the condition of the original vegetation 

are more vigorous under dead canopy. Moreover, the non-intervention 

approach allows for natural selection, which will lead to the 

formation of substantially more resistant stands. 


The study was supported by the grants GAAV KJB600870701, 

COST OC09001 and AV0Z 60870520. 

Fig. 4. 

 

 

 

 

References 

Jonášová M. & Prach K. (2004): Central-European mountain spruce 

(Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests: regeneration of tree species after a 

bark beetle outbreak. – Ecological Engineering 23: 15–27. 

Jonášová M. & Prach K. (2008): The influence of bark beetles outbreak 

vs. salvage logging on ground layer vegetation in Central 

European mountain spruce forests. – Biological Conservation 

141: 1525–1535. 

Neuhäuslová Z. (ed.) (2001): Map of potential natural vegetation of 

the Sumava National Park. – Silva Gabreta, suppl. 1: 75–129. 

32 Forests

Grasslands

Introduction 

 

Grasslands belong, in terms of plants and animals, to the most diverse 

communities in Europe, and this is true on various spatial scales 

(Veen et al. 2009). In Central European conditions most of the current 

grasslands, however, do not represent climax communities, but 

were created after deforestation of the landscape and are maintained 

by farming activities. They have been managed for centuries, in some 

areas possibly even since the Neolithic or Bronze Age (Hájková et al. 

2011), particularly by grazing and mowing (Chytrý 2007). At present 

they therefore not only possess natural values, but are also of a high 

cultural-historic value, since they are the result of activities by dozens 

to hundreds of human generations. 

In the early 20 th century, nearly 1200 thousand hectares of grassland 

were registered on the territory of the present Czech Republic. 

Two thirds included meadows and a third pastures. This ratio was preserved 

throughout the century, although the total area reached a low 

of 800 thousand ha (Hrázský 2006) at the end of the era of socialism 

and collectivisation (1950–1989), when intensive agriculture caused 

the transformation of about one third of grasslands into arable land. 

The remaining grasslands were degraded by fertilising, draining, intensive 

grazing, additional sowing of commercial grass and legume 

seed mixtures, or conversely, by abandoning grassland management 

and by afforestation. All these changes led to an enormous loss in the 

species diversity of the original communities and a homogenisation of 

the landscape in general. 

During Natura 2000 habitat mapping (Chytrý et al. 2010) approximately 

396 thousand hectares of semi-natural grassland communities 

were recorded in the Czech Republic. Another hundreds of thousand 

hectares of grassland were classified as Intensively Managed Mead- 

Fig. 1. - 

 

ows. This means that grasslands of conservation value in the Czech 

Republic (e.g. for reason of high total species richness or presence of 

endangered plant and animal species) have declined strongly during 

the past few decades. Moreover, well-preserved fragments of such 

grasslands today often occur isolated in the landscape, and thus lack 

the metapopulation dynamics necessary for the survival of a range of 

invertebrate and plant species. Finally, many plots, mainly grassland 

enclaves in forests and at other inaccessible locations, on steep slopes, 

or small private plots around villages, have been abandoned or afforested 

in the past twenty years. 

Conservation management 

The fi rst attempts to secure the management of some valuable 

sites (at the time mostly fallow land or grassland encroached by 

shrubs and trees) were made in the late 1970s and early 1980s, thanks 

to volunteers of non-governmental organisations – TIS (Association 

for Nature and Landscape Conservation), later the Czech Union for 

Nature Conservation, and the Brontosaurus Movement. The situation 

generally changed after 1989, when particularly in submontane and 

mountainous regions grassland fertilisation was mostly stopped, and 

arable land was turned back into grassland. In that time (at least to a 

small extent) also state nature conservation bodies began to support 

the management of preserved grassland (and thus increase of biodiversity), 

mainly in protected areas, in an active way. 

In 1996 the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry of Agriculture 

created the Landscape Management Programme, a subsidy 

scheme which has been in operation up to the present. This has financially 

stimulated landowners and -tenants to take care of particular 

sites (e.g. nature reserves) or secure restoration and maintenance of 

abandoned sites. Unfortunately state finances are limited and therefore 

the total amount of subsidies has been gradually reduced in the 

past years. 

Agri-environmental schemes 

As of 1999, subsidies of the Ministry of Agriculture can be used for 

landscape maintenance, particularly for mowing and grazing. These 

have led to a resumption of the management of several thousand hectares 

of grassland which had been lying fallow after the disintegration 

of agricultural cooperatives. Many sites have unfortunately only been 

mulched. With the Czech Republic’s entrance into the European Union, 

the subsidy system essentially changed thanks to access to Agrienvironmental 

schemes. Their aim is to support agricultural land use 

respecting the environment and the landscape. Besides mowing, the 

Agri-environmental Programme has also supported grazing of particular 

sites, mostly by beef cattle and sheep. 

Paradoxically, despite their intention, Agri-environmental 

schemes have unfortunately not contributed much to a higher biodiversity 

in the Czech Republic so far. Especially their too uniform and 

strictly enforced requirements for large blocks of land are a problem. 

Unifying management of large areas is, thanks to modern farming 

equipment, easy today, but it has a very negative effect on rare, but 

also common plant and animal species. The point is that the mowing 

of large areas in a short time practically removes all available food 

plants, nectar and shelter (including places for resting, patrolling 

and hibernating) from the sward, which are particularly important 

to a range of invertebrates. It also causes high mortality of animals 

in all development stages (especially when heavy equipment is used, 

Grasslands 35

e.g. rotary mowers) (Čížek et al. 2011). All this may lead to the extinction 

of formerly large populations of sensitive species, which are 

often important from the nature conservation viewpoint, within a 

few years (Konvička et al. 2005, 2008). Autumn mulching is also destructive, 

but farmers are forced to use it in case the sward exceeds a 

height of 30 cm. Mowing of ungrazed patches after each grazing cycle 

in pastures has a negative effect on biodiversity as well (Konvička & 

Mládek 2006). Currently nature conservation authorities can adjust 

management regimes on request. Th is is however administratively 

difficult and farmers are not stimulated to do so, hence such cases are 

in reality exceptional (Marhoul 2010). Another problem is that the 

Agri-environmental Programme does not support small landowners, 

since the minimum land area is set at 2 ha in protected landscape 

areas and even 5 ha outside of them. Although farming extensive ‘cultural’ 

grasslands leads to conservation of an open landscape, it does 

not conserve its biodiversity (Piro & Wolfová 2008). Also, there are no 

subsidies available at the moment for alternating grazing and mowing 

of unfertilised grasslands, but a change of the Programme is currently 

being prepared. 

In summary, Agri-environmental schemes should pay more attention 

to the need to divide and diversify uniform landscapes, either 

by reducing land block sizes or introducing the obligation to farm in 

a diversifying manner, both in space and time. A possible solution 

would be the creation of individual farm plans, respecting the special 

features and natural conditions of each area. 

In the past years also other European resources have been used to 

maintain and especially restore particular habitats, such as Operating 

Programmes, the LIFE programme, and Norway Grants. 

Types of grassland restoration and recreation 

 

When grasslands are no longer fertilised and their biomass is 

regularly removed, the number of plant and animal species increases 

within a few years. Some sites in submontane and mountainous regions, 

which were until 1989 influenced by light fertilising, are good 

examples. In cases where mowing has continued, the original species 

composition has often recovered within 10–15 years, and sometimes 

protected and endangered plant and animals species have appeared 

(e.g. Královec et al. 2009). 

 

Abandoned sites are usually rapidly overgrown by fast-growing, 

competitive grasses (e.g. Brachypodium pinnatum, Calamagrostis 

epigejos, Molinia spp.) and shrubs and trees (Crataegus spp., Prunus 

spinosa, Rosa canina, Populus tremula, Betula spp., Salix spp., Alnus 

glutinosa, etc.), so that species confined to open vegetation gradually 

decline. In the past 30 years, management has been resumed on several 

thousand hectares of grassland which had been encroached by 

coarse grasses, shrubs and trees, particularly in protected areas. As 

documented by several case studies in the following chapters, rare and 

endangered plants have returned to many of these sites. 

Several meadows and pastures have been afforested on purpose – 

mostly with conifers at lower elevations and with Pinus mugo in the 

Subalpine zone. The latter community is successfully being restored in 

the Krkonoše NP and described in the case study “Restoration of the 

tundra ecosystem above the timberline in the Krkonoše Mts.”. 

Many restoration efforts have also been focused on moist grasslands. 

The case study “Restoration and subsequent degradation of 

an alluvial meadow” describes the rate of restoration in experimental 

plots of a neglected alluvial meadow. The case study “Restoration 

Fig. 2. 

management of wetland meadows in the Podblanicko region” provides 

a practical example. 

Another example of successful restoration, including strong surface 

disturbance, is described in the case study “Optimising management 

at Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica sites”. 

At several dry grassland sites, mostly thanks to initiatives of state 

conservation authorities, grazing by sheep and goats has been reintroduced. 

An example is described in the case study “Grazing of dry 

grasslands in the Bohemian Karst”. 

Grazing has also been reintroduced in other types of grassland 

communities, especially in submontane and mountainous regions. 

The results of an experiment aimed at monitoring the long-term 

development of mesophilous abandoned grasslands after resuming 

management are given in the case study “Restoration of grazing management 

on abandoned upland grasslands in the Jizera Mountains”. 

A separate problem is the maintenance and restoration of plant 

communities on open sands, which are currently extremely rare habitats. 

In the past, succession of these communities was often inhibited 

by regular fires or grazing. After cessation of these factors such sites 

are now changing due to shrub and tree encroachment, eutrophication, 

settling of invasive and expansive species, etc. Therefore the most 

urgent measures to be taken here are the elimination of shrubs and 

trees, removal of the eutrophicated top soil layer, and mechanical disturbance 

(see case study “Restoration of sands as part of the Action 

Plan for Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus” and also the section on 

military training grounds and post-industrial habitats). 

 

Modern mechanisation has enabled farmers to mow dozens of 

hectares of grassland during one or a few days, which has negative 

effects on biodiversity, particularly invertebrates (see above). Longterm 

intensive grazing has a similar negative impact. Permanent preservation 

of plant and animal species diversity thus requires a type of 

management varied in space and time (the more small plots, the better) 

(Kirby 2001). 

36 Grasslands

The necessity of mosaic management is demonstrated by the case 

study “Restoring heterogeneity in submontane meadows for the butterfly 

Euphydryas aurinia”. See also Konvička et al. (2005, 2008), Marhoul 

(2010), and Čížek et al. (2011). 

 

After 1989, land has come back into the hands of private owners, 

and agricultural cooperatives have been transformed. These changes 

have also meant the conversion of more than 230,000 hectares of arable 

land to grassland (regrassing). This conversion has taken place 

either spontaneously after the arable land was abandoned or by seeding 

with grass or grass-herb seed mixtures. 

a) Spontaneous succession 

About 30–40% of converted arable land has returned to grassland 

spontaneously by means of natural succession. In some areas, particularly 

in marginal regions, land has been abandoned due to disintegration 

of agricultural cooperatives. In many other areas spontaneous 

succession was deliberately applied as a cost-free way of converting 

arable land to grassland, e.g. in organic agriculture. 

Spontaneously reverting swards can be used as low-productive 

pastures already a few years after the start of the succession. Less 

frequently such land is mown in the first years (in the weed stage), 

as it yields sparse hay of bad quality. However, quality pasture and 

meadow communities need to develop over a longer time depending 

on natural conditions and distance to seed resources of target species 

(Lencová & Prach 2011, Prach et al. 2012). 

Spontaneous succession is useful if not obtaining productive 

grassland in a short time is the aim, but resistance and naturalness of 

the resulting sward is more important. 

b) Grassland recreation with commercial seed mixtures 

Half to two thirds of all regrassed land in the Czech Republic has 

been sown with seed mixtures available on the market. Species usually 

included in these mixtures are Alopecurus pratensis, Arrhenatherum 

elatius, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca arundinacea, F. pratensis, F. 

rubra, Phleum pratense, Poa pratensis agg., Lolium perenne, and L. 

multiflorum. Commercial grass mixtures are mostly applied in intensive 

farming. However, if swards created this way are located close 

to species-rich communities and are not fertilised thereafter, they are 

gradually colonised by grassland species from the surroundings and 

may eventually come close to semi-natural swards in terms of species 

composition (Lencová & Prach 2011). 

In the Czech Republic, commercial species-rich seed mixtures – 

besides cultural grasses and legumes also including seed of other dicotyledonous 

species – have so far been used to a limited extent. This 

seed is offered by several companies and is mostly used in gardens 

and orchards. 

c) Grassland recreation with regional species-rich mixtures 

The only region in the Czech Republic where a species-rich mixture 

of regional grasses and herbs has been used on a large scale is 

the Bílé Karpaty Protected Landscape Area (PLA). This process was 

initiated by an NGO, the Czech Union for Nature Conservation, Local 

Chapter Bílé Karpaty, Veselí nad Moravou, in collaboration with the 

Bílé Karpaty PLA Authority and Grassland Research Station, Zubří. 

Since 1999 more than 500 ha of arable land have been regrassed with 

this mixture (Jongepierová 2008, Mitchley et al. 2012, Prach et al. 

2012) – see case study “Recreation of species-rich grasslands in the 

Bílé Karpaty Mts.” In a few other regions regional seed mixtures are 

being prepared or have been used at a small scale, again at the initiative 

of NGOs (Litovelské Pomoraví, surroundings of Karlovy Vary). 

Fig. 3. 

Grasslands 37

Fig. 4. - 

 

Conclusion 

Thanks to restoration activities, the total area of grasslands in 

the Czech Republic has markedly increased in the past 20 years, but 

to date their biodiversity has risen significantly in only a few areas. 

The future of grasslands is moreover dependent on subsidies from 

the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, and 

the European Union. At the moment the Ministry of the Environment 

is strongly reducing the finances it provides, which may have 

a catastrophic impact on the maintenance of preserved grassland 

communities. This is because these finances support particularly the 

management of remnants of the most valuable semi-natural habitats, 

which often require manual maintenance and special measures. Besides 

their immense natural and cultural-historic values such habitats 

are also irreplaceable as a resource for the spread of rare species to 

regrassed and degraded sites. 

References 

Chytrý M. (ed.) (2007): Vegetace České republiky. 1. Travinná a 

keříčková vegetace. Vegetation of the Czech Republic. 1. Grassland 

and heathland vegetation. – Academia, Praha. 

Chytrý M., Kučera T., Kočí M., Grulich V. & Lustyk P. (eds) (2010): 

Katalog biotopů České republiky (Habitat Catalogue of the Czech 

Republic). Ed. 2. – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Čížek O., Zámečník J., Tropek R., Kočárek P. & Konvička M. (2011): 

Diversification of mowing regime increases arthropods diversity 

in species-poor cultural hay meadows. – Journal of Insect Conservation 

16: 215–226. 

Hájková P., Roleček J., Hájek M., Horsák M., Fajmon K., Polák M. & 

Jamrichová E. (2011): Prehistoric origin of extremely species-rich 

semi-dry grasslands in the Bílé Karpaty Mts. (Czech Republic and 

Slovakia). – Preslia 83: 185–204. 

Hrázský Z. (2006): Zatravňování v České republice (Regrassing in the 

Czech Republic). – In: Jongepierová I. & Poková H. (eds), Obnova 

travních porostů regionální směsí, Metodická příručka pro 

ochranu přírody a zemědělskou praxi (Grassland restoration using 

regional seed mixtures, Handbook for nature conservation 

and agricultural practice), pp. 15–20, ZO ČSOP Bílé Karpaty, Veselí 

nad Moravou. 



nad Moravou. 

Kirby P. (2001): Habitat management for invertebrates – a practical 

handbook. – The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy. 




Konvička M., Beneš J., Číž ek O., Kopeček F., Konvička O. & Víťaz 

L. (2008): How too much care kills species: Grassland reserves, 

agri-environmental schemes and extinction of Colias myrmidone 

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from its former stronghold. – Journal of 

Insect Conservation 12: 519–525. 

Konvička M. & Mládek J. (2006): Dotační tituly ve vztahu k ochraně 

biodiverzity (Subsidy schemes in the light of biodiversity conservation). 

– In: Mládek J., Hejcman M., Pavlů V. & Geisler J. 

(eds), Pastva jako prostředek údržby trvalých travních porostů 

v chráněných územích, pp. 89–90, Výzkumný ústav rostlinné 

výroby, Praha. 

Královec J., Pocová L., Jonášová M., Macek P. & Prach K. (2009): 

Spontaneous recovery of an intensively used grassland after cessation 

of fertilizing. – Applied Vegetation Science 12: 391–397. 

Lencová K. & Prach K. (2011): Restoration of hay meadows on ex-arable 

land: commercial seed mixtures vs. spontaneous succession. 

– Grass and Forage Science 66: 265–271. 

Marhoul P. (2010): Kobylka zavalitá na jičínských loukách versus 

zemědělské dotace (The Large Saw-tailed Bush-cricket on the 

Jičín Meadows contra agricultural subsidies). – Ochrana přírody 

2010/2: 12–13. 

Mitchley J., Jongepierová I. & Fajmon K. (2012): Regional seed mixtures 

for the re-creation of species-rich meadows in the White 

Carpathian Mountains: results of a 10-yr experiment. – Applied 


Piro Z. & Wolfová J. (eds) (2008): Zachování biodiverzity karpatských 

luk (Conservation of the Carpathian grassland diversity). – FOA, 

nadační fond pro ekologické zemědělství, Praha. 

Prach K., Jongepierová I. & Řehounková K. (2012): Large-scale restoration 

of dry grasslands on ex-arable land using a regional seed 

mixture: establishment of target species. – Restoration Ecology 

Doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2012.00872.x 

Veen P., Jefferson R., de Smidt J. & van der Straaten J. (2009): Grasslands 

in Europe of high nature value. – KNNV Publishing, Zeist. 

38 Grasslands

Experimental restoration and subsequent degradation of an alluvial 

meadow 

 

Location 



Experimental area 675 m 2 

Horní Lužnice NR, Lužnice river floodplain, south Czech Republic, near the border with Austria 

48°51'10" N, 14°54'39" E; altitude 455 m 

PLA and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Třeboňsko), NR 

Mosaic of alluvial meadows, marshes, pools and willow scrub; experiment in degraded alluvial meadows 

(Deschampsion cespitosae and Magno-Caricion gracilis) 

Initial conditions and restoration measures 

The experiment was established in an area of fl oodplain which 

had been regularly cut until the late 1960s, and was then left unmanaged. 

In 1989, a strip 135 m long and 5 m wide was delimited between 

the riverbank and the foot of the terrace, and cutting management 

was resumed. Vegetation was cut three times a year in the first three 

years of the experiment, i.e. 1989, 1990, and 1991, and twice a year 

thereafter because of insufficient increase in biomass later in the seasons 

of 1992 and 1993. All cut biomass was removed. No management 

was performed since 1994. 

Objectives 

The following main questions were addressed: (a) how fast is the 

restoration of neglected alluvial meadows, (b) how much are target 

meadow species capable of establishing, and (c) do the rate and ways 

of degradation differ from that of restoration? 

Methods 

A transect was demarcated in the middle of the area along the 

mown strip, and vegetation was recorded in each 1 m 2 along the transect 

in early June, before the first mowing. The cover of all species was 

estimated visually. At the same time a species list was compiled for 

the whole mown strip. The vegetation records were repeated four and 

seven years after the mowing had been stopped. Target species were 

defined as those characteristic of the Molinio-Arrhenatheretea class 

(Ellenberg et al. 1992). 

Results 

Rapid changes in species composition and cover of constituent 

species were observed following both the re-establishment of regular 

mowing in 1989 and its cessation after 5 years (Tab. 1). Phalaris 

arundinacea, the dominant species at the start of the experiment, 

slightly increased in dominance after the first season of cutting, but 

Fig. 1. 

Grasslands 39

2,0 

-0,5 

-0,5 

2001 

1989 

Year 

1998 

1990 

1991 

1993 

1992 

1994 

2,5 

Conclusions 

Both restoration and degradation of the alluvial meadow under 

study occurred very rapidly. It took just four years to restore a typical 

managed alluvial meadow from a degraded one. After the cessation 

of mowing, both the cover of constituent species and species numbers 

after seven years returned nearly exactly back to the values before 

the experiment started (Tab. 1), degradation thus being only slightly 

slower than restoration. Rapid restoration was obviously supported 

by the fact that regularly managed meadows of comparable species 

composition occurred only 150 m upstream of the experimental site, 

where all the newly established meadow species were recorded. Propagules 

of the species were probably transported by regular flooding. 

The rapid degradation was obviously accelerated by the fact that the 

experimental strip was narrow (5 m wide), and the clonal dominants 

of the surrounding degraded meadows, i.e. Phalaris arundinacea and 

Urtica dioica, spread vegetatively very easily from the margins of the 

experimental strip. 

Fig. 2. 

 

then decreased very rapidly. However, after the cessation of mowing, 

P. arundinacea was also able to attain its previous dominance rapidly. 

Urtica dioica, the prevalent species at drier elevations, started to decrease 

immediately, and nearly disappeared (average cover 0.001%) 

in the last year of the experiment. The typical dominant of managed 

alluvial meadows in the area, Alopecurus pratensis, increased up to the 

fourth year of the experiment, then stabilised before decreasing after 

the cessation of mowing. Many typical meadow species appeared after 

two seasons of mowing while others established in the following two 

years. Most of these species disappeared again after the cessation of 

mowing. The greatest increase in species number was recorded between 

the second and third year of the experiment (Tab. 1). During 

the experiment, the number of species increased nearly threefold. A 

similar trend was found in the case of species density, which increased 

by twofold in only two years. The number of target species peaked in 

the fourth year of the experiment, and when mowing was stopped, it 

decreased again. 

Results of the Detrended Correspondence Analysis ordination of 

samples (Fig. 2) indicate that the greatest change in vegetation took 

place in the second year of the experiment (1990). After the cessation 

of mowing (1994), it took only 4 years for the vegetation to become 

close to that of the first year of the experiment. The first axis (eigenvalue 

0.508) represents management, while the second axis (eigenvalue 

0.052) is partly related to time. 


Re-establishment of mowing management is recommended for 

the entire floodplain, which is nowadays largely neglected. If this cannot 

be performed, it should at least be introduced in several large, 

rather than many small, portions of the floodplain. The management 

must be regular – if interrupted for even a few years, rapid degradation 

can be expected again. 


The study was supported by grant GAČR P505/11/0256. 

References 

Ellenberg H., Weber H.E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulißen D. 

(1992): Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. Ed. 2. – Scripta 

Geobotanica 18: 1–258. 

Prach K. (2007): Alluvial meadows under changing management: 

Their degradation and restoration. – In: Okruszko T., Maltby E., 

Szatylowicz J., Sviatek D. & Kotowski W. (eds), Wetlands: Monitoring, 

modelling and management, pp. 265–271, Taylor and 

Francis, London. 

Prach K., Jeník J. & Large A.R.G. (1996): Floodplain ecology and 

management. The Lužnice River in the Třeboň Biosphere Reserve, 

Central Europe. – SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam. 

Tab. 1. 

 

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1998 2001 

Alopecurus pratensis 14.4 20.3 21.8 26.5 33.1 30.4 23.5 11.6 

Phalaris arundinacea 28.0 35.1 9.5 4.4 0.7 0.9 32.8 37.0 

Urtica dioica 18.4 7.8 2.6 0.2 0.1 0.0 1.8 13.6 

Average species density per 1 m 2 4.0 7.3 8.9 6.9 8.1 8.2 5.0 4.5 

Number of species in sampling plots 23 35 55 60 62 57 27 27 

Number of target species 4 5 16 20 22 20 7 7 

Total number of species along the transect 28 48 61 71 79 70 31 29 

40 Grasslands

Fig. 3. 

Grasslands 41

Restoration management of wetland meadows in the Podblanicko region 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

SE part of the Central Bohemia Region 

49°30'–49°52' N, 14°30'–15°10' E; altitude 280–630 m 

PLA (Blaník – 8 sites), NR (5 sites), SCI (4 sites) 

Various types of wet meadows, where optimal with a range of well-developed communities following the 

water gradient: transition mires and quaking bogs (Caricion canescenti-nigrae), humid meadows (Calthion 

palustris), Molinia meadows (Molinion caeruleae) and Nardus grasslands (Violion caninae) 

63 ha (28 sites) 

Regional Authority of the Central Bohemia Region, Regional Authority of the Vysočina Region, landscape 

management programmes, Operational Programme Environment, own resources 

Initially €1,000/ha (elimination of trees and shrubs on 42 ha), annually €800/ha (mowing 1–2 times on 63 

ha, incl. mosaic mowing at selected locations) 


Meadows with rare plant species used to be a relatively common 

part of the landscape until the 1960s. The meadows were managed 

extensively in the time before that (Zelený 1976). The following intensification 

of agricultural production often led to adjustments of the 

water regime at the sites as well as to eutrophication and biodiversity 

decline. Some representative meadows were usually preserved only 

at the periphery of a village territory. In the past twenty years, these 

remnants of wet meadows have been threatened by lack of management. 

The meadows are inhabited by protected species, for example 

Broad-leaved Marsh-orchid (Dactylorhiza majalis), Small Lousewort 

(Pedicularis sylvatica), Round-leaved Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), 

Common Bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), Grass-of-Parnassus (Parnassia 

palustris), Viper’s-Grass (Scorzonera humilis), Marsh Cinquefoil 

(Potentilla palustris), Globe-Flower (Trollius altissimus), and 

Marsh Gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe). 

Since the beginning of its activities, the Czech Union for Nature 

Conservation (CUNC), Local Chapter Vlašim, has focused on the restoration 

and maintenance management of wetland meadows. Under 

the Landtrust for the Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Podblanicko 

Region, it has carried out several activities, incl. monitoring of sites, 

cooperation with landowners and implementing measures of its own. 

Since 1990, restoration measures have been gradually implemented 

at 28 sites. Another 10 sites are being monitored for the presence of 

Fig. 1. 

 

42 Grasslands

are and protected species. This means that also sites where restoration 

measures have not been carried out or prepared are monitored. 

One of the monitored species is Dactylorhiza majalis, whose presence 

indicates well-preserved aquatic conditions. Its abundance corresponds 

with the presence or absence of management. 


The sites have waterlogged or peated soils. There are also places 

with stagnant surface water, occurring either naturally or in artificially 

created pools. Some sites have a water regime disturbed by different 

alterations (open drainage channels, pipe drainage systems) which restrict 

expansion of the target species. 

Objectives 

Restoration and stabilisation of the wetland biodiversity of meadows 

in the Podblanicko region, including maintenance of populations 

of rare species. 


1990–2000 Assessment of the status of wet meadow sites, including 

the presence of particular species. Establishing 

site ownership and contacting the owners. Cleanups 

(cutting shrubs and trees, reducing scrub areas, 

mowing once a year) at 10 pilot sites. 

2001–2005 Cleanups (cutting shrubs and trees, reducing scrub 

areas, mowing once a year) at most localities, 

maintenance management (mowing once a year) 

at most localities. At 13 sites pools for amphibians 

were created. Most of the landowners of the localities 

were contacted. Since it was not always possible to 

obtain consent of the landowners with carrying out 

management for the entire area of the sites, some 

parts of the sites remained without management or 

were mown once every two years. 

2006–2011 Regular annual mowing management at the sites: at 

the end of June and July at sites of low and medium 

altitude, in August at higher altitudes. A second cut 

takes place at selected locations in October. Mowing 

is carried out with brushcutters or hand-guided 

mowers with a cutter bar. The cut biomass is manually 

raked up in piles and then mechanically loaded 

onto a lorry for transport to a composting facility. 

Also specific forms of management have been realised at the 

sites – cleaning gullies, mosaic mowing in selected plots and deliberately 

leaving selected sites unmown in certain years. Monitoring of 

the abundance of selected species and area distribution of species has 

been carried out at selected locations. 

Results 

After implementation of cleanup management, the population of 

Dactylorhiza majalis usually responds sooner or later with an increase 

in number of recorded flowering individuals (Fig. 3). Flowering individuals 

originate partly from surviving individuals at the site (not 

flowering because of shading and being covered by plant litter), possibly 

also from the seed bank. The increase later slows down. 

The observed abundance of flowering Dactylorhiza majalis individuals 

at the monitored sites grew from 0 to approximately 1000 individuals 

over the period 2006–2011. At the restored and long-managed 

locations the marsh-orchid populations are stable (cf. Dykyjová 

2003), with fluctuations in the number of flowering individuals according 

to the course of the growing season or sometimes with a slight 

Fig. 2. 

- 

 

 

increase. At locations with recently resumed mowing this fluctuation 

is stronger. In contrast, the number of flowering individuals gradually 

decreases at sites where no management takes place (lack of interest 

in management by the landowners). 

0 0 

2 

5 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Fig. 3. 

 

 


The development of the Dactylorhiza majalis populations at the 

monitored sites shows that management is a necessary condition 

for the existence of this species at a site. After mowing (preferably in 

phases) has been reintroduced, the orchid’s further spread is limited 

by the water regime alterations realised in the past (draining ditches, 

drainage systems). Removal of drainage systems and resuming waterlogging 

usually requires expensive separate projects. 

20 

25 

28 

Grasslands 43


The management of the locations in Blanik PLA (7) is supported 

by the Blanik PLA Authority, management of nature reserves in 

the Central Bohemian Region (2) by the Regional Authority of the 

Central Bohemian Region, management of a nature reserve in the 

Vysočina Region (1) by the Regional Authority of the Vysočina Region, 

and management of the other sites by the Nature Conservation 

Authority of the Czech Republic, local authorities, and landowners of 

the sites. The actual cleanups and following management is carried 

out by CNUC Vlašim members, volunteers, and also the landowners 

themselves. Landowners are key partners in favour of long-term continuity 

of site management and it is essential that they understand the 

importance of their site for nature conservation. 


Collection of the documentary data was financed from the CNUC 

programme Biodiversity Protection, supported by the Ministry of the 

Environment in 2010. 

References 

Dykyjová D. (2003): Ekologie středoevropských orchidejí (Ecology of 

the central European orchids). – Kopp, České Budějovice. 

Zelený V. (1976): Chráněné a méně známé rostliny Podblanicka (Protected 

and less known plants of Podblanicko). – Středočeské nakladatelství 

a knihkupectví, Praha. 

Fig. 4. 

44 Grasslands

Recreation of species rich grasslands in the Bílé Karpaty Mountains 

Location 

Bílé Karpaty Mts., southeast Czech Republic, near the border with Slovakia 

48°50'–49°05' N, 17°19'–17°55' E; altitude 250–610 m 

Protection status PLA, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, SCI (2) 


Restored area 


Costs 

 

The main grassland type in the area includes semi-natural, semi-dry grasslands (subatlantic Bromion erecti 

or subcontinental Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati) 

500 ha (34 sites) 

Landscape management programmes, SAPARD, Agri-environmental schemes 

800 €/ha 


In the second half of the 20 th century several hundred hectares of 

grassland in the area were converted to arable land. Due to changes 

in agriculture after 1989, farmers became aware of the need to restore 

grasslands on the large arable fields. Some fields were left to spontaneous 

succession, but the majority has been turned into grassland using 

commercial clover-grass seed mixtures. However, these mixtures are 

prepared with high production in mind and are not tailor-made to 

suit specific local conditions. They lack most of the common grassland 

herbs, some of which are medicinal and nutritionally important 

to animals. Th is problem, as well as concerns about loss of genetic 

and species diversity, was the reason why in the early 1990s an environmental 

NGO, Local Chapter Bílé Karpaty of the Czech Union for 

Nature Conservation, started developing a regional grass-herb seed 

mixture in cooperation with the Bílé Karpaty Protected Landscape 

Area Authority and the Grassland Research Station, Zubří. 


Soil chemical analyses (sampled to a depth of approx. 5 cm) indicated 

neutral or slightly basic soils (pH 6.12–8.86) and a rather variable 

nutrient content partly caused by management of the previous 

arable land. Organic matter content varied between 7.33 and 16.08%, 

total N between 1309 and 3828 mg.kg -1 , and available phosphate between 

16 and 161 mg.kg -1 . In terms of climate, the mean annual temperature 

is 7–9 °C, and the mean annual precipitation 500–800 mm. 

Objectives 

Creation of species-rich hay meadows, increasing biodiversity, 

improving of hay quality, reduction of erosion, improving of scenery. 


1993–1995 Seeds of common grassland species were collected 

from species-rich White Carpathian meadows and 

reproduced in seedbeds at several local farms and 

at the Grassland Research Station at Zubří. 

1999–2006 A combine harvester was used to harvest local 

grasses, especially Bromus erectus. 

2007–present Seeds (mainly grasses) have been harvested with a 

brush harvester, which was constructed according 

to a model developed by the British company 

Emorsgate Seeds. 

1999–present A regional species mixture has been used, containing 

85–90% grasses, 3–5% legumes and 7–10% 

other herbs (weight percentage). According to 

availability, 20–30 species are included in the 

mixture every year. The optimal seed rate is 17–20 

kg.ha -1 . Until 2009, annually about 40–50 hectares 

were regrassed in the area by local farmers. 

1999–2004, 

2009 

Succession after regrassing was monitored (vascular 

plants, soil fauna) in experimental permanent 

plots at a site called Výzkum (Jongepierová et al. 

2007, Jongepierová 2008, Mitchley et al. 2012). 

2009 Large-scale monitoring of vascular plant succession 

was carried out at 34 regrassed sites (Prach et 

al. 2012). 

Management measures after sowing 

— Mowing twice a year at least two years after regrassing to control 

weeds, once a year thereafter. 

— Early cutting (June) to reduce grasses and encourage herbs. 

— Autumn grazing to encourage biodiversity. 

— Planting of trees, mainly oak (Quercus petraea), lime (Tilia cordata), 

and pear-tree (Pyrus pyraster) to improve scenery and further 

increase biodiversity. 

Methods 

In 2009, the vegetation of 34 regrassed sites was analysed by making 

three phytosociological relevés per site and comparing these with 

the vegetation of ancient, species-rich grasslands nearby (Fig. 2). 

Fig. 1. 

Grasslands 45

egional seed mixtures, the trends were essentially similar to the largescale 

study, i.e. restored plots developed a species composition heading 

towards the composition of the reference sites. 


Until recently a late cut was recommended for recreated meadows 

and this was said to enhance the diversity of herbs in the grasslands. 

However, a preliminary analysis of the data acquired to date 

has shown that successful grassland restoration by means of regional 

grass-herb mixtures (as well as other ways of restoration) requires an 

early cut. 

In the future, transfer of green hay may also be considered a suitable 

restoration measure. 


Interest of farmers in the regrassing of other sites. 

Fig. 2. - 

- 

 

 

 

 

 

Results 

In total, 373 vascular plant species were recorded at the regrassed 

sites and 20 permanent reference grasslands. A total of 102 species 

were classified as target species, the remainder being either weeds or 

common grassland species. 

Forty-four of the target species were sown at the restored sites 

and all, except one (Helianthemum grandiflorum subsp. obscurum), 

established (98%). Twenty-seven species established spontaneously, 

while 31 target species have not been found at the restored sites yet. 

Altogether, 248 species were recorded at the restored sites. However, 

only four species reached cover values at least equal to those at the 

reference sites (Bromus erectus, Festuca rubra, Holcus lanatus, and 

Trisetum flavescens – all sown grasses). The majority of the target species, 

both sown and spontaneously established, were present at the 

restored sites but so far only at low cover values. The two most successful 

spontaneously established target species were Carlina vulgaris 

and Fragaria viridis. Also some rare and endangered species arrived 

spontaneously at the restored sites, e.g. Astragalus danicus and Gentiana 

cruciata (Prach et al. 2012). 

In a recent study (Mitchley et al. 2012), evaluating 10 years of a 

field experiment at a site called Výzkum including plots sown with 

Fig. 4. 


The study was supported by the following grants: GAČR 

P504/10/0501, P505-11-0256 and RVO67985939. 

References 



nad Moravou. 

Jongepierová I., Mitchley J. & Tzanopoulos J. (2007): A field experiment 

to recreate species rich hay meadows using regional seed 

mixtures. – Biological Conservation 139: 297–305. 

Mitchley J., Jongepierová I. & Fajmon K. (2012): Regional seed mixtures 

for the re-creation of species-rich meadows in the White 

Carpathian Mountains: results of a 10-yr experiment. – Applied 


Prach K., Jongepierová I. & Řehounková K. (2012): Large-scale restoration 

of dry grasslands on ex-arable land using a regional seed 

mixture: establishment of target species. – Restoration Ecology 

Doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2012.00872.x 

Fig. 3. 

46 Grasslands

Grazing of dry grasslands in the Bohemian Karst 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Bohemian Karst (Český kras) between Prague and Beroun 

49°52'–50°00' N, 14°02'–14°21' E; altitude 199–499 m 

PLA, NR (2), SCI 

Dry grasslands belonging to the Festucion valesiacae alliance; transitions to the Alysso-Festucion pallentis 

and Seslerio-Festucion pallentis alliances, and to the Bromion erecti alliance 

25 ha 

Landscape management programmes 

€700/ha/yr (grazing) 


The Bohemian Karst landscape has been occupied by human 

settlements continuously for the last 7000 years (Stolz & Matoušek 

2006). Human settlements have always been connected to livestock 

grazing, which has significantly shaped the landscape (Poschlod & 

WallisDeVries 2002). Due to the relatively low yield of dry grasslands 

on shallow soils over limestone, sheep and goat grazing has been common 

in the Bohemian Karst, as they tolerate lower-quality fodder and 

rocky terrain. 

Grazing has maintained open vegetation patches even in periods 

of closed canopy forest, and thus supported plant and animal species 

confined to this type of habitat. From the conservation point of view, 

grazing has played a positive role in the maintenance of species diversity. 

In the 20 th century, the extent of grazing livestock decreased 

significantly in the Bohemian Karst, mainly after World War II, from 

roughly 10,000 to 100 goats and sheep (Novák & Tlapák 1974). Along 

with this, landscape changes occurred, whereby large open patches 

developed into woodland, either through succession (in remote and 

unprofitable places), or due to tree planting. 

The remaining patches of grasslands are degrading due to increasing 

cover of dominant grasses and sedges at the expense of less 

competitive species, and plant and invertebrate species diversity is decreasing, 

small bare soil patches are disappearing, litter is accumulating, 

and microhabitat diversity is declining. 

Fig. 1. 

Grasslands 47

Objectives 

Restoration and maintenance of high-quality dry grassland habitats 

and of the scenery formed by a mosaic of various forest and open 

grassland vegetation. 

Management measures 

2005(2006)–2011: small-scale rotational grazing (Pavlů et al. 

2003) in electrically fenced areas with mixed herds of sheep and goats 

(at a ratio of 3:1) during April to October. The herd included 100–130 

animals per site. The presence of goats is important for suppressing 

shrubs and trees, and also for grazing taller flowering grasses. 

At each site the herd spent a few weeks once or twice during the 

grazing season. The fences were moved every 2–7 days, when the tussocks 

were found to be grazed strongly. Grazing pressure changed 

during the season according to biomass production. During the grazing, 

ungrazed strips (located in different places for each grazing cycle) 

were left to help reproduce plants and invertebrates. 

Methods 

Before the re-introduction of grazing, permanent plots (1 × 1 m) 

were established for vegetation monitoring. Grazed plots were always 

paired with control plots, protected with a cage against grazing. Eight 

pairs of plots were monitored at two sites, 11 pairs at one site. In each 

of these plots, the percentage cover of each plant species was recorded 

every spring. 

The monitoring of invertebrates was carried out for Lepidoptera 

as a representative group; using transect monitoring for diurnal species 

(Heřman & Vrabec 2010) and light sources at fi xed points for 

nocturnal species (additionally by attracting them to baits or synthetic 

pheromones and by monitoring immature stages; data evaluation 

still in process). 

For long-term monitoring of lepidopteran populations, primarily 

indicator species clearly associated with each habitat and being important 

species in regional nature conservation were selected. These 

were Grayling (Hipparchia semele), with probably the most abundant 

populations of the Czech Republic occurring in the study area, Safflower 

Skipper (Pyrgus carthami), the lichen moth Paidia rica, and the 

owlet moth Euxoa vitta. 

 

After six years of management, the impact of grazing on species 

number and species composition of the permanent plots is statistically 

significant. The species number is higher in grazed plots at all 

three sites. Species increase is most visible in grazed plots at Šanův 

kout (Fig. 4), the site with the lowest mean number of species per 

plot. Vegetation in grazed and ungrazed plots has taken significantly 

different courses since the beginning of management. This difference 

is reflected in the observed grazing response of particular species (Fig. 

6). Positive grazing response is shown in typical dry grassland species 

whose common traits include a small height, tussock or rosette forms, 

and an annual life cycle (Carex humilis, Festuca valesiaca, Potentilla 

arenaria, Scabiosa ochroleuca, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Salvia pratensis, 

Arabis hirsuta, Thlaspi perfoliatum, Thymus pulegioides, and Veronica 

praecox). On the other hand, species in the control plots are better 

competitors of grasslands with a denser sward. This group includes 

more grasses and taller forbs (Bothriochloa ischaemum, Sesleria caerulea, 

Brachypodium pinnatum, Bromus erectus, Knautia arvensis, Artemisia 

campestris, Stachys recta, Teucrium chamaedrys). Some Fabaceae 

species (e.g. Lotus corniculatus, Securigera varia) also grow better 

in the control plots, because they are often grazed preferentially in 

grazed plots, and their survival is therefore more threatened than that 

of non-legumes. 

Results 

Fig. 2. - 

 

Fig. 3. - 

 

 

During the period 2005–2011 a total of 62 butterfly species were 

recorded. Nearly one third (18 species, i.e. 29%) are species important 

in nature conservation – i.e. under legislative protection or included 

in the national red list (Farkač et al. 2005). 

The impact of grazing management is only one out of a number 

of factors influencing the diversity, as can be seen in Fig. 5 (the clear 

deviation in 2010 mainly caused by wet weather). 

Extensive and mosaic grazing represents the optimal form of 

management for 29 of the recorded butterfly species and is therefore a 

suitable instrument to both revitalise and preserve their populations. 

For example, the Lulworth Skipper (Thymelicus acteon) increased 

from a single record in 2009 to nine individuals recorded in 2011. 

Conclusions 

The grazing management reintroduced in 2005 and 2006 significantly 

contributed to restoration and maintenance of the dry grass- 

48 Grasslands

Zlatý kůň 

45 

Šanův kout 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

2006 2007 2009 2010 2011 

Fig. 4. 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. 

 

 

Fig. 6. 

 

 

Grasslands 49

lands and raised or maintained a high species richness by increasing 

microhabitat heterogeneity on a small scale. Grazing is therefore an 

appropriate management tool and the current level of grazing intensity 

is adequate. As many studies have pointed out, extremes of grazing 

intensity (both high and low) lead to decline in species number, either 

through overgrazing or dominance of a few species (Milchunas et al. 

1988, Dostálek & Frantík 2008). An important fact from the methodological 

point of view was that inter-annual variation in grazing 

strongly influenced vegetation dynamics, so that reliable conclusions 

could not have been drawn earlier: the effect of grazing could not have 

been confirmed after just three years of monitoring (Mayerová et al. 

2010). 

The inter-annual variation is also seen in the case of increasing 

butterfly diversity observed between the first and the most recent season. 

Evaluating the response to grazing management is rather complicated 

due to adult mobility, a delay in response to host plant occurrence, 

etc. However, due to the stable or even increasing abundance 

observed in indicator species, it can be stated that adequate grazing 

management has a positive influence on butterflies. Even more pronounced 

results are expected in the longer term. 

References 

Dostálek J. & Frantík T. (2008): Dry grassland plant diversity conservation 

using low intensity sheep and goat grazing management: 

case study in Prague (Czech Republic). – Biodiversity and Conservation 

17: 1439–1454. 





Heřman P. & Vrabec V. (2010): Denní motýli (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) 

pastvou udržovaných ploch CHKO Český kras (Diurnal 

butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) of sites managed 

by grazing in Bohemian Karst Protected Landscape Area). – In: 

Konvička M. & Beneš J. (eds), V. Lepidopterologické kolokvium, 

Sborník abstraktů z konference 26. listopadu 2010, pp. 18–19, Entomologický 

ústav Biologického centra Akademie věd ČR, České 

Budějovice. 

Mayerová H., Č iháková K., Florová K., Kladivová A., Šlechtová A., 

Trnková E. & Münzbergová Z. (2010): Vliv pastvy ovcí a koz na 

vegetaci suchých trávníků v CHKO Český kras (Effect of sheep 

and goat grazing on dry grassland vegetation in Bohemian Karst 

Protected Landscape Area). – Příroda 29: 51–72. 

Milchunas D.G., Sala O.E. & Lauenroth W.K. (1988): A generalized 

model of the effects of grazing by large herbivores on grassland 

community structure. – The American Naturalist 132: 87–106. 

Novák A. & Tlapák J. (1974): Historie lesů v Chráněné krajinné oblasti 

Český kras (History of forests in Bohemian Karst Protected Landscape 

Area). – Bohemia Centralis 3: 9–40. 

Pavlů V., Hejcman M., Pavlů L. & Gaisler J. (2003): Effect of rotational 

and continuous grazing on vegetation of upland grassland in the 

Jizerské hory Mts, Czech Republic. – Folia Geobotanica 38: 21–34. 

Poschlod P. & WallisDeVries M.F. (2002): The historical and socioeconomic 

perspective of calcareous grasslands – lessons from the 

distant and recent past. – Biological Conservation 104: 361–376. 

Stolz D. & Matoušek V. (eds) (2006): Berounsko a Hořovicko v pravěku 

a raném středověku (Beroun and Hořovice area in prehistorical 

and early medieval times). – Elce Book Publishing, Hořovice. 

Fig. 7. 

50 Grasslands

Resumption of grazing management on abandoned upland grasslands 

in the Jizera Mountains 

 

Location 



Experimental area 

NW part of the Jizera Mts., north Czech Republic 

50°50' N, 15°06' E; altitude 420 m 

PLA 

Predominantly semi-natural grasslands (Arrhenatherion elatioris) 

5 ha 


After the expulsion of German inhabitants from the area in 1946 

a mosaic landscape management with grassland and arable land was 

maintained here. Large-scale management was introduced in the 

1960s, but a large area of arable land remained. However, in the 1970s 

(contrary to the general trend in the Czech Republic) most arable land 

was sown with commercial grass mixtures and then intensively managed 

by grazing and cutting. After 1989, because of cattle reduction 

(to half), most grasslands were abandoned. As a result, grasslands degraded 

and became dominated by Aegopodium podagraria, Galium 

album, Anthriscus sylvestris, Cirsium arvense, Elytrigia repens, and 

Alopecurus pratensis. No shrub encroachment was recorded. 


The site lies on granite bedrock and medium deep brown soil 

(Cambisol) with the following attributes: pH (KCl) = 5.45, Cox = 

4.5%, available P = 28 mg.kg −1 , available K = 67 mg.kg −1 , available Mg 

= 58 mg.kg −1 (Mehlich 3). The mean annual precipitation is 803 mm 

and the mean annual temperature is 7.2 °C (Liberec Meteorological 

Station). 

Objectives 

Study of successional development of an abandoned grassland after 

introduction of intensive and extensive grazing management. 


1998 Establishing of grazing experiment on grassland 

unmanaged for five years. 

1998–2011 Monitoring of successional development of the 

grassland after introduction of management. 

Management regimes in the experiment 

Intensive grazing, extensive grazing, unmanaged control (Pavlů et 

al. 2006a, 2006b, 2007, 2008, 2009). 

Results 

Already in the first year after grazing had been reintroduced, an 

increase of live vascular plant biomass was recorded while the amount 

of dead material significantly declined. The number of meadow and 

pasture plant species rose from the second year of management onwards 

(16 plant species.m -2 at the beginning of the experiment, 22 

plant species.m -2 in the third year) at the expense of ruderal species. 

A higher sward density was recorded from the third year of management 

(Pavlů et al. 2006b). The relation between diversification of the 

structure and grazing intensity became evident only in the fourth year 

of the experiment (Pavlů et al. 2007). 

Plant species richness was similar under both grazing intensities, 

but it was the lowest in unmanaged grasslands. Weedy species such as 

Aegopodium podagraria, Anthriscus sylvestris, Cirsium arvense, Elytrigia 

repens and the meadow species Alopecurus pratensis and Galium 

album had the highest abundance in the unmanaged control (Fig. 3) 

(Pavlů et al. 2008). The most abundant species in both the intensively 

and extensively grazed treatments were: Agrostis capillaris, Festuca 

rubra agg., Phleum pratense, Taraxacum spp., Trifolium repens, and 

Ranunculus repens (Pavlů et al. 2007). 

The main difference between intensive and extensive grazing 

management was seen in the proportions of short and tall sward 

patches, while the proportion of moderate-height patches was similar 

under both grazing intensities (Ludvíková et al. 2012). Floristic composition 

in patches of the same sward height depended upon grazing 

intensity. Moderately tall and tall sward patches under a given grazing 

intensity had a similar botanical composition. The vegetation of short 

sward patches differed considerably from that of other patches under 

Fig. 1. 

Fig. 2. 

Grasslands 51

especially under intensive grazing (Pavlů et al. 2006b). Grazing management 

can substitute for mowing management but not completely, 

due to selective grazing, trampling and nutrient redistribution (faeces, 

urine). Plant species of the Cynosurion alliance are more often present 

under intensive grazing, but very rarely under extensive grazing. The 

tendency of thorny shrubs to sprout is higher under extensive grazing 

(trampling) than in unmanaged grassland. The result is that the 

desirable mosaic structure does not only have a higher plant species 

richness, but also offers animal species shelter, feeding and nesting 

opportunities. 


Interest of farmers in grazing management under different intensities 

and their effect on sward structure. 


The study was supported by the following grants: MZe 0002700604, 

MŽP VaV SP/2D3/179/07, GAČR 526/03/0528, 521/08/1131. 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

- 

- 

 

 

 

 

extensive grazing, whereas under intensive grazing the differences between 

short, intermediate and tall sward patches were small. 

The highest thorny shrub encroachment (especially Rosa spp.) 

was revealed under long-term extensive grazing. It was less in intensively 

grazed areas due to grazing pressure and in abandoned areas 

because of worse conditions for shrub and tree establishment (Fig. 4). 

Plant species typical of pastures (Cynosurion cristati) are more often 

present under long-term intensive grazing, but very rare under extensive 

grazing (Pavlů et al. 2007). 


Preliminary results show that resumption of grazing management 

significantly changes the botanical composition of a degraded sward. 

The rate of pasture and meadow species gradually increases at the expense 

of ruderal species. A sward with a high plant species density 

has been created since the third year after management resumption, 

References 

Ludvíková V., Pavlů V., Pavlů L. & Gaisler J. (submitted): Structure of 

sward-height patches under intensive and extensive grazing management 

in Central Europe. – Acta Oecologica. 

Pavlů V., Gaisler J., Hejcman M. & Pavlů L. (2008): Effect of different 

grazing intensity on weed control under conditions of organic 

farming. – Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, Special Issue 

XXI: 441–446. 

Pavlů V., Hejcman M. & Mikulka J. (2009): Cover estimation versus 

density counting in species rich pasture under different grazing 

intensity. – Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 156: 

419–424. 

Pavlů V., Hejcman M., Pavlů L. & Gaisler J. (2007): Restoration of 

grazing management and its effect on vegetation in an upland 

grassland. – Applied Vegetation Science 10: 375–382. 

Pavlů V., Hejcman M., Pavlů L., Gaisler J. & Nežerková P. (2006a): Effect 

of continuous grazing on forage quality, quantity and animal 

performance. – Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 113: 

349–355. 

Pavlů V., Hejcman M., Pavlů L., Gaisler J., Nežerková P. & Meneses L. 

(2006b): Changes in plant densities in a mesic species-rich grassland 

after imposing different grazing management. – Grass and 

Forage Science 61: 42–51. 

Number of shrubs per ha 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

2003 2005 2007 2009 2003 2005 2007 2009 2003 2005 2007 2009 

Extensive grazing Intensive grazing Unmanaged control 

Rosa sp. 

Crataegus sp. 

Salix caprea 

Corylus 

avellana 

Fig. 4. 

52 Grasslands

Restoring heterogeneity in submontane meadows for the butterfly 

Euphydryas aurinia 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

West Czech Republic, near the border with Germany 

50°27'–49°53' N, 12°5'–13°17' E; altitude 420–970 m 

PLA (Slavkovský les), Hradiště Military Training Area, NR (30), SCI (18), critically endangered species 

Semi-natural submontane grasslands – predominantly oligotrophic wet meadows: Intermittently wet meadows 

(Molinion caeruleae) and Wet Cirsium meadows (Calthion palustris) 

398 ha (101 sites) 

Landscape management programmes, Agri-environmental schemes, Regional Office of Karlovy Vary Region 

Mosaic mowing €800–920/ha 


The Marsh Fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia, Rottenburg, 1775), a 

species protected under the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC), has declined 

rapidly across most of Europe, including the Czech Republic, 

due to a loss of semi-natural grasslands. At the beginning of the 21st 

century, only seven sites were known to Czech conservationists. Intensive 

surveys have increased the number of sites to 101, elucidated 

the intolerance of the species to eutrophication (Konvička et al. 2003), 

its sensitivity to intensive mowing – particularly in late summer/early 

autumn (Hula et al. 2004) – and evaluated the status of all colonies 

(Zimmermann et al. 2011). It has become clear that E. aurinia requires 

managed, but highly heterogeneous sward conditions. It is threatened 

by both successional encroachment by tall grass and scrub combined 

with dense litter accumulation (neglect), and by too frequent biomass 

removal by mowing of the entire site all at once (overmanagement). 

Grassland management must therefore balance between too 

little (neglect) and too much (overmanaging). Whilst in the past 

small-scale farming maintained a diverse mosaic of habitats over vast 

stretches of land within which the species always found sites suitable 

for its development, modern land use has restricted its distribution to 

isolated habitat patches. Grassland management which does not respect 

the need for heterogeneity in the resulting ecological conditions 

may seriously threaten conservation targets (Konvička et al. 2008). 


Most sites are nutrient-poor grasslands situated in a rather cold, 

submontane climate, on acidic soils. 

Objectives 

Supporting threatened species via a more sensitive, site-specific 

approach to its habitat. Maintaining species-rich grasslands, increasing 

biodiversity, improving landscape connectivity and scenic value. 

Historical context 

Prior to 1960s Traditional management of grasslands as part of 

a fine-grained mosaic of land use (hay meadows, 

litter meadows, pastures, arable fields), interrupted 

by the expulsion of ethnic Germans in 1946 

and partial resettlement of the area. 

Establishment of large military training areas. 

A narrow strip along the Czech–German border 

remained depopulated. 

1960s–1989 Double effect of “agricultural collectivisation”, 

including on the one hand consolidation of allotments, 

ploughing of baulks, large-scale grassland 

reclamation, establishment of intensive dairy 

farms and even conversion of mountain meadows 

(up to 800 m in altitude) to arable fields, and on 

the other hand, abandonment of marginal land 

with subsequent successional changes. 

Complete loss of oligotrophic meadows was 

prevented by protection of parts of the area as 

balnaeologic water sources for (e.g. reduced use 

of agro-chemicals, local prevention of drainage) 

for nearby spas, establishment of two freshwater 

reservoirs, designation of the Slavkovský les 

PLA, and establishment of the Hradiště Military 

Training Area (disturbance by military activities 

preventing vegetation succession). 

1990–2001 In the years following the downfall of Communism, 

much of the land in mountainous and 

submontane conditions was abandoned. Parts of 

previously ploughed fields were re-seeded with 

grass mixtures and converted to hay meadows, 

while others were used as year-round cattle 

pastures. 

2001–present Monitoring the status of all known sites of the 

Marsh Fritillary, along with annual census of 

larval nests. 

Fig. 1. 

Grasslands 53

2002–2007 Intensive local surveys, monitoring of all known 

colonies. Increasing knowledge of the species 

habitat requirements and evidence of its vulnerability 

caused by uniform mowing of the 

grasslands. 

Accession to the EU increased financial support 

for grassland management (Agri-environmental 

schemes). However, payment provisions, requiring 

repeated mowing, have a destructive effect on 

the habitat of the butterfly on farmland. 

Present Most sites not located on farmland are managed 

by local conservation authorities or groups, 

respecting the need for environmentally-friendly, 

mosaic site management. 

The management of sites on farmland is gradually 

improving thanks to modifications of conditions 

in Agri-environmental schemes, which allow for 

patchy mowing varied in space and time. 

and left to succession, with stagnating or even decreasing local E. aurinia 

numbers (Fig. 3A). The last one third of sites, mostly managed 

under inappropriately designed Agri-environmental schemes, is still 

managed too intensively, again causing decreasing butterfly numbers 

(Fig. 3C). 

Moreover, long neglected grasslands can be restored using mosaic 

management approaches, as documented by cases of spontaneous 

recolonisation of temporarily extinct populations, such as the one 

shown in Fig. 2 (Zimmermann et al. 2010, 2011). 

Restoring heterogeneous (patchwork) management in submontane 

humid grasslands probably benefits other sensitive insect species 

as well, including other butterflies (e.g. Melitaea diamina, Boloria 

aquilonaris) and moths (Rhyparia purpurata, Lithacodia uncula). Its 

positive effect on vertebrates is demonstrated by the fact that Euphydryas 

aurinia sites serve as nesting grounds for birds such as Common 

Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Corn Crake (Crex crex) and Common 

Crane (Grus grus). 


The study was supported by the following grants and projects: 

Karlovy Vary District – D723/2007, monitoring of Natura 2000 species 

(Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic), MSMT 

LC-6073 and 6215648905, GACR P505/10/2167 and 206/08/H044, 

Institute of Entomology CAS – Z50070508, Faculty of Science USB 

– MSM 6007665801. 

Fig. 2. 

- 

 


— More sensitive mowing of sites where the butterfly occurs, while 

leaving some patches temporarily uncut until the next season 

(meadows), or by maintaining lower grazing livestock densities, 

while temporarily excluding grazing. 

— Gradual modification of Agri-environmental scheme provisions 

in the broad environs of the sites (leaving temporarily unmown 

patches, temporal variation in mowing dates). 

— Introduction of alternative farming methods which imitate traditional 

extensive methods: (1) strip mowing (suitable for larger 

areas where 10–20% of the area is left uncut, the position of the 

strips being altered with each mowing term), (2) mosaic mowing 

(suitable for small areas inaccessible to mechanisation), while 

rotating temporarily uncut patches and eliminating competitive 

species. 

— Individual (site-specific) approach for each locality. 

References 

Hula V., Konvička M., Pavlíčko A. & Fric Z. (2004): Marsh Fritillary 

(Euphydryas aurinia) in the Czech Republic: monitoring, metapopulation 

structure, and conservation of an endangered butterfly. 

– Entomologica Fennica 15: 231−241. 

Konvička M., Beneš J., Čížek O., Kopeček F., Konvička O. & Víťaz L. 

(2008): How too much care kills species: Grassland reserves, agrienvironmental 

schemes and extinction of Colias myrmidone butterfly 

from its former stronghold. – Journal of Insect Conservation 

12: 519–525. 

Konvička M., Hula V. & Fric Z. (2003): Habitat of pre-hibernating larvae 

of the endangered butterfly Euphydryas aurinia (Lepidoptera: 

Nymphalidae): What can be learned from vegetation composition 

and architecture? – European Journal of Entomology 100: 

313–322. 

Zimmermann K., Blažková P., Číž ek O., Fric Z., Hula V., Kepka P., 

Novotný D., Slámová I. & Konvička M. (2011): Adult demography 

in the Marsh fritillary butterfly, Euphydryas aurinia (Rottenburg, 

1775) in the Czech Republic: patterns across sites and seasons. – 

European Journal of Entomology 108: 243–253. 

Zimmermann K., Hula V., Fric Z. & Konvička M. (2010): Příběh 

evropsky významného druhu hnědáska chrastavcového: Devět 

let monitoringu a ochrany v západních Čechách (A butterfly of 

Community interest, the Marsh fritillary: Nine years of monitoring 

and conservation in Western Bohemia). – In: Brabec J. (ed.), 

Přírodní fenomény a zajímavosti západních Čech, pp. 85–99, 

Mezi Lesy, Prostiboř. 

Results 

Currently, about one third (area and number of sites) of E. aurinia 

colonies in the Czech Republic is being managed by conservation 

groups, using sensitive approaches as strip- or mosaic mowing, 

leaving parts of meadows temporarily uncut. These uncut patches 

ensure a high survival rate of larval nests, and subsequent increase 

of local densities (Fig. 3B). Another one third of sites are unmanaged 

54 Grasslands

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

B 

200 

150 

100 

50 

C 

0 

A 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

2012 

Fig. 3. - 

 

 

 

 

Grasslands 55

Optimising management at Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica sites 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Southwest and south Czech Republic 

48°49'–49°24' N, 13°22'–14°51' E; elevation 414–870 m 

PLA (Blanský les – 1 site), NP (Šumava – 1 site), NR (9 sites), SCI (all 13 sites) 

Broad spectrum of grassland types classified as Subatlantic broad-leaved dry grasslands (Bromion erecti), 

Extensive hay meadows (Arrhenatherion elatioris), Species-rich Nardus grasslands (Violion caninae), locally 

also dry grasslands on acidic soils (Koelerio-Phleion phleoidis) 

6.8 ha in total (13 sites) 

Regional Authority of the South Bohemian Region, Regional Authority of the Plzeň Region, landscape management 

programmes, Operational Programme Environment 

Initially €40,000 (elimination of shrubs and trees, site levelling, mowing or grazing, and turf disturbance); 

annually €10,000 (mowing once to twice or rotational grazing, turf disturbance) 


Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica is an endemic to the Bohemian 

massif and a Czech subendemic. Its historic distribution area 

includes the Czech Republic (most of the territory except W and 

NW Bohemia and SE and E Moravia), north Austria, the W part of 

Lower Bavaria and southernmost Poland. It is a strict biennial, which 

has been observed to decline radically in site number and population 

size (Königer et al. 2012). These changes are particularly connected 

with an overall decrease in pasture area and area of grassland 

enclaves, changes in agricultural practice, and habitat fragmentation. 

Since 2000 the taxon has been recorded at only 113 sites in its entire 

distribution area (70 of them in the Czech Republic). At 23 of them, 

however, not a single flowering plant has been recorded in the past 

five years. 

Our study focuses on SW and S Bohemia, including 50 recent localities 

(Fig. 1), where population abundance and site management 

have been monitored for more than 10 years. Assessment of the recovery 

of the populations was nevertheless carried out at only 13 sites, 

where high-quality cleanups were realized and suitable management 

was maintained at an optimal level for at least four years. 

The monitored sites had various starting conditions, not only 

in terms of the condition of the habitat, but also of the Gentianella 

praecox subsp. bohemica populations. Th ree sites were more or less 

regularly mown without turf disturbance; four were farmed very irregularly, 

which had led to a strong accumulation of living and dead 

biomass; six sites were overgrown by shrubs and trees or by planted 

pines (see Fig. 5). The average number of flowering plants three years 

5 

8 

6 

13 

6 

appropriate, more than 5 years 

appropriate, less than 5 years 

appropriate in part, irregular 

inappropriate 

no management 

eliminated 

Fig. 2. 

 

before restoration was zero at three sites, up to 20 at three, 20 to 100 

at four, and more than 100 at three sites. Based on studies of population-biological 

features (summarised by Brabec et al. 2011, Brabec & 

Zmeškalová 2011, Bucharová et al. 2012), it was considered useful to 

add more or less regular turf disturbance to the traditionally recommended 

regular farming of the sites by means of mowing or grazing. 

10 

Fig. 1. 

 

 


Chemical analyses of the soils showed a wide range of abiotic 

conditions at the monitored 13 sites. At a depth of ca. 5 cm the soil 

reaction varied from acidic (pH 4.7) to slightly basic (pH 7.7), which 

56 Grasslands

is correlated with the contents of Ca (661–7898 mg.kg -1 ) and Mg (52– 

1204 mg.kg -1 ) ions. The sites are poor to moderately rich in nutrients: 

total carbon content varied from 0.9 to 11.9%, nitrogen from 0.1 to 

0.8%, exchangeable phosphorus from 2.8 to 19.3 mg.kg -1 . 

Objectives 

Recovery and stabilisation of present Gentianella praecox subsp. 

bohemica populations. 


2000–2005 First experimental study of the impact of various 

types of management (no management, mowing, 

mowing and disturbance) and timing (June, 

October–November). Recommendations to nature 

conservation authorities included in action plan 

documents (Brabec 2003). 

2005–2008 Large-scale cleanup (9 cases) or optimisation (3 

cases) measures at various sites. In one case, a site 

had already been cleaned up in 1995 (0.1 ha). The 

cleanup included cutting of most shrubs and trees, 

whereby stumps were partly or completely pulled 

out; complete mowing and cleaning of the site, turf 

disturbance by harrowing or raking (see Fig. 5–8), in 

one case also levelling with light machines. 

2006–2011 Yearly repeated, optimised farming of the sites. 

Mesic grasslands: first cut May–June, second one October/November, 

turf disturbance by harrowing or 

raking up litter, or by performing a vertical cut at the 

end of October, in November or in early spring (not 

later than mid-April). 

Dry grasslands: one to three years after the cleanup 

mowing twice a year (May–June, October/November) 

and annual turf disturbance; following, a transition 

to one cut a year either in May–June or October/November 

and every other year turf disturbance 

by harrowing or raking up litter, or by performing a 

vertical cut at the end of October, in November or in 

early spring (not later than mid-April). 

1999–2011 Yearly monitoring of all known recent populations of 

Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica. 

2011 Endorsement of Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica 

Action Plan (see www.zachranneprogramy.cz), 

compilation of management principles (Brabec & 

Zmeškalová 2011) – emphasis on the importance of 

turf disturbance and regularity of management. 

Fig. 3. 

Results 

Population recovery was assessed at 13 sites. As shown in Fig. 4, 

site restoration and introduction of optimal management including 

turf disturbance led to a rapid (mostly several fold) increase in the 

number of flowering plants in the first three years in 10 cases. At two 

sites, where not more than one flowering plant per year appeared in a 

five-year period before the intervention, the populations could not be 

recovered. In one case the number of flowering plants first decreased 

slightly, after which the population began to increase slightly. 

log (number of flowering plants) 

4,0 

3,5 

3,0 

2,5 

2,0 

1,5 

1,0 

0,5 

0,0 

1 2 

Fig. 4. 

- 

- 

 

 

 


The previous recommended management of Gentianella praecox 

subsp. bohemica sites most often included regular mowing (leaving a 

relatively tall stand was often recommended in order not to damage 

young plants) or extensive grazing. However, when restoring, stabilising 

and maintaining sites, cutting as low as possible combined with 

raking up and removing all hay carefully, or intensive rotational grazing 

is necessary. The aim is to disturb the turf and create small gaps 

before the time of seed germination, which is each year at the turn of 

April and May. The management must not be carried out at the time 

of growth, flowering and seed ripening of the gentians, i.e. roughly 

from July to mid-October. Conversely, intensive farming (mowing 

twice a year, rotational grazing) from mid-October to the end of June 

in the following year is ideal. Although management in autumn and 

spring partly leads to disturbance of plant development (cutting off 

followed by compensational branching) and to direct destruction of 

rosette seedlings, at the same time it lowers competition and enables 

germination of seed from the short-term or long-term seedbank, 

which compensates for these losses by up to tenfold. As demonstrated 

in experimental studies (Brabec et al. 2011, Bucharová et al. 2012), 

germination of seed from the seedbank is the most important factor 

in the life cycle phase of this biennial taxon and at the same time the 

one best to be influenced by farming. 


The management of the 13 sites is organised by five different nature 

conservation bodies. As of 2011 all activities are coordinated by 

the Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic as part of the 

species action plan for this gentian. The actual cleanup and management 

is carried out by various actors – landowners (2 cases), tenants 

(1), private farmers (4), specialised fi rms (4), and NGOs (2). Espe- 

time 

3 

Grasslands 57

cially when starting regular management or optimising management, 

also work by volunteers at the sites was very important. This mostly 

included additional turf disturbance, but in two cases volunteers carried 

out the whole cleanup on their own and managed the site (with 

consent of the landowner) for three years. 


This work was supported by the grants GA UK 268/1999/B BIO/ 

PřF, MŠMT VaV 2B06178 and Nature Conservation Agency of the 

Czech Republic. 

References 

Brabec J. (2003): Studie hořečku mnohotvarého č eského (Gentianella 

praecox ssp. bohemica) jako podklad pro záchranný program 

taxonů rodu Gentianella v Č R (Study of Gentianella praecox 

ssp. bohemica as a basis for an action plan of Gentianella taxa in 

the Czech Republic). – Ms.; final report, Ministerstvo životního 

prostředí ČR, Praha. 

Brabec J., Bucharová A. & Štefánek M. (2011): Vliv obhospodařování 

na ž ivotní cyklus hořečku mnohotvarého č eského (Gentianella 

praecox subsp. bohemica) (Impact of management on the lifecycle 

of Gentianella praecox subsp. bohemica). – Příroda 31: 85–109. 

Brabec J. & Zmeškalová J. (eds) (2011): Zásady péče o lokality hořečku 

mnohotvarého českého (Principles of management of Gentianella 

praecox subsp. bohemica sites). – Agentura ochrany přírody a 

krajiny ČR and Muzeum Cheb, p. o. Karlovarského kraje, Praha. 

Bucharová A., Brabec J. & Münzbergová Z. (2012): Effect of land use 

and climate change on future fate of populations of an endemic 

species of central Europe. – Biological Conservation 145: 39–47. 

Königer J., Rebernig C.A., Brabec J., Kiehl K. & Greimler J. (2012): 

Spatial and temporal determinants of genetic structure in Gentianella 

bohemica. – Ecology and Evolution 2: 636–648. 

Fig. 5. 

 

 

Fig. 6. 

Fig. 7. 

Fig. 8. 

 

58 Grasslands

Restoration of sands as part of the Action Plan for Dianthus arenarius 

subsp. bohemicus 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Kleneč NR, near the town of Roudnice nad Labem, northwest Czech Republic 

50°23' N, 14°15' E; altitude 200–220 m 

NR, SCI, critically endangered species 

Open vegetation of inland sand dunes (Corynephorion canescentis) 

0.55 ha 

Landscape management programmes, EEA Financial Mechanism and Norwegian Financial Mechanism 

€44,320 (3-year total) 


Bohemian Sand Pink (Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus) is a 

heliophilous species growing in communities of open sand and grasslands 

on sandy soil. The subspecies is a critically endangered, endemic 

taxon occurring at only two localities in the Czech Republic. An essential 

condition for successful establishment of seedlings and their 

further development is open (disturbed) substrate, since the species is 

not able to withstand the competition of grasses and other competitive 

species of undisturbed habitats. 

The main causes of threat to Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus 

are (1) successional changes due to land use change, especially abandonment 

of traditional management methods, and (2) tree plantings 

of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) 

at Sand Pink sites from the 1940s. 

Fig. 2. - 

 

Various measures with the aim of preserving one of the two Dianthus 

arenarius subsp. bohemicus populations have been carried 

out at Kleneč since the end of the 1980s, when the condition of the 

site was already critical with no more than approx. 200 old tufts of 

the plant. Activities realised included both direct reinforcement of 

the population by adding plants grown in culture (originating from 

seeds collected at Kleneč) and by direct seeding. Habitat management 

was carried out as well, including the elimination of shrubs, trees and 

competitive grasses, topsoil disturbance and mowing (in accordance 

with the management plan of the site), but without significant success. 

In the late 1990s, only two hundred old plant tufts were left and it 

was uncertain whether the species could be preserved for the Czech 

flora. 

Fig. 1. 

 


The physical composition of the substrate is one of the most important 

ecological factors for successful development of Dianthus arenarius 

subsp. bohemicus populations. When gravel-sand is covered by 

a layer of humus, growth of competitive grasses is facilitated, causing 

senescence and gradual decline of the sand Pink population. This humus 

layer was formed during years without grazing or mowing, and 

facilitated self-seeding trees and shrubs to colonise the habitat. 

Chemical analyses (to a depth of ca. 5 cm) indicated strongly acidic 

to very strongly acidic soils (pH 3.43–5.38), depending on the depth 

of the humus layer. Organic matter content varied between 0.62 and 

5.3%, total N between 0.58 and 0.261%, and phosphates between 3.8 

and 44.8 mg.kg -1 (Macurová et al. 2008). 

Grasslands 59

Objectives 

Creating suitable conditions for the development of Dianthus arenarius 

subsp. bohemicus and its population at Kleneč. 


1999 The humus layer was removed to a depth of 20–40 cm 

reaching the gravel-sand substrate in a section of about 

1,500 m 2 . This intervention was proposed rather intuitively 

and opened a way to save Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus 

for the world flora. Many seedlings appeared on the 

bare sand substrate in the following years. 

2008 The Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus Action Plan 

was approved by the Czech Ministry of the Environment, 

which enabled financial support for following restoration 

measures. 

Pedological survey (Macurová et al. 2008), focusing on 

the stratigraphy of individual layers, was carried out. This 

survey allowed for selection of the most suitable places to 

remove the humus layer in the following years. 

2009 Mechanical removal of the humus layer was repeated in 

another section of about 1,500 m 2 next to the first, already 

restored one. This measure was performed at the turn of 

the summer and autumn, according to the demands of the 

insect fauna found at the locality in a survey (2008–2009), 

because in this period the insects are active and can leave 

an area if it is disturbed. 

2010 The humus layer was removed from another two smaller 

sections with a total area of about 2,500 m 2 . 


 

— Mosaic mowing twice a year according to insect fauna demands, 

i.e. the area is not mown in one go, but is divided into four-metre 

wide strips of which every other one is mown four weeks later 

than the first one. 

— Removing competitive tree saplings. 

— Disturbing the soil surface (not in the restored area). 

 

When the humus layer is removed down to the gravel-sand substrate, 

no management is needed for 5 years after restoration. No later 

than 10 years afterwards, regular management (mowing, removing 

tree seedlings, disturbances) must begin. 

When the humus layer is deeper than the removed surface, mowing 

should start the first year after restoration. 

2500 

2000 

1500 

1000 

500 

0 

200 

830 

1400 

2100 

1999 2005 2008 2011 

Fig. 4. 

Fig. 5. 

 

After restoration of the habitat in 2009 and 2010, seeds of Dianthus 

arenarius subsp. bohemicus were sown in a planned experimental 

design, after which germination and survival rate all quadrats were 

monitored three times during the season. The dataset from this experiment 

will be used for population modelling in 2012. 

Results 

Monitoring of Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus (see Fig. 3) 

shows that the restoration measures have resulted in an increase in 

its population size. Before restoration all sowing experiments were 

unsuccessful, after the restoration sowing success was almost 5% 

(expressed as the ratio of number of one-year old seedlings to sown 

seeds, Špalová 2010). 

References 

Bělohoubek J. (2008): Action Plan for the Bohemian Sand Pink (Dianthus 

arenarius subsp. bohemicus (Novák) O. Schwarz). – Agentura 

ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Ústí nad Labem. (Available at: 

http://www.nature.cz/publik_syst2/files/hvozdik_aj.pdf) 

Macurová H., Janderková J., Sedláček J. & Petruš J. (2008): Základní 

rozbory půdy a pedologické poměry v NPP Kleneč (Basic soil 

analysis and pedological conditions in Kleneč NNM). – Ms.; final 

report, Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Špalová Z. (2010): Populační dynamika druhu Dianthus arenarius 

subsp. bohemicus z roku 2010 (Population dynamics of Dianthus 

arenarius subsp. bohemicus in 2010). – Ms.; final report, Agentura 


Fig. 3. 

 

 

60 Grasslands

Restoration of the alpine tundra ecosystem above the timberline in the 

Giant Mountains 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Giant Mountains (Krkonoše Mts.), ridges above the timberline, north Czech Republic, near the border with 

Poland 

50°41'–50°48' N, 15°29'–15°47' E; altitude 1250–1600 m 

NP, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, SCI, SPA 

Mosaics of different types of alpine non-forest vegetation, mostly made up of native Pinus mugo scrub 

(Pinion mugo), alpine grasslands (Nardo strictae-Caricion bigelowii, Nardion strictae and Calamagrostion 

villosae), alpine and subalpine dwarf-shrub vegetation (Loiseleurio procumbentis-Vaccinion and Genisto 

pilosae-Vaccinion) and subalpine tall-herb vegetation (Adenostylion alliariae and Dryopterido filicis-maris- 

Athyrion distentifolii) 

43 ha 

Operational Programme Environment, landscape management programmes 

€4,800–22,000/ha, depending on technology and accessibility of the locality 


Mountain Pine (Pinus mugo) stands are among the most important 

vegetation types of the Giant Mountains. Native and planted Pinus 

mugo shrubs cover 1500 ha and 680 ha of the mountain ridges, respectively. 

Pine saplings were planted during two periods (1879–1913 

and 1952–1992) on an area of 550 ha above the timberline and 125 ha 

below the timberline, respectively. The aim was to return mountain 

ridge ecosystems back to their original state, which (according to foresters) 

had been affected by human impact for several centuries (see 

e.g. Lokvenc 1995, Lokvenc 2002). 

Results of research into the local tundra ecosystem (Soukupová 

et al. 1995, Štursa et al. 2010) suggest that the dense, regularly placed 

Pinus mugo plantations dating from the second half of the 20 th century 

are considerably different from natural Pinus mugo cover, e.g. 

the plantations are dense and have a regular spatial and age structure 

(Vaněk 1999, 2004, Soukupová et al. 2002), and that the plantations 

have negative effects on site conditions. Most significantly, the area 

of open tundra diminishes, and many plant and animal species occurring 

in these open areas decline or disappear. Planted Pinus mugo 

shrubs also cause damage to geomorphological phenomena, e.g. levelling 

of the natural microrelief of frost-sorted soils. The plantations 

also affect microclimatic conditions (for examples, see e.g. Sekyra et 

al. 2002). 

These studies not only led to the end of artificial plantations in 

1992, but also to a new management plan aimed at integrating the 

new plantations into the tundra environment and thus maintaining 

the geobiodiversity of this unique site (Harčarik 2007). The plan proposes 

a reduction in cover of 10–90% on 180 ha of the most recent 

Pinus mugo plantations according to microlocality and e.g. condition 

of the plantations, ruderalisation, and presence of native Pinus 

mugo shrubs. Approximately 110 ha of these plantations should not 

be changed (Harčarik 2007). 

Fig. 1. 

Grasslands 61

Objectives 

— Mimic the natural structure of Pinus mugo stands by selective removal 

of recent Pinus mugo plantations. 

— Restore natural processes (e.g. microclimate dynamics, snow distribution). 

— Maintain or even restore the geobiodiversity of the tundra ecosystem. 


1982 Removal of approximately 1 ha of Pinus mugo plantations 

(Štursa, pers. comm.) 

1994 Removal of 0.72 ha of the plantations in monitoring 

plots. 

1997 Reduction of Pinus mugo plantations on 1 ha. 

2005–2008 Reduction of Pinus mugo plantations at Pančavská 

louka (3 ha) aimed not only at restoring the habitat 

itself but also at testing the most suitable restoration 

technology (i.e. with minimum environmental 

impact, e.g. manual work, low-noise machinery). 

2010–2011 Reduction in cover of 10–90 % on 37.7 ha of Pinus 

mugo plantations at Pančavská louka and Labská 

louka. 

Management monitoring 

— 1997, 1999, 2009 and 2010 – monitoring of changes in microrelief 

of the tundra soils on Mt. Studniční hora. 

— Since 2005 – monitoring of spontaneous succession including 

Mountain Arnica (Arnica montana) at Pančavská louka in places 

where Pinus mugo was removed. 

— Since 2011 – monitoring of spatial distribution of Pinus mugo and 

selected endangered plant species in permanent plots at Pančavská 

louka and Labská louka (established in the years 1995 and 1998). 

Results 

At localities where Pinus mugo plantations were reduced, plots 

have been established to monitor e.g. changes in microrelief of tundra 

soils, shift of “floating” stones, microclimate changes, and succession 

after Pinus mugo removal. Preliminary results confirm a relatively 

rapid colonisation of the microsites opened by Pinus mugo removal 

with natural vegetation from the vicinity. This includes some rare or 

endangered species, e.g. Hieracium alpinum agg., Arnica montana 

and Carex bigelowii (Fig. 5). The data show changes in abundance of 

Hieracium alpinum agg. and Arnica montana in the permanent plots 

at Pančavská louka. The abundance of Hieracium alpinum agg. was 

re-estimated in 2011, ten years after its first monitoring (Pašťálková 

2006), six years after the Pinus mugo removal. The abundance of Arnica 

montana has been estimated yearly since it colonised the plots 

after Pinus mugo removal. Synantropic species have not spread to the 

open microsites at any of the monitored localities. 


We have examined the most ‘nature-friendly’ management measures 

during the reduction of Pinus mugo shrubs realised so far. It is 

confirmed that reduction of after-war Pinus mugo plantations in the 

proposed extent can be realised and economically justified. Th is is 

true despite the large proportion of manual work and use of costly 

technologies (transfer of part of the Pinus mugo biomass by helicopter, 

woodchipping, etc.). 

Figs. 2, 3, 4. - 

 

62 Grasslands

about the project by the public. Information and thorough explanation 

of the reasons why the project was realised convinced most of the 

visitors about its necessity and meaningfulness. We hope that this will 

remain true also in future. 


Data collection and analysis were fi nanced by the following 

funds: WWF Grant No. MMO3, MŽP Č R GA 1573/94, MŽP ČR 

VaV/620/4/97, MŽP VaV/610/3/00. 

Fig. 5. 

 

 

 


It has been clear from the beginning that reduction of Pinus mugo 

plantations is a controversial activity in the eyes of the public. Therefore 

the aims of the project need to be explained thoroughly. The 

main management work has been situated in the Core Zone of the 

Krkonoše NP, where no human intervention is preferred. Moreover, 

the Core Zone has the strictest rules for visitors. The situation is even 

more complicated because of the indigenous nature of Pinus mugo in 

the Giant Mts. However, long discussions with foresters in the preparatory 

phase of the management plan have led to general understanding 

and acceptance of the project among experts. Realisation of 

the measures in the years 2010–2011 also helped testing the opinion 

Fig. 6. 

 

 

References 

Harčarik J. (2007): Management výsadeb kleče na přírodovědně hodnotných 

lokalitách v Krkonoších (Management of Pinus mugo 

plantations at biologically valuable sites in the Krkonoše Mts.). – 

Opera Corcontica 44: 363–369. 

Lokvenc T. (1995): Analýza antropogenně podmíněných změn 

porostů dřevin klečového stupně v Krkonoších (Analysis of anthropogenic 

changes in Pinus mugo stands in the Krkonoše Mts.). 

– Opera Corcontica 32: 99–114. 

Lokvenc T. (2002): History of the Giant Mts.’ dwarf pine (Pinus mugo 

Turra ssp. pumilio Franco). – Opera Corcontica 38: 21–42. 

Pašťálková H. (2006): Vegetační dynamika v porostech kleče horské 

v Krkonoších (Vegetation dynamics of Pinus mugo stands in the 

Krkonoše Mts.). – Ms.; Ph.D. thesis, Správa Krkonošského národního 

parku, Vrchlabí. 

Sekyra J., Kociánová M., Štursová H., Kalenská J., Dvořák I. & Svoboda 

M. (2002): Frost phenomena in relationship to mountain 

pine. – Opera Corcontica 39: 69–114. 

Soukupová L., Frantík T. & Jeník J. (2002): Grasslands versus krummholz 

in arctic-alpine tundra of the Giant Mountains. – Opera Corcontica 

38: 63–76. 

Soukupová L., Kociánová M., Jeník J. & Sekyra J. (eds) (1995): Arcticalpine 

tundra in the Krkonoše, the Sudetes. – Opera Corcontica 

32: 5–88. 

Štursa J., Jeník J. & Kociánová M. (2010): Geo-ekologické srovnání 

tundry ve středoevropských Krkonoších a subarktickém pohoří 

Abisko (Švédsko) (Geo-ecological comparison of tundra in the 

central European Krkonoše Mts. and the subarctic Abisko range 

(Sweden)). – Opera Corcontica 47: 7–28. 

Vaněk J. (ed.) (1999): Ovlivnění tundrových geobiocenóz Krkonoš 

vysokohorským zalesňováním (Impact of afforestation on tundra 

geobiocenoses of the Krkonoše Mts.). – Ms.; final report of 

MŽP ČR VaV/620/4/97, Správa Krkonošského národního parku, 

Vrchlabí). 

Vaněk J. (ed.) (2004): Komplexní analýza dlouhodobých změn 

krkonošské tundry (Comprehensive analysis of long-term 

changes of the Krkonoše tundra). – Ms.; final report of MŽP ČR 

VaV/610/3/00, Správa Krkonošského národního parku, Vrchlabí). 

Grasslands 63

Wetlands and streams

Introduction 

 

Restoration of the natural character of wetlands and streams and 

their ecological functions in the landscape is a growing trend (e.g. 

Verdonschot & Nijboer 2002, Palmer et al. 2005, Dudgeon et al. 2006). 

The main drivers of this trend are the serious consequences of disturbed 

ecological structure and processes, which have an impact on 

landscape hydrology, nutrient cycles and biodiversity. Moreover, these 

impacts directly affect the lives of humans, for example by increasing 

the frequency of extreme flood events. 

The history of human impacts on streams and wetlands in the 

Czech Republic is similar to the situation in the rest of Europe in 

many aspects. Since the Middle Ages, the natural character of streams 

and rivers has been changed by the construction of weirs and races, 

and large obstacles have been removed from riverbeds (Cílek 2002, 

Just et al. 2005). River engineering works mainly dealing with large 

watercourses boomed in the 19 th century. At that time, the first flood 

control works and works to make the Elbe and Moldau rivers navigable 

were carried out. Also the first regulation works of small streams 

and related drainage aimed at acquiring more agricultural land appeared 

(Just et al. 2005). As early as the 1940s, subsurface pipes were 

introduced, later becoming the most frequent drainage method of agricultural 

land in Bohemia (Vašků 2011). 

Both stream regulation and other interventions in the landscape 

hydrology continued with growing intensity in the 20 th century. During 

the second half, these measures were supported by socialist farming 

methods causing further extensive changes in the landscape. This 

was the main period of large-scale drainage and small stream regu- 

Fig. 1. 

 

Fig. 2. 

lation linked with collectivisation and intensification of farming. All 

these interventions culminated in the 1970s and 80s, when they also 

reached marginal and less productive regions. Thus, many valuable 

natural sites were destroyed (Just et al. 2005), often without producing 

the expected economic benefits. Most of these activities (e.g. largescale 

drainage) were reduced or ceased after the political changes at 

the beginning of the 1990s. However, the technical approach, both to 

watercourse management and the role of wetlands in the landscape, 

is still deeply entrenched, especially with water management authorities 

and the agricultural sector, making changes slow. This has become 

evident, for example, after the extreme floods affecting the Czech Republic 

during the last 20 years (1997, 2002), when strictly technical 

flood prevention was promoted again. 

Due to this development, the current state of watercourses and 

wetlands in the Czech Republic is unfavourable and about a quarter 

of agricultural land is drained by subsurface pipes. In 1995, more than 

a million hectares of land drained this way was registered (1,064,999 

ha, Kulhavý et al. 2006). An additional 450 thousand hectares were 

probably drained but remained unregistered for various reasons. Only 

350 thousand hectares of wetlands have remained undrained from the 

original extent of about 1300 thousand ha recorded in the 1950s (Just 

et al. 2005). In 1989 a total of 14,167 km of regulated small streams 

and 11,712 km of drainage channels (both open and piped) were registered 

(Vašků 2011). The total length of watercourses (76,000 km), 

particularly larger streams and rivers, has been reduced by one third, 

and regulated watercourses now account for about 21 thousand km 

(Simon et al. 2008). Natural large watercourses have become rare and 

almost unknown in the Czech Republic (Prach et al. 2003). 

The extensive changes in the aquatic environment between the 

ends of the 19 th and 20 th centuries clearly exceeded the level of sustainability. 

Besides a considerable loss of natural values and biodiversity, 

these changes have led to an acceleration of both ordinary and flood 

discharge from the landscape, a rise in flood risk and damage caused 

by extreme fl oods, reducing groundwater resources and increased 

impacts of dry periods, and also to increased nutrient wash-off from 

soils and deteriorated self-purification processes in the landscape 

(Just et al. 2005). Awareness of the need for restoration as a corrective 

tool is now apparent, not only among experts or special-interest 

groups, but also the public. 

Wetlands and streams 67

Restoration of streams and their floodplains 

The main goal of stream and river restoration is improvement 

of their ecological state and renewal of functions lost after technical 

regulations. In many cases, such a renewal proceeds spontaneously 

by renaturalisation – e.g. by gradual filling of the bed with washed-off 

material, encroachment of vegetation and decaying technical water 

works. Although a long-term process, spontaneous renaturalisation 

may have a significant overall restoration effect, if not interrupted by 

repeated servicing (Just et al. 2005). It rather works in small streams 

with a simple infrastructure (e.g. in channelised but not reinforced 

beds), however sudden post-flood processes can also affect larger watercourses. 

Even though spontaneous renaturalisation is important in regenerating 

the landscape and needs support, a natural state of most 

watercourses and their floodplains can only be achieved by technical 

measures, initiating and allowing for natural processes. This is particularly 

necessary in strongly affected streams (with strongly deepened, 

reinforced beds) and in nearly all larger regulated watercourses. 

Successful restoration should not merely result in rehabilitation of 

the natural stream geomorphology, but also in renewal of its dynamics, 

including floods and bed formation, reconnection of the stream 

with its floodplain, and increase in diversity along the entire river corridor. 

Subsequently biodiversity should be improved, natural functions 

and ecosystem services of freshwaters regenerated (see e.g. Haslam 

2008), and water retention of the landscape increased by natural 

processes without any additional costs. 

Stream restoration became a reality in the Czech Republic in 1992 

thanks to establishment of the national River System Restoration Programme 

by the Ministry of the Environment. In the beginning, restoration 

efforts encountered many problems, amongst others misapprehension 

by some watercourse authorities. Experience from more 

progressive European countries were not fully applied here and even 

the idea of removing reinforcements in streams was hardly accepted 

during the first years of restoration. Finances were seldom invested in 

stream course restoration but commonly used for the (re)construction 

of small reservoirs, mostly ponds. This approach was often reprehensible, 

because technical reservoirs rather than natural habitats 

were restored this way. 

Although nation-wide support of stream restoration was declared 

by the state already in the 1990s (State Nature Conservation and 

Landscape Protection Programme, 1998), real stream course restoration 

first appeared around 2000. Especially the restoration of the small 

Borová stream was a milestone in our understanding of restoration 

as an important flood control measure. At this site, the former channelised, 

artificial bed was replaced by a new near-natural, meandering 

stream. This restored streambed resisted the following extreme onehundred-year 

flood (2001) with just small morphological changes and 

moreover, the flood peak at the end of the stream profile was about 

20% lower than expected before restoration (Matoušek 2002). Another 

important work of that time was the restoration of floodplain forests 

at the confluence of the Morava and Dyje rivers in south Moravia. 

Although regular spring flooding was rehabilitated here by a rather 

Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. 

- 

 

68 Wetlands and streams

Figs. 7, 8. 

technical reconstruction of channels in the forest, the whole complex 

of re-flooded forests retained about 60 million m 3 of water during the 

extreme flood in 1997 and thus significantly contributed to a reduction 

of flood damage downstream (Prach et al. 2003). 

More projects dealing with stream course restoration have been 

realised since 2000, but design of shallow streambeds with a low flow 

rate has been promoted only rarely. On the contrary, over-dimensioned 

(resulting from fears that too small streambeds cannot hold 

enough water), less diverse and too tidy streambeds were the norm 

at the beginning. Only later, spontaneous vegetation succession was 

supported and some basic rules were accepted, such as: (i) no restoration 

without removal of reinforcements, and (ii) restoration of a 

broad river corridor is better than mere streambed restoration. Locally, 

municipalities played an important role in acquiring the land 

needed for more comprehensive stream restoration including strips of 

adjacent alluvial wetlands. Their interest was however in many cases 

conditioned by pond building or reconstruction. 

Another milestone was the year 2007, when important subsidies 

were facilitated through the Operational Programme Environment 

(from the group of EU funds). Although at the start, due to badly set 

financial rules, the same faults of supporting pond restoration were 

made as before, the proportion of real stream course restoration has 

grown. A positive effect of the EU Water Framework Directive is also 

evident. Water management authorities are involved now, and restoration 

measures are already incorporated in their plans. 

Thanks to this, the first proposals to restore larger watercourses 

are being made, although the authorities are still limited by problems 

with acquiring the necessary land and by unresolved rules for the use 

of areas restored outside the actual streambed. Again a pioneer role 

has been played by the South Bohemian Region, where the Moldau 

Catchment authority has restored a section of the Polečnice stream 

near Kájov, a larger watercourse with a rather dynamic flow regime. 

Also a large project aimed at restoring a long section of the Stropnice 

stream at Nové Hrady is being prepared. Simultaneously smaller projects 

are being realised, e.g. restoration of the Černý potok stream (described 

in the case study “Restoration of the Černý potok stream”) in 

the Krušné hory Mts. and rehabilitation of an inappropriately drained 

area with a capillary stream at Domašín near Vlašim (2011). 

An important part of these restoration projects, from the viewpoint 

of biodiversity, is securing the passability of the stream for 

migrating organisms. The Operational Programme Environment 

has financed a range of structures supporting the continuity of watercourses 

with fish bypasses (e.g. at weirs on the Blanice rivers at 

Vlašim). An example of a fish bypass construction and its impact on 

the biodiversity of the watercourse is described in the case study “Revitalising 

effects of a near-natural bypass at a migration barrier on the 

Blanice river”. A new element in restoration projects is the building of 

near-natural streambeds in towns and villages aimed at flood control, 

planned in e.g. the Moldau floodplain in Prague-Karlín and Prague- 

Libeň, and on the Blanice river in Vlašim. 

It can be concluded that restoration of small stream courses, 

mainly aimed at reinstating the natural geomorphology and stream 

route, currently prevails in the Czech Republic. These are often local 

Fig. 9. 

 


projects dealing with sections of just a few hundred metres (mainly 

older projects) or in the best case a few kilometres. It is a positive point 

that, especially in the latest projects, knowledge about river morphology 

is increasingly being applied, whereby the original route, as well 

as the shape of the streambed, is restored by shallowing bottoms, and 

by diversifying banks, bottoms, the natural substrate (including small 

geomorphological elements) and stream gradients. Restoration works 

on larger rivers which include conspicuous geomorphological elements 

(e.g. eroded riverbanks, sand- and gravel-banks or islets) are, 

just as restoration of complete floodplains, still rare. 

Usually, only a little amount of large woody debris is left in the 

beds of restored streams or it is fixed due to fears for the damage it 

could cause during floods. These components not only influence the 

diversity as a whole, but also functional processes linked to water retention 

and the capture of nutrients and their return into the system 

(Prach et al. 2003, Giller & Malmqvist 2008, Bukaveckas 2007). 

A very important aspect of watercourse restoration is natural 

flooding. Even if many restoration projects in the Czech Republic renew 

the natural course of a streambed, natural dynamics and flooding 

were until recently reduced by various measures (e.g. reinforcing 

banks or strongly deepening the streambed), but due to ownership 

problems with the surrounding land, flooding has not been dealt with. 

However, fl ooding contributes to water retention of the river landscape 

and decreases flood waves (Langhammer & Vilímek 2004). It is 

also an important mechanism in capturing nutrients and sediments, 

and maintains the dynamics, habitat biodiversity and floodplain biodiversity 

(Prach et al. 2003). 

A shortcoming of the practice so far is that restoration works are 

still badly coordinated and flood control is usually conceived strictly 

technically. At several sites, natural elements spontaneously created 

after extreme floods were even removed again (e.g. Litavka river 2002). 

The attention of water management and nature conservation 

should not be directed to costly restoration projects only. They should 

be comprehensive, directed at limiting negative influences within 

the entire catchment and more frequent use of spontaneous renaturalisation 

processes. The point is that there is a broad scope of various 

‘lighter’ and more economical measures supporting natural processes 

between costly restoration projects and spontaneous renaturalisation 

of watercourses. 

At present it is hardly stressed that restoration of a watercourse 

and its surroundings may, besides improving landscape and fl ood 

control, also have a positive socio-economic effect by attracting 

visitors and tourists, especially around larger towns and in lowlands 

where agriculture has eliminated all near-natural ecosystems. This has 

been observed after finishing large restoration projects as well after 

spontaneous renaturalisation caused by the heavy floods of 1997 and 

2002. 

Restoration of other wetlands in the landscape 

Appreciation for wetlands and their landscape functions is gradually 

growing also in our country, resulting in wetland restoration 

projects being more frequently implemented during the past two 

decades. The available subsidy programmes such as the River System 

Restoration Programme, landscape management programmes and 

the current EU funds have played an important part in this process. 

Fig. 10. 


Figs. 11, 12. 

 

 

Among restoration projects focusing on wetlands in the Czech 

Republic, partial renewal or regeneration of existing wetland habitats 

prevail. These projects often include local restoration of small natural 

water bodies or pools as appropriate habitats supporting amphibians 

and other wetland fauna of still, shallow waters. 

In many cases this approach is also used when restoring later successional 

stages of alluvial pools terrestrialised due to isolation from 

the stream and regular flood pulses. Monitoring in the Litovelské Pomoraví 

region has showed that restored habitats are quickly colonised 

and increase the diversity of water invertebrates in the area (Šmaková 

& Rulík 2000). Construction or renewal of shallow pools is also frequently 

included in nature-friendly restoration of some stone quarries 

and sandpits (in e.g. the Moravian Karst and the Třeboň Basin). These 

restoration measures are mainly important for their support of rare 

species or communities and general improvement of biodiversity. A 

positive effect on the local hydrology is evident as well. Another very 

frequent type of project is the restoration of wetland habitats linked 

with man-made structures, such as natural littorals and marshes 

around ponds, and the bottoms of polders in flood areas. Besides state 

institutions (Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic) also 

several NGOs (namely the Czech Union for Nature Conservation) 

participate in restoring shallow pools. 

 

Especially in recent years, thanks to suitable subsidies (landscape 

management programmes, Agri-environmental schemes), meadow 

fens are commonly and rather successfully restored by reintroducing 

management (most often manual mowing and shrub removal). 

These measures are primarily aimed at supporting valuable communities 

and species richness of mostly slightly to moderately disturbed 

sites, often situated in national parks, protected landscape areas and 

nature reserves. Restoration by suppressing competitive plant species 

and later successional stages with shrubs and trees is mainly applied 

to various wet Cirsium meadows, Filipendula grasslands, acidic mossrich 

fen meadows, wet Molinia grasslands, continental inundated 

meadows, and also tufa springs and inland salt marshes (Hájková et 

al. 2009). Although these projects do usually not deal with hydrologically 

destroyed wetlands and do not include rehabilitation of the 

water regime, they are extremely important for biodiversity. Detailed 

examples are given in the case studies ‘Experimental restoration and 

subsequent degradation of an alluvial meadow’ and ‘Restoration 

management of wetland meadows in the Podblanicko region’ in the 

‘Grassland’ section. 

More important for the overall water regime in the landscape 

are projects restoring natural hydrological conditions of area-wide 

drained, strongly degraded wetlands in agricultural landscapes. These 

projects are however less frequent, the main limitations being land 

ownership and persisting intensive farming on drained land. Also 

registered draining equipment (especially drainpipes), which has to 

be maintained according to law, is a complication. Attempts to restore 

the water regime of wetlands on farmland moreover conflicts with 

farmers’ interests supported by other landscape management subsidies 

(Agri-environmental schemes), paradoxically also in nature reserves. 

In spite of that, several projects aimed at complete removal 

of drainpipes on farmland have recently been realised, many of them 

connected to the restoration of small channelised streams and agricultural 

landscapes (e.g. Domašín near Vlašim, Ploučnice river). 

Fig. 13. 

 

 


Mires are restored relatively often in the Czech Republic. Although 

not very common, they receive great attention thanks to their 

high biodiversity value. Yet, mire restoration may include the rather 

complicated rehabilitation of strongly damaged industrially exploited 

raised bogs (see case study ‘Restoration of the mined peatbog Soumarský 

Most’), but also the recovery of non-exploited sites mostly 

degraded by draining (case study ‘Restoration of drained mires in the 

Šumava National Park’). In both cases the key measure to be taken is 

restoring the natural water regime (raising the groundwater level and 

stabilising it, restoring natural draining, and retaining sufficient water 

in dry periods) in order to restart the peat-forming process and reinstate 

the ecological functions and structures of the mire. Restoring 

mires is best realised as part of water regime remediation in a catchment, 

not separately. It is also important for these habitats to maintain 

the environment at an appropriate low trophy and carry the work out 

sensitively by exceptionally using heavy machinery. In addition to the 

positive impacts on biodiversity and landscape hydrology, mire restoration 

is also important from the viewpoint of the carbon cycle and 

release of greenhouse gases (Charman 2002). 

In the past 20 years a range of successful peatbog restoration projects 

have been carried out in the Šumava Range, the Ore Mountains, 

the Jizera Mountains, Třeboňsko, Slavkovský les and the Giant Mountains 

(Lanta et al. 2006). 

In conclusion, many watercourse and wetland restoration projects 

have been realised in the Czech Republic over the past 20 years, although 

their proportion is still very low in relation to the total area of 

disturbed and degraded sections and areas. One of the reasons for this 

is that, although such projects help the landscape as well as the human 

society to function in a sound way, their impact on the involved landowners 

or the local community is not immediately positive. Moreover, 

assessments of the pros and cons are often disputed and cannot 

always be quantified for a lack of concrete data. Combining ecosystem 

services and assessing them in a holistic way would certainly be beneficial. 

The total benefit expressed also in economic (financial) figures 

might then be evident and convincing to decision-makers (Turner et 

al. 2008, Pithart et al. 2010). 

References 

Bukaveckas P. (2007): Effect of channel restoration on water velocity, 

transient storage, and nutrient uptake in a channelized stream. – 

Environmental Science & Technology 41: 1570–1576. 

Charman D. (2002): Peatlands and environmental change. – John 

Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester. 

Cílek V. (2002): Krajiny vnější a vnitřní (Internal and external landscape). 

– Dokořán, Praha. 

Dudgeon D., Arthington A.H., Gessner M.O., Kawabata Z.-I., Knowler 

D.J., Lévêque C., Naiman R.J., Prieur-Richard A.-H., Soto D., 

Stiassny M.L.J. & Sullivan C.A. (2006): Freshwater biodiversity: 

importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. – Biological 

Reviews 81: 163–182. 

Giller P.S. & Malmqvist B. (2008): The biology of streams and rivers. – 

Oxford University Press, New York. 

Hájková P., Hájek M. & Kintrová K. (2009): How can we effectively 

restore species richness and natural composition of a Moliniainvaded 

fen? – Journal of Applied Ecology 46: 417–425. 

Haslam H.W. (2008): The riverscape and the river. – Cambridge University 

Press, New York. 

Just T., Matoušek V., Dušek M., Fischer D. & Karlík P. (2005): 

Vodohospodářské revitalizace a jejich uplatnění v ochraně před 

povodněmi (Restoration of watercourses and their application in 

flood control). – 3. ZO ČSOP Hořovicko, Praha. 

Kulhavý Z., Soukup M., Doležal F. & Čmelík M. (2006): Zemědělské 

odvodnění drenáží. Racionalizace využívání, údržby a oprav (Agricultural 

draining. Rationalising its use, maintenance and repair). 

– Výzkumný ústav meliorací a ochrany půdy, Praha. 

Langhammer J. & Vilímek V. (2004): Vliv antropogenních změn na 

průběh a následky povodní (Impact of anthropogenic changes 

on the course and consequences of floods). – In: Herber V. (ed.), 

Sborník 20. Výroční konference fyzickogeografické sekce ČGS, 

Přírodovědecká fakulta MU, Brno. 

Lanta V., Mach J. & Holcová V. (2006): The effect of dam construction 

on the restoration succession of spruce mires in the Giant Mountains 

(Czech Republic). – Annales Botanici Fennici 43: 260–268. 

Fig. 14. 


Fig. 15. 

Matoušek V. (2002): Stoletá povodeň na revitalizovaném potoce 

Borová (One-hundred-year flood on the restored Borová stream). 

– Vodní hospodářství 52/10: 5–11, příloha VTEI. 

Palmer M.A., Bernhardt E.S., Allan J.D., Alexander G., Brooks S., Carr 

J., Clayton S., Dahm C.N., Shah J.F., Galat D.L., Gloss S., Goodwin 

P., Hart D.D., Hassett B., Jenkinson R., Kondolf G.M., Lave 

R., Meyer J.L., O’Donnell T.K., Pagano L. & Sudduth E. (2005): 

Standards for ecologically successful river restoration. – Journal 

of Applied Ecology 42: 208–217. 

Pithart D., Křováková K., Žaloudík J., Dostál T., Valentová J., Valenta 

P., Weyskrabová J. & Dušek J. (2010): Ecosystem services of natural 

fl oodplain segment – Lužnice River, Czech Republic. – In: 

Brebie C. (ed.), Flood recovery, innovation and response II, pp. 

129–139, WIT Press, Southampton (UK). 

Prach K., Pithart D. & Francírková T. (2003): Ekologické funkce a 

hospodaření v říčních nivách (Ecological functioning and management 

in river floodplains). – Botanický ústav AV ČR, Třeboň. 

Simon O., Fiala D., Kožený P. & Fricová K. (2008): Zdroj, transformace 

a transport přirozeného POC – jako ekosystémová služba 

přirozené říční nivy? (Resources, transformation and transport of 

the natural particulate organic carbon – ecosystem service of the 

alluvium?). – In: Pithart D., Benedová Z. & Křováková K. (eds), 

Ekosystémové služby říční nivy, Sborník příspěvků z konference 

28.–30. 4. 2008 Třeboň, pp. 191–199, Ústav systémové biologie a 

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Šmaková A. & Rulík M. (2000): Vývoj oživení v nově vytvořených 

tůních v CHKO Litovelské Pomoraví (Succession of biota in the 

new created pools in the Litovelské Pomoraví PLA). – In: Pithart 

D. (ed.), Sborník příspěvků z konference „Ekologie aluviálních 

tůní a říčních ramen“, Lužnice u Třeboně, 2.–3. 3. 2000, pp. 132– 

134, Botanický ústav AV ČR, Třeboň. 

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Vesmír 90: 440–444. 

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system for stream restoration in the Netherlands: An overview 

of restoration projects and future needs. – Hydrobiologia 

478: 131–148. 


Restoration of the Černý potok stream, Krušné hory Mts. 

Location 



Restored area 


Černá louka NR, Krušné hory Mts., northwest Czech Republic, along the border with Germany 

50°44'4" N, 13°53'26" E, 690–760 m 

NR, Ramsar Site (Krusnohorska Mountains mires), SCI, SPA 

 

Meadow wetlands and springs, fens (Montio-Cardaminetea and Scheuchzerio palustris-Caricetea nigrae), wet 

and mesophilous meadows (Molinio-Arrhenatheretea), water courses 

Ca. 7.4 ha; 4 km of restored stream sections 

Free State of Saxony, Operational Programme Environment 

Costs 2001–2003: €52,000; 2008–2010: €264,000 


Waterlogging is an important factor determining the character of 

the habitats in Černá louka NR. The main watercourse in the area is 

the Černý potok stream over a length of 1.9 km, which is supplied by 

water from another four tributaries. After World War II, the entire 

landscape was considerably changed. Former German inhabitants 

were expelled and the new settlers usually did not continue in the former 

traditional land use. 

The most harmful impact on the present Nature Reserve was 

large-scale drainage installed during reclamation of mostly grassland 

in the 1960s to the 1980s. As a result, both the Černý potok stream 

and its tributaries were channelised and deepened. Subsurface drainage 

pipes on several dozen hectares led to the channelised stream 

courses. Surface drainage and peat cutting in the peatbog situated in 

the headwater of the Černý potok also negatively influenced the area, 

resulting in subsequent gradual degradation of mires and other wetland 

habitats. 

Changes in the natural stream courses, degradation of stream 

habitats as well as considerable changes in natural hydrology were the 

main motivations for working out a restoration project. Restoration 

works originally started as partial re-establishment of small shallow 

pools and adjustments of the channels, but finally led to a comprehensive 

project aimed at restoring the natural hydrology in the entire 

Nature Reserve. 

The area of interest is an important site for many rare and endangered 

plants (e.g. Menyanthes trifoliata, Pinguicula vulgaris) and 

animals (e.g. shore-birds, amphibians) of wetlands (Ondráček 2006). 

It was necessary to take the conservation of these species into account 

during the restoration works. 


The terrain is moderately sloping with an average gradient of ca. 

3%. The bedrock consists of old rock of the crystalline complex, particularly 

orthogneiss, granulites and migmatites, with rhyolite veins. 

Fig. 1. 


The crystalline complex is in the fl oodplain covered by quaternary, 

mainly clayey-stony slope sediments with a topsoil layer of 0.15 m on 

average. Annual precipitation varies from 700 to 900 mm (long-term 

mean precipitation being ca. 850 mm). The mean annual fl ow rate 

in the Černý potok stream upstream of the left tributary (Mokřadní 

potok) is 24.5 l.s -1 , the mean annual flow rate of this tributary is 7.2 

l.s -1 (Anonymus 2009). 

Objectives 

Comprehensive remediation of the hydrology of the area, initiation 

of natural, dynamic re-development of the stream channel and 

cessation of degradation processes in valuable habitats. These restoration 

measures are the main prerequisite for biodiversity protection 

including both stabilisation of local populations and spontaneous 

return of important wetland species, e.g. Snipe (Gallinago gallinago). 

Also expected are flood control elements, e.g. reduction of the outflow 

velocity and retardation and flattening of flood waves. 


1998–2001 Elaboration of project study and documentation for 

partial restoration. 

2001–2003 Partial restoration by EPS Servis, s.r.o., including 

construction of 26 pools, partial adjustments of the 

regulated streambed and restoration of two sections 

of natural streambed. 

2006–2007 Development of investment plan for comprehensive 

restoration. 

2008 Assignment and development of project documentation 

(Terén Design, s.r.o., Nature Conservation 

Agency of the Czech Republic). 

2009–2010 Realisation of comprehensive restoration project 

for the Černý potok stream and its tributaries (EPS 

Servis, s.r.o.). 

The project was based on common principles of stream restoration. 

The main aim of the restoration was to decrease the volume of 

the restored streambeds especially by reducing their depth. Other important 

criteria included re-establishment of a natural gradient, nearnatural 

proportions of the stream cross-section, and natural variety 

in current and calm riffles (Just 2003, Doll et al. 2003, Just et al. 2005, 

Bernard et al. 2007). 

Modifications within the channelised streambed were not sufficient 

to respect all these criteria, therefore new streambeds were proposed 

and constructed. They were reconnected with the remains of 

the original stream course or directed freely to the alluvial meadows. 

The volume of the new beds was designed at 30-day design flows (or 

max. one-year flows). The new beds were shaped with a rectangular 

profile or as broad “basins” with a mean depth of ca. 0.2 m, locally up 

to 0.5 m. The width of the stream near the bottom varied from 0.6 to 1 

m upstream and downstream end of the restored section, respectively. 

The width range was fl exible, reflecting surface, soil and geological 

conditions. The longitudinal profile of the new stream sections corresponded 

as much as possible with the natural surface gradient. The 

appropriate slope was achieved by re-establishing stream meandering 

(dependent on local conditions) and particularly by including 

near-natural current sections (e.g. rapids, stones, sills and low steps) 

between calmer pool-like sections. The new bed of the main left tributary 

of the Černý potok was designed in similar dimensions (depth 

0.2 m, bottom width 0.6 m). In the other two smaller tributaries, water 

freely running out of the channelised streambed into the alluvium was 

proposed. This method had already been tested at the site before restoration 

and, although at a small scale then, it has turned out to work 

well. At the same time, the deepened and channelised streambeds 

were blocked by dams to halt artificial drainage of the site. 

Results 

Changes in the area of interest after restoration are summarised 

in the following table: 

Restored habitats 

Restored stream sections (including adjustment of 

channelised streambeds and making water flow into 

the alluvium) 

Natural overflow in case of Q100 floods (along meandering 

segment in the alluvium) 

Pools with marshes (restored or created marsh 

habitats) 

Both new and restored marshes with still or running 

waters 

4,030 m 

74,000 m 2 

9,630 m 2 

43,000 m 2 

The restoration was assessed with respect to the impact on flow 

rate. The courses of flood waves in the Černý potok stream before and 

after restoration were compared using the two dimensional hydrodynamic 

SRH-2D model (Lai 2008). Only a small effect of the stream 

restoration on the peak flow was found with the exception of less frequent 

floods (N1, N2 and N5 peak flows were reduced by only 50–80 

l.s -1 ). On the other hand, a very significant effect was recorded on the 

delay of the flood wave. In a model of a restored stream section of 

ca. 1 km in length, the delay was up to 2 hours for the 1-year flood 

compared to the regulated stream and a considerable 20 minutes for 

a 100-year flood. As a consequence, the peak flow downstream can 

be reduced due to delayed peak flows from the tributaries (Just et al. 

2005). Also dynamic meandering of the restored streambed is being 

studied, but long-term monitoring is necessary to obtain statistically 

significant results. 

Fig. 2. 


Figs. 3, 4. 

The effect of restoration on the local fauna and flora was monitored 

as well (Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Czech 

Union for Nature Conservation, Local Chapter Teplice – Fergunna, 

2007–2011) but only preliminary results are available at present because 

of a relatively short post-restoration phase. The abundance of 

some amphibians has considerably increased in the constructed pools 

(e.g. hundreds of individuals of frog species, e.g. Bufo bufo, Rana 

temporaria, and dozens of individuals of Triturus vulgaris). A more 

frequent occurrence of some bird species of waterlogged meadows 

and marshes (such as Crex crex and Gallinago gallinago) was recorded 

mainly in the restored wetland habitats created by conducting small 

tributaries to the floodplain. In 2011 about 20 dragonfly species were 

recorded. The local population of the endangered plant species Menyanthes 

trifoliata has increased in the floodplain. 

Other lessons learned and future perspectives 

The described restoration project, dealing with stream restoration 

including a large flooded alluvium, represents the first of its kind in 

the Czech Republic in extent and approach. New methods were applied 

in the design of shape and course of the streambed, and their 

successful implementation was enabled by good collaboration between 

investor, designer and subcontractors. 


Also NGOs were involved in the restoration project. Members of 

the Czech Union for Nature Conservation (Local Chapter Teplice – 

Fergunna) participated in study, project preparation and implementation. 

The restored site is used for education, and both experts and the 

public from the Czech Republic and abroad have visited it. 

References 

Anonymus (2009): Revitalizace Černého potoka a jeho přítoků v 

přírodní rezervaci Černá louka – dokončení (Restoration of the 

Černý potok stream and its tributaries in Černá louka Nature Reserve 

– completion). – Terén Design, s.r.o., Teplice. 

Bernard J.M., Fripp J. & Robinson K. (eds) (2007): National Engineering 

Handbook. Part 654 – Stream restoration design. – United 

States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. (Available at: http://policy.nrcs.usda.gov/viewerFS. 

aspx?id=3491) 

Doll B.A., Grabow G.L., Hall K.R., Halley J., Harman W.A., Jennings 

G.D. & Wise D.E. (2003): Stream restoration: a natural channel 

design handbook. – NC Stream Restoration Institute, NC State 

University, North Carolina. 

Just T. (ed.) (2003): Revitalizace vodního prostředí (Restoration of 

aquatic habitats). – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny ČR, Praha. 

Just T., Matoušek V., Fischer D. & Karlík P. (2005): Vodohospodářské 

revitalizace a jejich uplatnění v ochraně před povodněmi. 1 (Hydrological 

restoration and its application in fl ood control. 1). – 

ZO ČSOP Hořovicko, Praha. 

Lai Y.G. (2008): SRH-2D version 2: Theory and user’s manual. – U.S. 

Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver. 

Ondráček Č . (2006): Plán péče pro PR Černá louka pro období 

2007-2016 (Management plan of Černá louka NR for the period 

2007-2016). – Ms.; management plan, Agentura ochrany 

přírody a krajiny Č R, Krajské středisko Ústí nad Labem. 

( Available at: http://www.kr-ustecky.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp? 

id_org=450018&id=1438949&p1=85758.) 

Acknowledgement 

Monitoring of the restored site was supported under the transboundary 

project “Pestrý-Bunt”. 


Revitalising effects of a near-natural bypass at a migration barrier on the 

Blanice river 

Location 

Weir on the Blanice river at Bavorov near Vodňany, South Bohemia 

49°12'23" N, 14°09'08" E; altitude 420 m 

Protection status Important landscape element, riverine biocorridor 

Ecosystem types Alluvial river ecosystem 

Restored area 

6-km river section (with 35 m long bypass) 

Financial support Landscape management programmes 

Costs €19,920 

 


The Blanice river springs at 972 m above sea level in the Šumava 

Mountains and joins the Otava river at an elevation of 362 m, where 

it is characterised as a lowland river with preserved oxbows. The gradient 

of the 93.3 km long river is 5.15% and the average flow is 4.23 

m 3 .s -1 at its lower end. 

Many damming-up devices have been built for water mills, hammer 

mills and sawmills, increasing the need for water. The river was 

fragmented into parts with still water and parts where the flow was 

regulated. The character of the river ecosystem has changed, affecting 

the natural development of fish populations (Hartvich et al. 2004). 

A high dam works as a migration barrier. It cannot be overcome 

by fish moving upstream and so the long-term loss of upstream migration 

negatively influences the exchange of genetic information 

during reproduction. Separated fish populations become smaller as 

well as less resilient. Fish which are flushed downstream by the flow 

cannot get back to their habitat (Peter 1998, Lucas & Baras 2001). 

For this reason fish passes with damming-up devices (weirs etc.) 

are built. They allow fish and other aquatic animals to pass the barriers 

and move freely along the river. Fish passes transfer the backwater 

to the stream below the barrier and are either a part of the migration 

barrier or placed on the grounds next to the barrier. In this case the 

fish pass functions as the bypass of a barrier. These fish passes are 

built in such a way that their character, structure and stream flow are 

similar to the conditions of natural rivers (Kubečka et al. 1997, Cowx 

& Welcomme 1998, Gebler 2009, Lusk et al. 2011). 

In total 17 fixed or mobile barriers (weirs, dams) have been placed 

across the Blanice river. These barriers are not migration-permeable, 

with one exception. The river continuity is disrupted mainly by the 

Husinec Dam-lake (area 61 ha, backwater 3.5 km long, maximum 

25.5 m deep). Below the dam, the river has a weir impassable for migrating 

aquatic animals. On the right bank a ground overgrown with 

deciduous trees and a part of a former oxbow connected to the river 

below the weir were available. Because of these conditions, a nearnatural 

bypass was proposed as the most convenient solution. 

Objectives 

Restoring and preserving healthy populations and diversity of the 

original fish species in Blanice river by building a bypass. 


In 2002, a 35 m long bypass was built at the weir to allow upstream 

migration. It runs from the upper weir through natural terrain 

around the body of the weir and joins the river 20 metres downstream 

of the weir. The average gradient is 5%. Fig. 3 shows the placement of 

this near-natural bypass. At a medium flow rate (Q 180 

), up to 250 l.s -1 

flows through the bypass. The 2.5 m wide upper part of the bypass is 

a torrent fish pass with an inlet device placed upstream of the weir. 

The construction includes 9 stone sills for the necessary backwater, 

in which 7 to 16 cm wide gaps between the stones (boulders) enable 

fish to swim through either at the bottom or below the water surface. 

Gravel and smaller stones on the bottom decrease the flow in the lower 

water layers. The sills differ no more than 15 cm in height and their 

depth ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 m. 

The lower part of the bypass is formed by the oxbow (which was 

first cleaned) with slowly flowing water. The width of the lower part 

Fig. 1. 

Fig. 2. 


Fig. 3. - 

 

 

ranges from 3 to 5 m and the gradient is only 2%, but a few stone 

sills form up to 1 m deep pools. In places over sand and gravel banks 

shoals have been formed by high-water flows. 


— Bypass maintenance after floods, in spring and autumn. 

— Removal of sediments to keep the bypass clear. 

— Seasonal monitoring of local fish fauna diversity in the bypass 

passable for migration. 

Results 

The presence of fish in the bypass was monitored once a month 

during the year 2002 (except during ice cover in winter and high-water) 

to assess species diversity (Hartvich et al. 2004). This was done by 

damming up the inlet profile with a board to stop the stream, so that 

the fish present could be collected and the remaining ones caught with 

electric current. A small net was placed in the lower part to prevent 

the fish from escaping. The fish were measured using common ichthyologic 

methods and returned immediately. 

The critically endangered Brook Lamprey (Lampetra planeri) and 

13 species of six families were detected during the fi rst monitoring 

period (Tab. 1). According to ecological preference rheophilous (living 

in fast streams) species (8) were the most abundant, followed by 

eurytopic (5) and one limnophilous (living in standing water) species, 

namely Tench (Tinca tinca). The total fish fauna counted 610 individuals 

weighing 8,939 g in total. The most abundant species were 

Pseudorasbora parva, Leuciscus leuciscus, and Perca perca. In the lower 

part of the bypass, a few individuals of the critically endangered 

European Crayfish (Astacus astacus) were found. 

In the following period (January to November 2003), the number 

of species grew to 18, including the newcomers Alburnus alburnus, 

Barbus barbus, Scardinius ery throphthalmus and Anguilla anguilla 

(Hartvich et al. 2004), amounting to 993 individuals and a biomass of 

7,876 g. The detected species assemblage corresponds, except for Cottus 

gobio, to the results given by Krupauer (1984) for the Blanice river 

upstream of the Husinec Dam-lake, and later mentioned by Křížek et 

al. (2004) for the upper and central part of the Blanice river. 

Other lessons learned and new perspectives 

1. Grassland and self-seeded trees (willows and aspen) permanently 

reinforce and protect the banks of the bypass against erosion. 

The open inlet device passes water level fluctuations into the bypass. 

High-water flows do not endanger the bypass construction. 

Loosely placed stones on the bypass banks slow down the flow, 

prevent lateral erosion and create shelter for fish. Coarse gravel on 

the bottom is an appropriate substrate for the settling of benthos. 

2. Monitoring results show that fish not only migrate through the 

bypass but also settle there for a certain period of time. The detected 

18 species of fish and lamprey correspond to the composition 

found in ichthyologic research conducted in the upper and central 

part of the Blanice river. Fish migration in the bypass takes place 

during the whole year, except when there is ice cover. 

3. Monitoring of bypass passability not only provides ichthyologists, 

nature conservationists, water authorities, and designers and 

builders of fish passes with a lot of new information, but it also 

shows the real state of the fish fauna in fishing grounds, especially 

in the case of functional passes such as the one at Bavorov. 

Tab. 1. 

Species 

Ecological group 

IV 

ind./g 

VI 


VII 


IX 


X 


XI 


Gobio gobio eurytopic 12/151 1/5 16/106 2/7 16/148 8/100 

Leuciscus leuciscus rheophilous 43/441 12/502 20/1079 59/136 1/45 3/5 5/183 

Leuciscus cephalus rheophilous 7/134 8/459 7/510 2/13 2/37 

Tinca tinca limnophilous 1/4 

Thymallus thymallus rheophilous 2/17 1/67 2/243 

Lota lota rheophilous 1/105 1/30 2/220 1/140 

Barbatula barbatula rheophilous 2/14 5/47 4/22 1/35 

Perca fluviatilis eurytopic 5/177 8/247 6/224 22/410 1/100 5/160 4/33 

Rutilus rutilus eurytopic 1/6 1/20 4/17 1/64 2/47 

Salmo trutta m. fario rheophilous 6/166 3/83 4/213 3/30 1/125 

Phoxinus phoxinus rheophilous 3/16 4/11 11/48 2/6 1/0,8 1/2 

Pseudorasbora parva eurytopic 14/16 2/11 120/49 80/207 11/41 12/9 15/34 

Esox lucius eurytopic 1/100 5/637 2/225 

Petromyzonidae: 

Lampetra planeri 

XII 


rheophilous 1/11 1/10 


Fig. 4. 


The bypass on the Blanice river was co-supported by the town 

council of Bavorov and by the Bavorov branch of the Czech Fishing 

Association. The bypass is open to anybody interested. 


The authors are grateful for support from the projects CENAKA- 

VA CZ.1.05/2.1.00/01.0024 and GA JU 047/2010/Z. Our thanks 

for valuable advice further go out to fish pass designer and builder 

Zdeněk Linhart. We also thank Vladimír Šámal for providing important 

data and information, and Miroslav Fenc for extensive assistance 

during field work. 

References 

Cowx I.G. & Welcomme L.R. (eds) (1998): Rehabilitation of rivers for 

fish. – Fishing News Books, Oxford. 

Gebler J.R. (2009): Fischwege und Sohlengleiten. – Verlag Wasser und 

Umwelt, Walzbachtal. 

Hartvich P., Dvořák P. & Holub M. (2004): Výskyt ryb v rybím 

přechodu na řece Blanici v Bavorově (Occurrence of fish in the 

fish pass on the Blanice river at Bavorov). – Biodiverzita ichtyofauny 

České republiky 5: 93–98. 

Krupauer V. (1984): Kvalitativní a kvantitativní složení ichtyofauny v 

horním toku Blanice (Qualitative and quantitative ichthyofauna 

composition in the Blanice upper stream). – Sborník Vysoké školy 

zemědělské České Budějovice, řada zootechnická 2: 2–18. 

Křížek J., Dubský K. & Randák T. (2004): Ichtyologický průzkum řeky 

Blanice pramenící v CHKO Šumava (Ichthyologic survey of the 

Blanice river having its source in the Šumava Protected Landscape 

Area). – In: Vykusová B. (ed.), VII. Česká ichtyologická konference 

(VII. Czech Ichthyological Conference), sborník příspěvků z 

odborné konference s mezinárodní účastí pořádané ve Vodňanech 

6.–7. 5. 2004 v rámci XIV. Vodňanských rybářských dnů, pp. 11– 

15, Jihočeská univerzita v Českých Budějovicích, Výzkumný ústav 

rybářský a hydrobiologický, Vodňany. 

Kubečka J., Matěna J. & Hartvich (1997): Adverse ecological effects of 

small hydropower stations in the Czech Republic: 1. Bypass plants. 

– Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 13: 101–113. 

Lucas C.M. & Baras E. (2001): Migration of freshwater fishes. – Blackwell 

Science, Oxford. 

Lusk S., Hartvich P. & Lojkásek B. (2011): Migrace ryb a migrační 

prostupnost vodních toků (Migration of fishes and migration 

permeability of water streams). – Biodiverzita ichtyofauny České 

republiky 8: 5–67. 

Peter A. (1998): Interruption of the river continuum by barriers and 

the consequences for migratory fish. – In: Jungwirth M., Schmutz 

S. & Weiss S. (eds), Fish migration and fish bypasses, pp. 99–112, 

Fishing News Books, Oxford. 


Restoration of drained mires in the Šumava National Park 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs Ca. €510,000 

Šumava Mts., southwest Czech Republic, along the border with Germany and Austria 

48°59'–49°0' N, 13°47'–14°28' E; altitude 750–1200 m 

NP, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, SCI, Ramsar Site (Šumava Peatlands) 

 

Open raised bogs with dwarf shrub, lawn and hollow vegetation surrounded by Pinus ×pseudopumilio 

krummholz, bog pine (Pinus rotundata) forests on valley bogs, transitional mires, spruce mires, waterlogged 

spruce forests (Oxycocco-Sphagnetea, partly also Scheuchzerio palustris-Caricetea nigrae and Piceion abietis) 

Ca. 500 ha (19 sites), nearly 60 km of blocked ditches 

Landscape management programmes, Šumava NP and PLA Authority 


Many mires in the Šumava NP have been modified by various 

human activities like forestry, agriculture and peat extraction in the 

past (Schreiber 1924). Various interventions in the hydrology, mainly 

surface drainage, are generally the most harmful impacts on mires 

in the area. A recent mire survey revealed that almost 70% of mires 

have been influenced at least once by drainage. However, disturbance 

intensity varies largely across the area depending on e.g. human population 

density and land use. Drainage ditches from the turn of 19 th and 

20 th centuries are rather shallow and usually less damaging for mires. 

In contrast, deep channels made from the 1960s to the 1980s are less 

frequent but represent a much more serious problem (Fig. 2). 

Drainage in the past has caused significant degradation, both in 

mire ecology and mire structure (Bufková et al. 2008), and has nega- 

tively influenced mire biodiversity including rare and relict species. 

In order to improve the situation, a long-term project called Mire 

Restoration Programme has been realized in the area since the year 

1999. Since 1996, the position of the water table and its basic chemistry 

(pH, conductivity) was monitored, but since 2005, the restoration 

project has been coupled with detailed research and a monitoring 

programme. 


All restored sites monitored in detail were situated on the central 

mountain plateau (at an elevation of ca. 1000 m). The bedrock 

is nutrient-poor and acid. It is formed mainly of paragneisses, with 

some granite in places. The mean annual temperature is 3.2 °C and 

the annual precipitation is 1200–1330 mm (Svobodová et al. 2002). 

Fig. 1. 


Fig. 2. 

 

Fig. 3. 

 

Objectives 

The main objectives of the mire restoration programme were: (i) 

restoration of natural (or near-natural) mire hydrology; (ii) enhancement 

of peat-forming vegetation and processes, (iii) conservation of 

natural mire biodiversity; and (iv) involvement of the public into local 

mire conservation. 

Regarding hydrology, the aim of the restoration was to raise the 

water table to a natural (pre-drainage) level, decrease the fluctuations, 

and retain sufficient water in the mires especially during the driest periods. 

These measures were expected to halt or moderate degradation 

processes and to enhance peat-forming vegetation and spontaneous 

mire regeneration. 


The restoration of drained mires was based on the target water table 

concept. The target water table corresponds with the natural water 

table in undisturbed mires, and differs per mire type. The main restoration 

technique was the blocking of ditches with a set of board dams 

(Fig. 1) followed by filling the dammed ditches with natural material. 

The target water table and slope of the ditches were the key parameters 

to establish the number of dams and their distribution along the ditch. 

In deep ditches, the water-filled segments between the dams were 

then partly filled with peat, fascines (brushwood bundles), branches, 

Sphagnum clusters, etc. to enhance their terrestrialisation. In shallow 

ditches, especially under good light conditions, spontaneous terrestrialisation 

usually proceeds very well without any support. Because 

of the high vulnerability of the restored habitats, all work was carried 

out manually. 

All restoration measures were limited in time (usually carried out 

during 1–2 years) and focused on the re-establishment of natural or 

near-natural hydrological conditions, after which subsequent autogenic 

plant succession including peat-forming vegetation and selfregulating 

development of a particular mire type are expected to start. 

Since 2005, under the Mire Restoration Programme, mire sites 

in various stages of degradation have been studied. Permanent plots 

(97 in total) were established to study the microtopographical, vegetation 

and drainage patterns of the different mire sites. The water table 

height was measured manually in all boreholes at roughly fortnightly 

intervals. Automatic gauging (at 1 h intervals) with piezometers was 

used in 49 selected boreholes. Water samples from boreholes, ditches, 

runoff profiles from drained sites, and control streams were taken 

monthly for a detailed hydrochemical analysis, including the main 

cations and anions (SO 4 

, NO 3 

, NH 4 

, PO 4 

, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe), pH, conductivity 

and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Runoff from drained 

sites as well as precipitation were measured continually. 

1994–1998 Survey of mires in the Šumava NP including human 

impacts (e.g. drainage) and rough assessment of 

degradation changes. 

1999 Initiation of the Mire Restoration Programme. 

Realization of pilot project called Restoration of the 

Kamerální slať Mire. 

1995–2011 Basic monitoring (water table, groundwater pH and 

conductivity) of two selected raised bogs, the first 

one being restored in 1999, the second one in 2004. 

2003 Update of the Mire Restoration Programme conception 

– target water table concept included. 

2003–2010 Restoration of 18 sites. 

2005–2007 Detailed monitoring – pre-restoration phase. 

2008 Restoration of two sites monitored in detail. 

2009–2011 Detailed monitoring – post-restoration phase. 

Results 

First results suggest that the restoration has had a positive effect 

on the hydrology at the moderately degraded site (Schachtenfilz). The 

mean water table rose and its fluctuations were reduced, especially in 

the dwarf-shrub bog sites and wet forests (Fig. 4). The water table beneath 

Trichophorum lawns remained at almost the same level, but also 

Fig. 4. 

 

 

 

 

 


Fig. 5. 

 

here fluctuations were reduced (Bufková et al. 2010). The positive effect 

of the restoration on water table fluctuations can be seen in Fig. 5. 

The various mire types differed in hydrochemical response to the 

restoration. The results suggest that hydrochemical changes are more 

prominent in wet forests than in bogs. Electrical conductivity, PO 4 

, 

Al and Fe concentrations increased in wet forests but remained almost 

the same in bogs after the restoration. However, data two years 

after the restoration only show the short-term response of a mire to 

drain-blocking and may differ from the long-term response (Worrall 

et al. 2007). As a result, long-term monitoring will be necessary for a 

full understanding of the ecological processes and changes caused by 

restoration. 

Other lessons learned and future perspectives 

The target water table concept seems to be a useful tool in mire 

restoration especially in the case of bogs and various sloping mires. 

Long-term monitoring including a pre-restoration period of several 

years is necessary to evaluate restoration success both in mires and 

adjacent habitats. When assessing hydrochemistry effects of restoration 

on the catchment level, the various conditions of restored minerotrophic 

mires and bogs should be taken into consideration. 


Involvement of the public into mire restoration and providing information 

on it are included into the aims of the project. Both visitors 

and local people regularly attend “Mire Days”, which have been organised 

in the Šumava NP since 2008. In the first half of such a mire day, 

people help with mire restoration after which they can visit undisturbed 

mires during the afternoon excursion. Similar “Mire Weeks” 

have also been organised in collaboration with NGOs for already 8 

years. These “Mire Weeks” are attended mainly by young people and 

students. In this way several hundred people from the whole Czech 

Republic have taken part in mire restoration (Fig. 3). 

References 

Bufková I., Stíbal F. & Loskotová E. (2008): Ecology and restoration 

of drained mires in the Šumava National Park (Czech Republic). 

– In: Farrell C. & Feehan J. (eds), After Wise Use – The Future of 

Peatlands, Proceedings of the 13th International Peat Congress, 

Tullamore 2008, pp. 380–384, International Peat Society, Jyväskylä. 

Bufková I., Stíbal F. & Mikulášková E. (2010): Restoration of drained 

mires in the Šumava National Park, Czech Republic. – In: Eiseltová 

M. (ed.), Restoration of lakes, streams, floodplains, and bogs 

in Europe: principles and case studies, pp. 331–354, Springer Verlag, 

Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London & New York. 

Schreiber H. (1924): Moore des Böhmerwaldes und des deutschen 

Südböhmen. – Verlag des Deutschen Moorvereins in der Tschechoslowakei, 

Sebastiansberg. 

Svobodová H., Soukupová L. & Reille M. (2002): Diversified development 

of mountain mires, Bohemian Forest, Central Europe, in the 

last 13,000 years. – Quaternary International 91: 123–135. 

Worrall F., Armstrong A. & Holden J. (2007): Short-term impact of 

peat drain-blocking on water colour, dissolved organic carbon 

concentration, and water table depth. – Journal of Hydrology 337: 

315–325. 


Restoration of the mined peatbog Soumarský Most 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Šumava Mts., southwest Czech Republic, near the border with Germany 

48°54'45" N, 13°49'33" E; altitude 745 m 

NP, UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, SCI, Ramsar Site (Šumavská peatlands) 

Degraded valley bog (Oxycocco-Sphagnetea) originally covered by bog pine (Pinus rotundata) forest and 

dwarf shrub vegetation dominated by Vaccinium uliginosum 

53 ha 

Landscape management programmes, Šumava NP and PLA Authority 

€3,193/ha 


The Soumarský Most peatbog (total area ca. 80 ha) is part of a 

large mire complex developed in the basin of the Upper Vltava river. 

Initially, the peatbog was covered by typical bog pine (Pinus rotundata) 

forest (Schreiber 1924), but was partly damaged by manual peat 

digging on an area of approximately 15 ha at the beginning of 20 th 

century. In 1959–1960 a detailed survey of the peatbog including peat 

profiles was carried out by the former Research Institute for Soils and 

Reclamation. Based on the results of this study, peat mining was proposed 

on an area of 75 ha indicating a supply of 1,850,000 m 3 of peat 

(Anonymus 1960). Industrial peat milling was started shortly after the 

survey (in 1962) on large areas. Only a small remnant of the original 

bog remained in the SE edge of the exploited area. Peat milling was 

stopped by the National Park Authority between 1998 and 2000. 


After peat mining had ceased, the peatbog consisted of large areas 

of abandoned bare peat strongly drained by a system of open ditches. 

Several large ditches (both central and peripheral) were connected 

with a large number of small lateral ditches and in many places even 

piped. The residual peat layer was up to 3 m thick, but the prevailing 

peat layer thickness was only 0.5 m and average peat thickness about 

0.8 m. The bare peat surface was characterised by a harsh microclimate, 

especially high temperature extremes near the peat surface and 

a strong fluctuation of the water table and peat moisture, causing extreme 

desiccation in some places. Colonising plants and spontaneous 

revegetation were strongly limited by these conditions. The mean annual 

temperature in the area is 6.2 °C, the total annual precipitation 

is ca. 760 mm (Svobodová et al. 2002), but the entire valley is under 

strong influence of temperature inversion and a high amount of horizontal 

precipitation from frequent fogs. 

Objectives 

Restoration of a raised bog almost completely destroyed by industrial 

peat mining. Establishment of wetland communities and peatforming 

vegetation with possible return of relict peatbog species in 

parts with a high water table and low nutrient contents. 


1995–1996 The first negotiations about further use and the 

future of Soumarský Most peatbog with the former 

owner (Rašelina Soběslav, a private company) 

started. 

1999 Ownership of the peatbog was changed from private 

to state (Šumava NP and PLA Authority). 

1998–1999 Shallow surface depressions were created in collaboration 

with Rašelina Soběslav using their machinery. 

1999 Peat milling was definitely finished. 

2000 Project documentation was compiled. 

2000 The peatbog came in the hands of the town of Volary. 

Negotiations on the future of the bog took place. 

2000–2004 Implementation of the restoration project. 

2000–2011 Hydrology and vegetation monitoring. 

Fig. 1. 

 

The restoration measures were based on the concept of directed 

succession. First of all a few shallow depressions were made in the 

bare peat surface and subsequently the highly fluctuating water regime 

was stabilised by blocking drainage ditches with boards (Fig. 5). 


Fig. 2. 

 

This improved the water regime in a large area and some parts of the 

bog were even shallowly but permanently flooded (Fig. 4). Sphagnum 

mosses – fundamental in peat-forming communities – were reintroduced, 

especially into these shallow basins. The bare peat surface 

was covered with mulch from adjacent minerotrophic sedge mires to 

accelerate colonisation by appropriate vascular plant species. In dry 

areas selected groups of trees mostly including Betula pubescens and 

Pinus sylvestris were felled to reduce water loss through transpiration. 

Results 

The initial vegetation on the peat bog immediately after peat mining 

had finished was dominated by wetland species growing mostly 

on the wet bases of the draining ditches, e.g. Eriophorum angustifolium, 

E. vaginatum, Carex rostrata, Molinia caerulea, and Juncus effusus 

(Zýval et al. 2000). These species were also later the main colonisers 

of bare peat areas, and the different proportions of them at the sites 

were probably determined by moisture and nutrients. The colonisation 

process was later strongly accelerated by experimental planting of 

Carex rostrata and Eriophorum angustifolium during restoration. The 

main factor facilitating successful regeneration of peatbog vegetation 

was the restoration of the water regime. The main factors influencing 

the vegetation of fl ooded areas are water table height, depth of the 

remaining peat, and successional age. The vegetation of flooded areas 

did not significantly respond to relatively small differences in water 

chemistry. 

Fig. 3. 

 

Initially Common Cottongrass (Eriophorum angustifolium) 

spread very successfully over both wet and dry areas. Th is species 

formed ring polycormons in drier parts which facilitated the establishment 

of other plants in their centre (Lanta et al. 2008). Therefore 

the increasing abundance of E. angustifolium in drier parts was only 

temporal and occurred in the fi rst five years after the restoration 

measures had been carried out. 

The main process observed during the vegetation development 

after 2006 was rapid colonisation of bare peat by Hare’s-tail Cottongrass 

(Eriophorum vaginatum) tussocks (Fig. 1) (Horn 2009). Considerable 

changes in the total cover of this species after restoration (in 

2000–2007) are shown in Fig. 3. It is very probable that Eriophorum 

vaginatum will also be reduced and facilitate establishment of other 

species in the future. 

Tab. 1. 

- 

 

bare CalaEpig Carx.spp ErioAngu ErioVagi flooded JuncEffu MoliCaer PhalArun 

bare 0.7088 0.0147 0.0159 0.0452 0.1081 0 0.0601 0.0473 0 

CalaEpig 0.1528 0.3426 0.0463 0.0417 0 0.1042 0.2836 0.0289 0 

Carx.spp 0.176 0.0035 0.1851 0.0871 0.2441 0.1347 0.0782 0.0912 0 

ErioAngu 0.2073 0 0.0462 0.4608 0.1847 0.0418 0.0496 0.0096 0 

ErioVagi 0.1489 0.0014 0.0349 0.0973 0.6016 0.0183 0.0088 0.0888 0 

flooded 0 0.0009 0.1159 0.091 0.2344 0.4053 0.0751 0.0773 0 

JuncEffu 0.2108 0.0309 0.0419 0.0153 0.1062 0.0498 0.4358 0.1093 0 

MoliCaer 0.2176 0 0.0452 0.0304 0.1813 0.2155 0.0897 0.2203 0 

PhalArun 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0.2222 0.0278 0 


Fig. 4. 

 

Fig. 6. 

 

Margins of fl ooded areas and shallow basins were colonised by 

reintroduced Sphagnum species, especially Sphagnum fallax and S. 

cuspidatum. These sites have the best potential for establishment of 

peat-forming processes and communities (Fig. 6). The total area of 

Sphagnum carpets considerably increased in the restored peatbog. In 

2002, the estimated Sphagnum cover was only about 1–2% of the total 

peatbog area, but in 2007 it was already about 8% (P. Horn, unpubl.). 

Dry parts of the site were mostly colonised by trees such as Betula 

pubescens and Pinus sylvestris (Lanta & Hazuková 2005). At flooded 

sites, however, their proportion was significantly reduced by death. 

The interaction between vascular plant species recorded after restoration 

in 2000 and 2007 can be read from the transition matrix in 

Tab. 1. The matrix clearly shows that the most expansive species in 

2000–2007 was Eriophorum vaginatum, which has the highest success 

not only in the colonisation of bare peat, but also in replacing other 

vascular plants (e.g. Carex spp., Eriophorum angustifolium). The second 

most successful plant was Juncus effusus, which colonised rather 

thin remaining layers of probably strongly mineralised bare peat. 


Some restoration measures at the site were carried with the help 

of volunteers, mainly students. The site is also used as a tourist information 

point with connection to the nearby Vltava river floodplain. 

The nature trail with observation tower is under construction at the 

moment. 

References 

Anonymus (1960): Detailní průzkum rašeliniště Soumarský Most 

(Detailed research into Soumarský Most peatbog). – Ms.; final report, 

Výzkumný ústav meliorací a ochrany půdy, Praha 5 – Zbraslav. 

Horn P. (2009): Mire ecology in the Šumava Mountains. – Ms.; Ph.D. 

thesis, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České 

Budějovice. 

Lanta V. & Hazuková I. (2005): Growth response of downy birch 

(Betula pubescens) to moisture treatment at a cut-over peat bog 

in the Šumava Mts., Czech Republic. – Annales Botanici Fennici 

47: 247–256. 

Lanta V., Janeček Š. & Doležal J. (2008): Radial growth and ring formation 

process in clonal plant Eriophorum angustifolium on 

post-mined peatland in the Sumava Mts., Czech Republic. – Annales 

Botanici Fennici 45: 44–54. 

Schreiber H. (1924): Moore des Böhmerwaldes und des deutschen 

Südböhmen. – Verlag des Deutschen Moorvereins in der Tschechoslowakei, 

Sebastiansberg. 

Svobodová H., Soukupová L. & Reille M. (2002): Diversified development 

of mountain mires, Bohemian Forest, Central Europe, in the 

last 13,000 years. – Quaternary International 91: 123–135. 

Zýval V., Lederer F., Bastl M. & Horn P. (2000): Soumarský most – 

projekt revitalizace rašeliniště (Soumarský most – peatbog restoration 

project). – Ms.; final report, Geovision s.r.o., Plzeň. 

Fig. 5. 

 

Fig. 7. 

 


Mining and post-industrial sites

88 Mining and post-industrial sites

Introduction 

 

Mining has a long tradition in the Czech Republic and is an important 

part of the country’s economy. Despite its recent decline, it 

still has a significant impact on landscape and nature. Given that the 

excavation of various materials will remain an important economic 

activity, restoration efforts should address the remarkable biodiversity 

potential of extraction sites. As a by-product of other industrial activities, 

various post-industrial anthropogenic sites represent a growing 

component of many landscapes and regions in the Czech Republic. 

Here, we consider significantly modified sites such as quarries, spoil 

heaps created by mining, sand and gravel pits, clay pits, ash and slag 

deposits, brownfields, road verges, and railway embankments. 

The traditionally negative view of such sites among ecologists 

and conservationists is rapidly changing. It is becoming clear that in 

human-altered regions, their early successional and highly heterogeneous 

surfaces with extreme abiotic conditions and low productivity 

may offer valuable refugia and/or compensatory habitats for a range of 

species rapidly declining in modern impoverished landscapes. Several 

important studies showing the conservation potential of post-mining 

sites, such as coal spoil dumps (Prach 1987, Hodačová & Prach 2003, 

Frouz et al. 2008, Tropek et al. 2012), limestone quarries (Beneš et al. 

2003, Tichý 2006, Tropek et al. 2010), acid rock quarries (Novák & 

Prach 2003, Tropek & Konvička 2008, Trnková et al. 2010), sandpits 

(Řehounková & Prach 2006, 2008, 2010), extracted peatlands (Bastl et 

al. 2009, Konvalinková & Prach 2010), and ash/slag deposits (Kovář 

2004), originate from the Czech Republic. There are still other unpublished 

data from various sites and regions, which can be used to 

assess the importance of particular sites in biodiversity conservation 

and restoration planning. 

Main types of mining and post-industrial sites 

 

Quarries are relatively numerous in all regions of the Czech Republic. 

Several dozen million tons of decorative and building stones 

are mined annually from more than 200 active quarries (Starý et al. 

Fig. 2. 

 

 

 

2008). Especially limestone excavation, concentrated in the warmest 

parts of the Czech Republic, is important. It has repeatedly been 

shown that excavated sites (especially limestone quarries) provide 

specific abiotic conditions fundamental for the development of nonproductive 

habitats of great conservation potential. These habitats are 

often colonised by many species specialised in growing on rocks, in 

sparse steppe-like grassland and in forest steppes, including dozens of 

critically endangered species. 

 

Sand- and gravel pits occur in many regions of the Czech Republic, 

owing to the importance of sand and gravel for the building sector 

and various industries (Řehounková & Prach 2006). Sand and gravel 

are currently being excavated at more than 80 active sites and there 

Fig. 1. 

Mining and post-industrial sites 89

are a similar number of currently inactive sites (Starý et al. 2008). The 

main factor influencing the vegetation development of sand-gravel 

pit communities is the fi ne-grained and nutrient-poor substrate. 

Mainly depending on the depth to which the substrate is mined and 

the location of the site, valuable dry or wet sandy habitats are formed 

(Řehounková & Prach 2006). Sand-gravel pits are also one of the most 

intensively studied anthropogenic sites and there is increasing evidence 

that they provide surrogate habitats for communities of both 

dry and wet sands (Řehounková & Prach 2008). 

 

Post-mining spoil heaps are important components of the landscape 

in some regions of the Czech Republic, especially in the western 

part, where lignite coal is excavated in open-cast mines. However, 

deep coal mining is also significant in especially the central and 

northeastern parts of the country. In addition to coal mining, spoil 

heaps were also created during uranium excavation, but no mine is recently 

active. Mining of other resources has been rather rare, if we do 

not consider historical mining. Spoil heaps with various successional 

stages, especially if not completely covered by woodland, also provide 

valuable surrogate habitats for a range of species vanishing from the 

surrounding landscape. 

 

The Czech energy production still predominantly relies on coal 

burning. Therefore deposits of the by-products (ash and slag) are relatively 

frequent in the landscape, adjacent to practically every power 

plant, heating plant and many of the larger factories (Kovář 2004, 

Kovář et al. 2011). The negative impacts of fly-ash, easily dispersed 

from the deposits by wind erosion, on the human environment (e.g. 

Borm 1997) are well known. Recently published studies thus consider 

a rapid reclamation of these sites as the only possibility. On the other 

hand, the biodiversity of communities inhabiting these deposits has 

rarely been studied. To date, all the studies are restricted to plants 

(e.g. Ash et al. 1994, Vaňková & Kovář 2004), lichens (Palice & Soldán 

2004) and fungi (Kubátová et al. 2002), whereas animals seem to be 

neglected. Nevertheless, the results of a few unpublished preliminary 

studies indicate a great potential of these sites to become strongholds 

of vanishing psammophilous arthropods (Tropek et al., unpubl.). The 

existing information is however very limited, so that further comprehensive 

research considering both the risk to human health and the 

benefit for biodiversity conservation is urgently needed. 

Restoration of mining and post-industrial sites 

Because of the relatively large area of industrially affected sites 

(both currently and in the future) and their great conservation value, 

restoration should aim at strengthening their biodiversity potential 

(Prach & Pyšek 2001, Pyšek et al. 2001; Young et al. 2005). 

Therefore, any current and future restoration project should be 

based on scientific knowledge and fundamental biological assessments. 

Besides biodiversity, each restoration project should consider all 

other public concerns in a balanced way. Among others, reduction of 

erosion and risk of contamination, recreational activities and aesthetic 

aspects can be considered. However, at sites where these concerns 

are not relevant or important, biodiversity should become the main 

restoration target. 

There are three approaches to restoration of disturbed sites (sensu 

Prach & Hobbs 2008, Tropek et al. 2012): 

1. Technically oriented reclamation, typically comprising covering 

the sites with fertile topsoil, sowing grass-herb mixtures, and/or 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

planting trees. This approach still strongly dominates in the Czech 

Republic. 

2. Spontaneous succession without any human intervention, which 

is only exceptionally used as an intentional restoration measure. 

The overwhelming majority of spontaneously developed sites are 

left abandoned for other reasons, such as planned continuation of 

exploitation in the future, lack of finance or labour shortage. 

3. Directed succession is a rarely used method, in which natural 

processes are actively influenced; e.g. through support of plants 

desired for reasons of biodiversity (by sowing or species-rich hay 

transfer), or by suppressing invasive plants (Rydgren et al. 2010, 

Novák & Prach 2010). 

Reclamation 

In reclamation, re-establishment of a landscape corresponding 

to the one before mining or with other both economic or amenity 

benefits for the local people is preferred. In mined pits, hydrological 

reclamation creating anthropogenic lakes by artificial inundation represents 

a common approach usually appreciated by the public. Other 

routinely used methods are aimed at creating forests for timber production 

(although formally being considered as protective forests, i.e. 

not of economic interest), agricultural land, public parks and other 

recreational or sport areas. Czech legislation provides relatively powerful 

rules restricting the loss of farm- and woodland; hence the reestablishment 

of forest and agricultural land is mainly desired by the 

authorities even in places where any re-establishment of forest or agricultural 

land is problematic or useless. The biodiversity issue is still 

not generally considered. 

The most common reclamation approach includes the following 

procedures. First, usually after several years of substrate stabilisation, 

the surface is re-modelled erasing any terrain unevenness and het- 


Fig. 4. 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. 

 

 

 

erogeneity. Then the surface is covered with fertile topsoil, usually removed 

before mining and then stored. If a productive dense forest is 

to be created, trees are planted in regular rows. Saplings usually come 

from different regions, often non-indigenous species are planted, and 

even invasive ones are still commonly used. 

Unfortunately, strict application of these reclamation methods 

generally leads to the destruction of valuable habitats and/or the local 

extinction of rare and endangered species, which is often in conflict 

with nature conservation laws. Moreover, the economic importance 

of such newly created meadows, arable fields, and forests is in most 

cases low. 

Reclamation is also a very expensive method. For instance, the 

reclamation costs of lignite spoil dumps is 2 million CZK (ca. €80,000) 

per 1 ha in the Most region, and 0.5 million CZK (ca. €20,000) per 1 

ha in the Sokolov region. In the Sokolov region, an area of about 2000 

ha is currently under reclamation and another 3000 ha are planned 

to be reclaimed. This adds up to 1.5 billion CZK (€60 million), which 

could be spent in more useful ways by reinstating the natural values of 

the mining district landscape. 

Spontaneous succession 

As a consequence of historical environmental policy, many of both 

post-mining and post-industrial sites in the Czech Republic have not 

been actively reclaimed, giving us the unique chance to study natural 

processes and spontaneous succession there. During mining, spoil 

depositing and other industrial activities, the surface is often highly 

reshaped and diversified. This abiotic diversity is the best premise for 

creating a heterogeneous mosaic of diverse habitats. In terrain depressions, 

water accumulates creating oligotrophic wetlands and small 

pools. Conversely, elevations are excessively free-draining, often sustaining 

sparse dry grassland for a long time. Various microhabitats in 

between these relative extremes occur in a relatively small area and 

provide an environment for a range of species and their communities. 

From hundreds of studied plots at spontaneously developed sites 

(Prach et al. 2011) it has been sufficiently documented that these 

natural processes have a great potential to restore almost all humanmade 

habitats (Řehounek et al. 2010). Depending on site conditions, 

near-natural habitats develop within several years to a few decades. 

In most areas, spontaneous succession leads to near-natural sparse 

forests with a diverse structure. In a part of the post-industrial sites, 

early successional habitats, such as non-productive wetlands, sparse 

steppe-like grassland and open sandy habitats, may persist for a long 

time. These open habitats host a large number of endangered species 

and are crucial for biodiversity conservation. 

Reclamation vs. spontaneous succession 

Since reclamation and spontaneous succession are by far the 

most common restoration methods in the Czech Republic, their 

plant and animal communities have been compared at various postmining 

sites. The most studied sites were reclaimed and spontaneously 

developed lignite spoil dumps, namely plants in the Most region 

(Hodačová & Prach 2003), and ants (Holec & Frouz 2005) and plants 

(Mudrák et al. 2010) in the Sokolov region. In limestone quarries of 

the Bohemian Karst (Tropek et al. 2010) and in the black coal spoil 

dumps of the highly anthropically impoverished Kladno region (Tropek 

et al. 2012), the influence of restoration methods on vascular plant 

communities and several arthropod groups has been studied. In all 

mentioned studies, the spontaneously developed habitats were consistently 

found to host highly valuable communities with a number of 

nationally endangered species. Reclamation, however, damages this 

conservation potential and the reclaimed plots are colonised almost 

exclusively by common generalists. In addition, plots covered with 

fertile topsoil support the spreading of some invasive and expansive 

species (e.g. Hodačová & Prach 2003). These results are also supported 

by several not yet published studies of various groups of organisms 

at different post-industrial sites, such as dragonflies on lignite spoil 

dumps (Tichánek & Harabiš), wild bees on ash-slag deposits (Tropek 

et al.), and higher plants in sandpits (Schmidtmayerová). 

Despite the strong arguments above and the effort of scientists, 

non-governmental organisations and some mining companies, reclamation 

of post-industrial sites still strongly prevails (not only) in 

the Czech Republic (Prach et al. 2011). We offer three interconnected 

explanations (cf. Tropek et al. 2010, Tropek & Konvička 2011) for this. 

The first one is based on the long persisting but obsolete idea of stable 

natural communities (“equilibrium paradigm” sensu Wallington et 

al. 2005), emphasising such restoration goals as soil formation, prevention 

of erosion, nutrient cycling, and water accumulation. Taken 

to extremes, this obsolete paradigm regards disturbances as largely 

undesirable and barren land as an unhealthy environment. The other 

reason for reclamation is the need to ‘heal’ human-damaged post-industrial 

sites, a view still persisting among technically oriented practitioners 

and the general public. To their reassurance, these sites are 

erased from the landscape, creating inconspicuous common habitats, 

such as dense forest, productive meadow, and arable land. Last, but 

not least, reclamation is sometimes preferred out of narrow economic 

interests, since some mining and/or industrial companies have reclamation 

subsidiary companies or business partners for whom the expensive 

reclamation is profitable. 


Directed succession and post-mining management 

As the best solution for almost all mining and post-industrial sites, 

we offer near-natural restoration, combining spontaneous succession 

at most of the site supplemented with reclamation in particular parts 

where other public concerns (e.g. erosion risks, acid rock drainage, 

stream sedimentation, toxin leaks, public safety issues) prevail (Prach 

& Hobbs 2008, Tropek & Konvička 2011). In certain cases, directing 

the succession, as described above, towards valuable target habitats is 

desirable. To maintain or support the biodiversity potential of these 

sites, it is necessary to arrest or reverse succession by disturbance 

management, since the initial sparsely vegetated habitats are valuable 

for biodiversity, especially animals (insects and other arthropods, amphibians 

and birds). The restoration scheme should ideally consider 

the restoration of valuable habitats during the mining process or spoil 

dumping, e.g. formation of a heterogeneous surface with both wet depressions 

and dry elevations. It is also necessary to leave untouched 

(semi-)natural communities, which can later serve as sources of desirable 

species, in the close surrounding of the mining sites. However, 

a careful biological assessment has to precede any seriously intended 

restoration project. 

Conclusions 

If by mining or similar activities a naturally, historically or aesthetically 

valuable site is not destroyed or damaged, it can often be 

considered a contribution to biodiversity conservation. However, 

high biodiversity can only be achieved under certain conditions: 

surface heterogeneity should be created and then preserved; the low 

nutrient content must be preserved; a mosaic of differently aged successional 

stages should be maintained. Traditional reclamation must 

be avoided. Following these simple principles, we should grasp the 

unique opportunity to increase the natural value of these landscapes. 


We are grateful to our colleagues, students and friends for neverending 

fruitful discussions about post-industrial sites and their restoration. 

Our research was supported by the Czech Science Foundation 

(P504/12/2525, 206/08/H044, P505/11/0256) and the Czech Ministry 

of Education (RVO67985939 and LC06073). 

References 

Ash H.J., Gemmell R.P. & Bradshaw A.D. (1994): The introduction of 

native plant species on industrial waste heaps: a test of immigration 

and other factors affecting primary succession. – Journal of 

Applied Ecology 31: 74–84. 

Bastl M., Štechová T. & Prach K. (2009): The effect of disturbance on 

the vegetation of peat bogs with Pinus rotundata in the Třeboň 

Basin, Czech Republic. – Preslia 81: 105–117. 

Beneš J., Kepka P. & Konvička M. (2003): Limestone quarries as refuges 

for European xerophilous butterflies. – Conservation Biology 

17: 1058–1069. 

Borm P.J.A. (1997): Toxicity and occupational health hazards of coal 

fly ash (CFA). A review of data and comparison to coal mine dust. 

– Annals of Occupational Hygiene 6: 659–676. 

Frouz J., Prach K., Pižl V., Háněl L., Starý J., Tajovský K., Materna J., 

Balík V., Kalčík J. & Řehounková K. (2008): Interactions between 

soil development, vegetation and soil fauna during spontaneous 

succession in post mining sites. – European Journal of Soil Biology 

44: 109–122. 

Hodačová D. & Prach K. (2003): Spoil heaps from brown coal mining: 

technical reclamation versus spontaneous revegetation. – Restoration 

Ecology 11: 385–391. 

Fig. 6. 


Fig. 7. 

 

 

Holec M. & Frouz J. (2005): Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) communities 

in reclaimed and unreclaimed brown coal mining spoil 

dumps in the Czech Republic. – Pedobiologia 49: 345–357. 

Konvalinková P. & Prach K. (2010): Spontaneous succession of vegetation 

in mined peatlands: a multi-site study. – Preslia 82: 423–435. 


landscape. Biotic interactions and ore/ash-slag artificial ecosystems. 

– Academia, Praha. 

Kovář P., Štefánek M. & Mrázek J. (2011): Responses of vegetation 

stages with woody dominants to stress and disturbance during 

succession of abandoned tailings in cultural landscape. – Journal 

of Landscape Ecology 4(2): 35–48. 

Kubátová A., Prášil K. & Váňová M. (2002): Diversity of soil microscopic 

fungi on abandoned industrial deposits. – Cryptogamie 

Mycologie 23: 205–219. 

Mudrák O., Frouz J. & Velichová V. (2010): Understory vegetation in 

reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining forest stands. – Ecological 

Engineering 36: 783–790. 

Novák J. & Prach K. (2003): Vegetation succession in basalt quarries: 

pattern over a landscape scale. – Applied Vegetation Science 6: 

111–116. 

Novák J. & Prach K. (2010): Artificial sowing of endangered dry grassland 

species into disused basalt quarries. – Flora 205: 179–183. 

Palice Z. & Soldán Z. (2004): Lichen and bryophyte species diversity 

on toxic substrates in the abandoned sedimentation basins of 

Chva letice and Bukovina. – In: Kovář P. (ed.), Natural recovery of 

human-made deposits in landscape. Biotic interactions and ore/ 

ash-slag artificial ecosystems, pp. 200–221, Academia, Praha. 




Prach K. & Hobbs R.J. (2008): Spontaneous succession versus technical 

reclamation in the restoration of disturbed sites. – Restoration 

Ecology 16: 363–366. 

Prach K. & Pyšek P. (2001): Using spontaneous succession for restoration 

of human-disturbed habitats: experience from Central 

Europe. – Ecological Engineering 17: 55–62. 

Prach K., Řehounková K., Řehounek J. & Konvalinková P. (2011): 

Ecological restoration of central European mining sites: a summary 

of a multi-site analysis. – Landscape Research 36: 263–268. 

Pyšek P., Prach K., Joyce C.B., Mucina L., Rapson G.L. & Müllerová J. 

(2001): The role of vegetation succession in ecosystem restoration. 

– Applied Vegetation Science 4: 3–4. 

Řehounek J., Řehounková K. & Prach K. (eds) (2010): Ekologická obnova 

území narušených těžbou nerostných surovin a průmyslovými 

deponiemi (Ecological restoration of sites disturbed by mining 

and industrial deposits). – Calla, České Budějovice. 


in disused gravel-sand pits: role of local site and landscape 

factors. – Journal of Vegetation Science 17: 583–590. 


in gravel-sand pits: a potential for restoration. – Restoration 

Ecology 16: 305–312. 

Řehounková K. & Prach K. (2010): Life-history traits and habitat 

preferences of colonizing plant species in long-term spontaneous 

succession in abandoned gravel-sand pits. – Basic and Applied 

Ecology 11: 45–53. 

Rydgren K., Nordbakken J.F., Austad I., Auestad I. & Heegaard E. 

(2010): Recreating semi-natural grasslands: a comparison of four 

methods. – Ecological Engineering 36: 1672–1679. 

Starý J., Kavina P., Vaněček M., Sitenský I., Kotková J. & Nekutová 

T. (2008): Surovinové zdroje České republiky. Nerostné suroviny, 

stav 2007 (Mineral commodity of the Czech Republic, 2007). – 

Česká geologická služba – Geofond, Praha. 

Tichý L. (2006): Diverzita vápencových lomů a možnosti jejich rekultivace 

s využitím přirozené sukcese na příkladu Růženina lomu 

(Diversity in limestone quarries and using natural succession in 

their reclamation, the Růženin lom quarry). – Zprávy České Botanické 

Společnosti, Materiály 21: 89–103. 

Trnková R., Řehounková K. & Prach K. (2010): Spontaneous succession 

of vegetation on acidic bedrock in quarries in the Czech Republic. 

– Preslia 82: 333–343. 

Tropek R., Kadlec T., Hejda M., Kočárek P., Skuhrovec J., Malenovský 

I., Vodka S., Spitzer L., Baňař P. & Konvička M. (2012): Technical 

reclamations are wasting the conservation potential of postmining 

sites. A case study of black coal spoil dumps. – Ecological 

Engeneering 43: 13–18. 

Tropek R., Kadlec T., Karešová P., Spitzer L., Kočárek P., Malenovský 

P., Baňař P., Tuf I.H., Hejda M. & Konvička M. (2010): Spontaneous 

succession in limestone quarries as an effective restoration 

tool for endangered arthropods and plants. – Journal of Applied 

Ecology 47: 139–147. 

Tropek R. & Konvička M. (2008): Can quarries supplement rare xeric 

habitats in a piedmont region? Spiders of the Blanský les Mts., 

Czech Republic. – Land Degradation and Developement 19: 

104–114. 

Tropek R. & Konvička M. (2011): Should restoration damage rare biotopes? 

– Biological Conservation 144: 1299. 

Vaňková J. & Kovář P. (2004): Plant species diversity in the biotopes 

of unreclaimed industrial deposits as artificial islands in the landscape. 

– In: Kovář P. (ed.), Natural recovery of human-made deposits 

in landscape. Biotic interactions and ore/ash-slag artificial 

ecosystems, pp. 30–45, Academia, Praha. 

Wallington T.J., Hobbs R.J. & Moore S.A. (2005): Implications of current 

ecological thinking for biodiversity conservation: A review of 

the salient issues. – Ecology and Society 10: 15. 

Young T.P., Petersen D.A. & Clary J.J. (2005): The ecology of restoration: 

historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms. – 

Ecology Letters 8: 662–673. 


Restoration and conservation of sand and gravel-sand pits 

 

Location 

Czech Republic (51 sites throughout the country) 

Protection status NR (9), SCI (10), temporarily protected area (4) 


Restored area 


Costs 

Various successional stages of 1 to 75 years old, established on dry, wet and slightly flooded sites (aquatic 

habitats not included); endangered habitats such as open sands, dry grasslands, oligotrophic marshes; 

reclaimed areas (forest, agricultural and hydrological reclamation) 

18 sand and gravel-sand pits of 0.05 to 6 ha 

Reclamation mostly funded by mining companies, subsequent management by the state (e.g. landscape 

management programmes), foundations, and from the “Adopt a Sand Martin!” project (www.calla.cz/ 

brehule) 

Ecological restoration of mining sites: €400–2,000/ha, agricultural and forest reclamation €20,000–40,000/ 

ha, restoration of vertical faces for Sand Martin nesting €400–600/face 


Sand and gravel-sand pits are important features affecting the 

landscape in several regions of the Czech Republic. Mining of sand 

and gravel-sand in many cases results in a new landscape type, often 

with large water bodies or conspicuously high vertical faces. Mining 

sites often have great nature conservation potential, because such 

sites may become secondary habitats for many endangered plant and 

animal species (mostly of early successional stages, e.g. open sands, 

dry grasslands and oligotrophic marshes). A typical example is the 

Sand Martin (Riparia riparia), whose population in the SW part of the 

country decreased from nearly 5,000 to approx. 2,000 pairs between 

1999 and 2009 (Heneberg 2009). 


Sand and gravel-sand originate mainly from river, lake and sea 

sedimentation or aeolian processes (shifting sands). Most of the deposits 

are of Quaternary origin, but a few originate also from Tertiary 

and Mesozoic periods. Mining may reveal important geomorphological 

processes (e.g. water erosion and landslides) and phenomena (e.g. 

stratigraphic profiles) which deserve protection. 

Soil creation processes on bare substrate start from the very beginning 

and are slow. Provided that an abandoned pit is not overlaid 

with organic material, oligotrophic conditions in the substrate and the 

water can sustain for a long time. 

Fig. 1. 



2002–2004 Study of spontaneous succession in 36 sand 

and gravel-sand pits across the Czech Republic 

(Řehounková & Prach 2006, 2008). 

2005 Survey of approx. 110 sites in the SW part of the 

country, selection of sites with prevailing spontaneous 

succession, and determining their nature 

conservation potential. 

2005–2011 Introduction of management to support Riparia 

riparia and hymenopterous insects, mainly creation 

and restoration of vertical faces (repeated annually 

or every other year), restoration of bare sand areas in 

a mosaic pattern by mechanical removing the topsoil 

layer, and removal of pioneer shrubs and trees from 

open sand habitats (11 localities). 

Monitoring of Riparia riparia at the 11 sites (Heneberg 

2009). 

2009 Management to support amphibians including creation 

and restoration of oligotrophic pools and small 

marshes (8 localities). 

2010–2011 Monitoring of realised management and its impact 

on amphibians and invertebrates, mostly aculeate 

Hymenoptera, spiders and water beetles at most sites 

(Heneberg 2010, 2011, Boukal 2010), protection of 

the most valuable localities. 

Objectives 

Maintenance or increase of biodiversity in sand and gravel-sand 

pits after exploitation; restoration and conservation of habitats important 

for endangered species, and stabilisation of their populations; 

protection of the most valuable localities (e.g. as protected or temporarily 

protected areas). 

Results 

In total, 452 vascular plants (ca. 16% of the Czech fl ora) were 

recorded in 224 phytosociological relevés in 36 selected sand and 

gravel-sand pits situated across the Czech Republic. Nearly 10% of the 

species are included in the Czech Red List (Holub & Procházka 2000), 

two of them as critically endangered – Variegated Horsetail (Equisetum 

variegatum) and Field Needleleaf (Polycnemum arvense). 

Ordination analyses showed that the water table was the most important 

site factor influencing the course of spontaneous vegetation 

succession. Succession was further significantly influenced by soil texture, 

pH, macroclimate, the presence of nearby (semi-)natural vegetation 

and land cover types in the surrounding landscape. 

Spontaneous vegetation succession usually leads (at various rates) 

to the formation of woodland (Fig. 3). Wet sites are dominated by 

willow and alder carr after about 25 years, dry sites typically show 

broad-leaved woodland with Silver Birch (Betula pendula), Scots Pine 

(Pinus sylvestris), Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) and Rowan (Sorbus 

aucuparia). Valuable successional stages of forest-steppe vegetation 

persist only at dry sites in the warmest regions of the Czech Republic. 

Shallowly flooded sites are dominated by stands of tall sedges 

(Carex spp.), Common Reed (Phragmites australis) and bulrushes 

(Typha spp.). 

Restoration of vertical faces for the nesting of Riparia riparia appeared 

to be very effective. In 2009, nearly 57% of Sand Martins in 

South Bohemia nested in managed pits and the introduced management 

halted its rapid decline and led to stabilisation of population 

Fig. 2. 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

Series: 

Grassland: 

- 

 

 

Woodland: 

 

Marshes: 

Ruderal vegetation: 

 

 


numbers (Heneberg 2009). Moreover, it was found that the management 

of pit walls also improved habitat conditions for other endangered 

species, mainly hymenopterous insects (Heneberg 2010). 

Generally it is important for invertebrates to maintain a heterogeneous 

mosaic of habitats, where patches of bare sand, vertical sand 

faces and other early successional stages are present (Heneberg 2010, 

2011, Tropek & Řehounek 2012). 

Fig. 4. 

 

Fig. 5. 


Spontaneous succession and other ways of ecological restoration 

are utilised only seldom, although they represent a cheap and naturefriendly 

alternative to classical reclamation still prevailing in the 

Czech Republic. Moreover, reclamation usually leads to a decrease in 

landscape heterogeneity and biodiversity and often destroys habitats 

of protected and endangered species (Řehounek et al. 2010). 

Management measures usually arrests or reverses the vegetation 

succession. Species typical of open sands or oligotrophic marshes respond 

fast to management measures. Newly created pools must fulfil 

conditions not only appropriate for amphibians but also for other endangered 

species. Therefore, shallowly fl ooded sites, diverse littoral 

areas and gentle water–land transitions should be a part of each restoration 

plan (Boukal 2010). 

In abandoned sand and sand-gravel pits, ecological restoration 

and nature conservation are often in harmony with recreational activities. 

Holidaymakers and tourist activity maintains the mosaic of 

sparse vegetation, which is an important biotope of many endangered 

species. A combination of nature conservation and sand/gravel-sand 

exploitation might even improve the conditions for endangered species, 

if appropriately directed. 

Recently, the area of ecologically restored sites in sand and sandgravel 

pits has gradually increased in spite of the unfavourable legislation. 

Popularisation of scientific results and presentation of examples 

of good practice in the field to the public have helped to make ecological 

restoration more visible. 


Scientists, enlightened officials, NGOs and even some mining 

and reclamation companies participate in the promotion of ecological 

restoration as an alternative to reclamation in sandpits after their exploitation 

has stopped. Public support for ecological restoration at the 

expense of traditional reclamation is still low but gradually increasing 

due to the popularisation mentioned above. 


The study was supported by grants DBU 91-0041-AZ26858-33/2 

and GA ČR P505/11/0256. 

References 

Boukal M. (2010): Zhodnocení usměrněné spontánní obnovy z hlediska 

vodních brouků na několika vybraných jihočeských pískovnách, 

doplněné poznámkami k jejich dalšímu managementu 

(Evaluation of directed spontaneous restoration from the aspect 

of water beetles on selected sandpits in South Bohemia, including 

notes on their further management). – Elateridarium 4: 78–93. 

Heneberg P. (2009): Analýza hnízdní populace břehulí v Jihočeském 

kraji v r. 2009 (Analysis of nesting Sand Martin populations in 

the South Bohemian Region in 2009). – Sdružení Calla, České 

Budějovice. 

Heneberg P. (2010): Analýza vlivu managementu břehule říční na 

populace blanokřídlého hmyzu ze skupiny Apocrita (Analysis of 

the impact of Sand Martin management on populations of Apocrita, 

Hymenoptera). – Sdružení Calla, České Budějovice. 

Heneberg P. (2011): Výsledky pilotního průzkumu pavoukovců ve vybraných 

jihočeských pískovnách (Results of preliminary Arachnida 

survey in selected South Bohemian sandpits). – Sdružení 

Calla, České Budějovice. 

Holub J. & Procházka F. (2000): Red List of vascular plants of the 

Czech Republic. – Preslia 72: 187–230. 

Řehounek J., Řehounková K. & Prach K. (2010): Ekologická obnova 

území narušených těžbou nerostných surovin a průmyslovými 

deponiemi (Ecological restoration of areas disturbed by mining of 

minerals and by industrial spoil heaps). – Sdružení Calla, České 

Budějovice. 


in disused gravel-sand pits: role of local and landscape factors. 

– Journal of Vegetation Science 17: 583–590. 


in gravel-sand pits: A potential for restoration. – Restoration 

Ecology 16: 305–312. 

Tropek R. & Řehounek J. (eds) (2012): Bezobratlí postindustriálních 

stanovišť: význam, ochrana a management (Invertebrates of 

post-industrial habitats: importance, conservation and management). 

– Entomologický ústav AV Č R & Sdružení Calla, České 

Budějovice. 


Coal mining spoil heaps in the Most region: restoration potential of 

spontaneous succession 

 

Location 


Restored area Approximately 150 km 2 

Costs 

Most Basin, northwest Czech Republic 

50°29'–50°34' N, 13°30'–13°51' E; altitude 260–300 m 

Various successional stages 1–55 years old, from aquatic to dry habitats; uniform technically reclaimed sites, 

mostly afforested 

Reclamation approximately €80,000 per ha, spontaneous succession without any cost 


Spoil heaps in the Most region are mainly formed by grey Tertiary 

clay sporadically mixed with sand and volcanic debris. Some spoil 

heaps or parts of them are left unreclaimed, not because they were 

scheduled for spontaneous development, but for other reasons, such 

as the presence of coal reserves underneath the heaps. As far as we 

know, only 60 ha of the heaps have been recently left to spontaneous 

succession, while in the rest of the area reclamation was or is in progress 

or planned. 

Heaping machines make a system of parallel elevations and depressions 

of various depth and size, thus an undulating surface usually 

develops. Water often accumulates in the deeper depressions. In this 

way, heaping creates a variety of microhabitats and promotes biodiversity. 

Reclamation predominantly consists of the following procedures. 

After stabilisation of the spoil substrate, usually after about eight years, 

the surface is levelled with heavy machinery and depressions with accumulated 

water are drained. On such a surface, organic material like 

milled timber or bark, or a humus layer stripped from mining sites is 

usually spread. When a heap is prepared in this way, trees are planted, 

usually one tree per m 2 . Tree species are sometimes indigenous, but 

not always. The second most common method of reclamation is directed 

at agricultural use. The heap surface is prepared similarly as in 

the previous case (a humus layer is deposited on the levelled spoil), 

but then it is sown with various commercial grass mixtures, usually 

with a large proportion of nitrogen-fixing legumes. A third common 

way of reclamation is creating water bodies, in which the excavations 

of abandoned mines are purposely flooded. 

Fig. 1. 

 


Fig. 2. 

 

 

Average number of species 

in a sample 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

N.S. 

N.S. 

1-5 6-10 11-15 16-25 26-35 >35 

Age (years) 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

 

Objectives 

The following main questions were addressed: (a) how fast is restoration 

of vegetation if we rely on spontaneous succession in comparison 

with reclamation, and (b) how do spontaneous succession 

and reclamation differ in terms of species diversity? 

Spontaneous succession and its 

comparison with reclamation 

The main methodological approach to describe vegetation succession 

consisted of vegetation records (phytosociological relevés) made 

in representative stages of different age on various spoil heaps in the 

region. Species cover was visually estimated (in %) in sampling plots 

of a regular size (5 × 5 m). 

Spontaneous succession usually proceeds in the following ways 

(Prach 1987, Hodačová & Prach 2003). Seeds of plants reach the 

heaps by wind, animals and sometimes also by man during heaping. 

Annual species (Atriplex sagittata, A. prostrata, Chenopodium spp. 

(mainly Chenopodium strictum), Persicaria lapathifolia, Polygonum 

arenastrum, and Senecio viscosus) and biennials (e.g. Carduus acanthoides) 

dominate in the first few years. Between the 5 th and 15 th years 

of succession, broad-leaved herbs (e.g. Tanacetum vulgare and Artemisia 

vulgaris) prevail. Cirsium arvense, followed by grasses, mainly 

Elytrigia repens, Calamagrostis epigejos and Arrhenatherum elatius, 

form the next successional stage, in which the cover of ruderal species 

decreases and that of meadow species increases. A more or less 

continuous vegetation cover is formed between the 10 th and 15 th year 

of spontaneous succession (Fig. 2). Sites without vegetation are quite 

.. 

.. 

... 

rare; these are mostly found on acid sands (with pH < 3.5). However, 

even such habitats have their value, being important for some retreating 

groups of invertebrates, mainly terrestrial bees and wasps, butterflies 

and neuropteran insects. Because the Most region has a relatively 

warm and dry climate, woody species have a rather low cover (up to 

30%), even in late successional stages. After about 20 years of succession, 

anthropogenic (or semi-natural) forest steppe is formed, which 

obviously persists for a relatively long period. In that time, the vegetation 

is relatively well stabilised and includes Sambucus nigra, Salix 

caprea, Populus spp., and especially Betula pendula, occasionally Acer 

pseudoplatanus, Fraxinus excelsior, Rosa canina, Crataegus spp. and 

other shrubs and trees. 

Wetlands develop quickly in depressions inside or along the edges 

of the heaps. Usually a large number of small pools are found here, 

which are crucial for amphibians, for which spoil heaps are highly 

important even at the national level (Vojar 2006). 

Reclaimed heaps host a much lower number of species than those 

spontaneously re-vegetated (Fig. 3), as shown for higher plants by 

Hodačová & Prach (2003) and by Hendrychová et al. (2011) for some 

invertebrates. In total, about 400 vascular plant species were found on 

spoil heaps of the Most district, which is approximately 15% of the 

Czech flora. 

Conclusions 

Most of the spoil heaps can potentially be restored by spontaneous 

succession, which is sufficiently fast and provides ecologically much 

more valuable habitats than reclamation (Prach et al. 2011). In terms 

of landscape restoration, reclamation is a negative and expensive activity 

except at sites which are endangered by erosion, close to the 

vicinity of settlements, and in case recreation and sport activities are 

planned. In many cases, reclamation destroys valuable habitats and 

negatively impacts populations of endangered and rare species. Moreover, 

spontaneous succession runs without any cost. 


The study was supported by grant GAČR P505/11/0256. 

References 

Hendrychová M., Šálek M., Tajovský K. & Řehoř M. (2011): Soil properties 

and species richness of invertebrates on afforested sites after 

brown coal mining. – Restoration Ecology, doi: 10.1111/j.1526- 

100X.2011.00841.x. 

Hodačová D. & Prach K. (2003): Spoil heaps from brown coal mining: 

technical reclamation vs. spontaneous re-vegetation. – Restoration 

Ecology 11: 385–391. 




Prach K., Řehounková K., Řehounek J. & Konvalinková P. (2011): Restoration 

of Central European mining sites: a summary of a multisite 

analysis. – Landscape Research 36: 263–268. 

Vojar J. (2006): Colonization of post-mining landscapes by Amphibians: 

a review. – Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica 37: 35–40. 


Restoration of spoil heaps by spontaneous succession in the Sokolov coal 

mining area 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Surrounding of the town of Sokolov, west Czech Republic 

50°09'–50°16' N, 12°30'–12°46' E; altitude 500–650 m 

Regional biocentre (part) 

Various successional stages from initial ones up to secondary forests 

300 ha 

Sokolovská uhelná coal mining company, ENKI o.p.s. 

Reclaimed sites €20,000–60,000/ha, sites overgrown by succession €1,000–3,000/ha (despite the fact that the 

overall cost of spontaneous succession is an order of magnitude lower than that of classical reclamation, it 

should be admitted that project preparation, preceding research and monitoring of spontaneous succession 

may be more expensive than the preparation of reclamation) 


Surface mining of brown coal has been carried out in the Sokolov 

district since the 1950s (Frouz et al. 2007). In this process a large 

amount of substrate above the coal (layers more than 100 m thick) has 

to be removed and deposited aside. The original ecosystems are either 

excavated or overlain by material from coal overburden. Restoration 

of natural values thus starts here on bare spoil substrate, which has 

continuously been deposited on the heaps since the mining began. 

The spoil heaps in the Sokolov district can potentially well be revegetated 

by means of spontaneous succession, as is apparent from 

several unreclaimed sites, but most of the heap area is reclaimed by 

means of traditional afforestation, whereby various tree species (both 

exotic and native) are planted directly into a spoil substrate which is 

not improved. 


The substrate forming the heaps is Miocene alkaline clay of the 

so-called Cypris formation (Rojík 2004). The pH (H 2 

O) of the freshly 

deposited material is between 8 and 9, but decreases during the succession 

to 5 to 6 (Frouz et al. 2008). The total amount of phosphorus 

in the substrate is relatively high (around 1200 mg.kg -1 ), but due to the 

high pH it is hardly available to plants. The availability of phosphorus 

increases with site age. The amount of nitrogen is rather low after substrate 

heaping, but later increases to 1000–2500 mg.kg -1 depending on 

site conditions (Frouz et al. 2008, Šourková et al. 2005). The substrate 

is dumped as solid mudstones, which disintegrate during weathering 

into smaller lamelloid fragments and finally (20–30 years after heaping) 

become amorphous clay (Frouz et al. 2001). This process strongly 

affects the water regime of the substrate, because water is adhesively 

Fig. 1. 

 


ound to amorphous clay and is thus less accessible to plants. Earlier 

in the succession, when lamelloid fragments are abundant in the 

substrate, and later, when soil structures are formed in the pedogenic 

process, the water regime becomes more favourable for plants (Cejpek 

& Frouz, unpubl.). 

Objectives 

The objective of this project is to protect rare and endangered species 

of plants, animals and fungi occurring on spoil heaps, but also 

to preserve the successional processes capable of reinstating many 

non-productive functions of reclaimed sites. These include resoiling, 

erosion control, and water regime improvement. Protection of unreclaimed 

sites also has high educative and scientific values, since they 

enable studying succession on the landscape scale. 

Soil development 

Several studies have demonstrated that restoration success is 

clearly linked with the process of soil formation, which occurs spontaneously 

at unreclaimed re-vegetated sites as well as in tree plantations 

(Frouz et al. 2008, 2009). Many processes take place in soil formation, 

but on the spoil heaps the activity of soil macrofauna, namely 

earthworms, was found to be particularly important. Earthworms 

(Aporrectodea caliginosa, A. rosea, Dendrobaena octaedra, Dendrodrilus 

rubidus, Lumbricus rubellus, and Octolasion lacteum; Pižl 2001) 

colonise the heaps mostly without deliberate human intervention. 

They are probably most often introduced on the heaps with the soil 

on the roots of planted tree saplings. Earthworms mix plant litter with 

the spoil, form stable soil aggregates and stabilise the organic matter 

in the soil by consumption of a large amount of substrate, which 

improves water regime and plant nutrition (Frouz et al. 2008). The 

composition of earthworm communities substantially differs between 

sites dominated by different tree species (Frouz et al. 2009). Especially 

the quality of litter produced by trees seems to be important here, as 

litter is a significant source of nutrition for earthworms, and structure, 

chemical composition and also palatability of the litter are speciesspecific 

(Frouz 2008, Lavelle et al. 1997). Soil formation is relatively 

fast under particular tree species. In the soil profile on sites with Alnus 

plantations (A. glutinosa and A. incana) a layer of mull humus 

(A horizon) of 93 mm thick on average is formed within 28 years. At 

unreclaimed sites the process of soil formation is slower. Within 28 

years only a 27 mm thick layer of A horizon is formed here (Frouz et 

al. 2009, Mudrák et al. 2010), but the difference disappears with time 

and sites of 40 years old have a similar A horizon thickness. 

Results 

Both in the forest plantations and at the unreclaimed sites, soil 

conditions were found to be important for plant communities. Shortly 

after the heaping, unreclaimed sites are colonised by mainly ruderal 

species such as Poa compressa, Tanacetum vulgare and Tussilago 

farfara, but also tree seedlings of Goat Willow (Salix caprea), Birch 

(Betula pendula) and Aspen (Populus tremula) establish and later 

dominate the plant community. Around the 20 th year of succession, 

Salix caprea prevails in the vegetation, which is later outcompeted by 

Betula pendula and Populus tremula. Between the 20 th and 30 th year 

of succession the unreclaimed sites are colonised by earthworms. The 

subsequent changes in the soil profile support establishment of species 

native to meadow and forest communities. After more than 40 

years the succession leads to a development of sparse birch and aspen 

woodland with a species-rich understorey (up to 49 species per 25 

m 2 ) mainly dominated by meadow species such as Arrhenatherum 

elatius, Festuca rubra, Plantago lanceolata, and Lotus corniculatus. In 

Fig. 2. 

Fig. 3. 

Fig. 4. 

these stages, however, also the competitively strong grass Calamagrostis 

epigejos increases in dominance and often suppresses other species 

(Frouz et al. 2008). 

At the reclaimed afforested sites the effect of soil conditions coincides 

rather with the productivity of understorey species than with 

their diversity. Sites with the best developed soil profile have the highest 

total cover and highest total understorey biomass. However, this 


Number of species 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

b 

b 

b 

ab 

ab 

a 

a 

A L Pc Pn Q T U 

Forest type 

Fig. 5. - 

 

PiceaTilia- 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

is mainly due to one species – Calamagrostis epigejos, whose cover 

negatively correlates with the number of other plant species. In a 

comparison of six forest types (planted in reclamation measures and 

aged 20–33 years) each dominated by a different tree genus (Alnus, 

Larix, Picea, Pinus, Quercus, Tilia) with unreclaimed sites spontaneously 

colonised by Salix caprea, Betula pendula and Populus tremula, 

the highest number of species was found in the stands dominated 

by Quercus (19 per 25 m 2 ), which was comparable with the number 

observed in spontaneous succession plots (17 per 25 m 2 ). The lowest 

number of species was observed in the Alnus plots (10 per 25 m 2 ) 

(Fig. 5). 

Spoil heaps and mainly unreclaimed sites host large numbers of 

rare and endangered species. They are for example inhabited by the 

largest stable population of the toad Bufo calamita in the Czech Republic. 

Other amphibians living here include Bufo viridis, Pelobates 

fuscus, Triturus cristatus, T. vulgaris, T. alpestris, Rana lessonae, R. 

ridibunda, and Hyla arborea. Rare birds to be mentioned are Rallus 

aquaticus, Luscinia svecica, Oenanthe oenanthe, and Remiz pendulinus 

(Frouz et al. 2007). 


Including spontaneously developing sites into the new post-mining 

landscape substantially increases diversity (on the level of both 

species and communities), improves the scenery and last but not least 

has a high educational value. Moreover, spontaneous processes can 

relatively quickly restore soil conditions in the spoil substrate. Expensive 

overlaying of the spoil by an organic horizon (as is often done in 

other coal mining districts) is therefore unnecessary. 

An important threat to the ecological restoration of spoil heaps is 

the spread of the competitive grass Calamagrostis epigejos. 


The local public as well as the coal mining company are interested 

in improving the scenery and ecosystem functions and services. 


The study was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and 

Sports of the Czech Republic (LC06066, 2B80023), the Agency of the 

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (grants nos. S600660505 

and P505/11/0256), the Research Plan of the Institute of Soil Biology 

(AV0Z60660521), the Research Plan of the Institute of Botany 

(AV0Z60050516), and Sokolovská uhelná a.s. Coal Mining Company. 

Fig. 6. 

 

 

References 

Frouz J. (2008): The effect of litter type and macrofauna community 

on litter decomposition and organic matter accumulation in postmining 

sites. – Biologia 63: 249–253. 

Frouz J., Cienciala E., Pižl V. & Kalčík J. (2009): Carbon storage in 

post-mining forest soil, the role of tree biomass and soil bioturbation. 

– Biogeochemistry 94: 111–121. 

Frouz J., Keplin B., Pižl V., Tajovský K., Starý J., Lukešová A., Novaková 

A., Balík V., Háněl L., Materna J., Duker C., Chalupský 

J., Rusek J. & Heinkele T. (2001): Soil biota and upper soil layer 

development in two contrasting post-mining chronosequences. – 

Ecological Engineering 17: 275–284. 

Frouz J., Popperl J., Přikryl I. & Štrudl J. (2007): New landscape design 

in the region of Sokolov. – Sokolovská uhelná, právní nástupce 

a.s., Sokolov. 

Frouz J., Prach K., Pižl V., Háněl L., Starý J., Tajovský K., Materna J., 

Balík V., Kalčík J. & Řehounková K. (2008): Interactions between 

soil development, vegetation and soil fauna during spontaneous 

succession in post mining sites. – European Journal of Soil Biology 

44: 109–121. 

Lavelle P., Bignell D., Lepage M., Wolters V., Rogers P., Ineson P., Heal 

O.W. & Dhillion S. (1997): Soil function in a changing world: the 

role of invertebrate ecosystem engineers. – European Journal of 

Soil Biology 33: 159–193. 

Mudrák O., Frouz J. & Velichová V. (2010): Understory vegetation in 

reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining forest stands – Ecological 

Engineering 36: 783–790. 

Pižl V. (2001): Earthworm succession in afforested colliery spoil heaps 

in the Sokolov region, Czech Republic. – Restoration Ecology 9: 

359–364. 

Rojík P. (2004): New stratigraphic subdivision of the Tertiary in 

Sokolov Basin in Northwestern Bohemia. – Journal of the Czech 

Geological Society 49: 173–186. 

Šourková M., Frouz J. & Š antrůčková H. (2005): Accumulation of 

carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus during soil formation on alder 

spoil heaps after brown-coal mining, near Sokolov (Czech Republic). 

– Geoderma 124: 203–214. 


Restoration of dry grassland vegetation in the abandoned Hády limestone 

quarry near Brno 

Location 



Restored area 

NE of the city of Brno, southeast Czech Republic 

49°12'58"–49°13'18" N, 16°40'03"–16°40'35" E; altitude 310–410 m 

SCI 

 

The main habitat types in the surroundings of the restored area are semi-natural semi-dry grasslands 

(Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati) and open thermophilous oak forests (Quercion pubescenti-petraeae) 

6 ha mosaic in an area of 20 ha 


Českomoravský cement, a.s., nástupnická společnost (1998–2003), European Commission (LIFE Nature, 

2004–2007), Czech Ministry of the Environment (grants for NGOs, 2000–2009) 

Costs Approximately €80,000 


The Hády quarry borders the Moravian Karst (Moravský kras) 

PLA. The close surroundings of the quarry are home to many rare 

thermophilous insects and 79 red-listed plant species (Holub & 

Procházka 2000, Tichý 2000; categories C1–C3). Archaeological evidence 

of limestone burning in the quarry goes back to the Middle 

Ages, but the recent history of the quarry started in 1907. Between 

1965 and 1997, up to 300,000 tonnes of limestone were mined annually. 

Excavation stopped 90 years after it started, in 1997. The quarry 

location and surviving remnants of species-rich forest-steppe vegetation 

in the close vicinity were ideal to start a unique restoration project 

aimed at creating a mosaic of species-rich habitats. 


The entire locality has basic and nutrient-poor soils based on 

limestone. The dry conditions of the south-facing rocky slopes and 

terraces contrast with the large scree areas and the quarry bottom 

with artificial lakes surrounded by a small marsh spontaneously developed 

on mining deposits. 


1998–2009 Seeds of about 70 thermophilous plant species of 

Pannonian grassland vegetation were manually collected 

from natural vegetation in the close surroundings 

of the quarry. 

1998, 2001, 

2005–2006 

A thin topsoil layer was artificially created in selected 

places of limestone terraces as a basis for the 

following restoration. 

1998–2010 Hay was taken from steppe grasslands and distributed 

over recently sown localities to support seed 

germination. 

2005–2008 Alien species (Robinia pseudacacia, Amorpha fruticosa, 

genetically introgressed populations of Populus 

nigra, Solidago canadensis, etc.) from newly established 

communities were widely removed (mowing, 

manual eradication, cutting incl. herbicide application) 

from the entire area of the former quarry. 

1999–2006 Scattered planting of native shrubs (Quercus 

pubescens, Q. petraea, Cornus mas, C. sanguinea, 

Crataegus monogyna, Ligustrum vulgare). 

Objectives 

Restoration of dry grassland vegetation in a previously mined area 

with a minimum of technical restoration; increasing biodiversity; improving 

scenery. 

Fig. 1. 

 

Results 

During 12 years, a total area of about 6 hectares was reclaimed 

in a mosaic of separate areas (0.1–0.5 ha) step-by-step. This strategy 

appeared to be speeded up by additional introduction of some species 

to the quarry area (Fig. 2). Various restoration techniques were used: 

(A) addition of thin topsoil layer, (B) sowing seeds of thermophilous 

species, (C) addition of a thin hay layer with maturing grass seeds, 

and locally also (D) planting of thermophilous trees and shrubs. Altogether, 

17 endangered species of vascular plants were successfully 

sown and planted in the area of the quarry, after which some of them 

formed large populations of hundreds and thousands of individuals: 


Fig. 2. - 

 

 

References 



Tichý L. (2000): Současný stav vápencové stepi na jižních svazích 

Hádů u Brna. (Recent state of limestone steppe on southern slopes 

of Hády hill near Brno.) – Zprávy České botanické společnosti 35: 

99–105. 

Tichý L. (2006): Diverzita vápencových lomů a možnosti jejich rekultivace 

s využitím přirozené sukcese na příkladu Růženina lomu. 

(Diversity of limestone quarries and possibilities of their restoration 

by using natural succession on the example of ‘Růženin lom’ 

quarry.) – In: Prach K., Pyšek P., Tichý L., Kovář P., Jongepierová 

I. & Řehounková K., Botanika a ekologie obnovy, pp. 89–104, 

Zprávy České botanické společnosti, Materiály 21. 

e.g. Arabis auriculata, Aster amellus, A. linosyris, Centaurium pulchellum, 

Crepis foetida subsp. rhoeadifolia, Epipactis palustris, Inula ensifolia, 

Linum tenuifolium, Melica ciliata, Onobrychis arenaria, Polygala 

major, Rosa spinosissima, and Thymus pannonicus. The current environmental 

importance of the Hády quarry is fully comparable with 

other protected natural areas in the vicinity of Brno. 


Separate application of each of the above-mentioned restoration 

methods had limited success. However, their combination (thin topsoil 

layer addition, additional sowing of thermophilous species, covering 

with a thin layer of hay) resulted into sparse, but sufficiently 

species-rich grassland communities within 5–7 years. Such a new 

environment has several advantages for dry grassland species. It is 

relatively nutrient-poor, drier than natural habitats, the surface is usually 

flat, and the succession is blocked by the shallow soils. In such 

extreme conditions the newly established vegetation remains rather 

sparse and includes hardly any ruderal species. The new grasslands are 

relatively stable and need not be regularly grazed or mown. 

Fig. 3. 


The main part of the quarry is currently owned by a local environmental 

NGO. Even though the establishment of new communities 

needs a longer time with this type of restoration, the final vegetation 

cover is more stable, valuable for its biodiversity and not susceptible to 

ruderalisation. It should be supported by mining companies and local 

authorities as a relatively cheap and environmentally-friendly alternative 

of landscape restoration and environmental recovery. 


This study was supported by the Ministry of Education of the 

Czech Republic (MSM0021622416). 

Fig. 4. 

 


Experimental restoration of species-rich deciduous forest on mining 

deposits in Mokrá limestone quarry 

Location 


Restored area 

 

E of the city of Brno, east Czech Republic 

49°13'36" N, 16°45'44" E; altitude 370–380 m 

Oak-hornbeam forests (Carpinion) and open thermophilous oak forests (Quercion pubescenti-petraeae) as 

target communities 

0.06 ha 

Financial support Českomoravský cement, a.s., nástupnická společnost (2008–2011) 

Costs Approximately €8,000 


Mokrá quarry is one the largest limestone quarries in the Czech 

Republic. Mining started here in 1968 and the current quarry area 

is more than 1.2 km 2 in size. The quarry borders the southern part 

of the Moravian Karst (Moravský kras) PLA. Most of the quarry is 

surrounded by relatively species-rich oak-hornbeam forests and some 

remnants of thermophilous oak woodland. Animal and plant diversity 

is supported by the limestone bedrock and includes many endangered 

species of forests and forest-steppes (Holub & Procházka 2000). 

The destruction of valuable forest habitats was the reason to establish 

a small experimental area here to test methods which could 

enable forest restoration on mining deposits. The project was initiated 

and supported by the Českomoravský cement mining company in cooperation 

with local environmental NGOs. 


The two experimental areas are covered by basic soils with pH 

ranging from 7.7 to 8.0. Three plots (A) are situated on steep westfacing 

slopes, while the other three plots (B) occupy steep east-facing 

slopes. The mean annual temperature is approximately 8.4 °C and the 

annual rainfall 509 mm (Airport Brno-Tuřany; http://www.airportbrno.cz). 

Objectives 

Creation of species-rich deciduous forests with typical forest species, 

increasing biodiversity, acceleration of forest ecosystem restoration, 

diversification of forest vegetation structure, improving of scenery. 

Methods 

A 14-year old tree plantation of Acer pseudoplatanus, Tilia cordata 

and Pinus nigra on a reclaimed area of mining deposits was selected 

for the experiment. Six 100 m 2 permanent plots were divided 

into two groups. In area A, the first three plots, each with a 5-metre 

broad buffer zone, were protected with a 1.5 m tall fence. The other 

three plots in area B remained unprotected. Only newly planted trees 

in that area were fenced individually. The vegetation structure of the 

permanent plots was first recorded in September 2008. Then one plot 

from the first and one plot from the other group were covered with a 

thin layer of soil removed from an old semi-natural oak-hornbeam 

forest (dispersed over the area), containing roots, stems and seeds of 

many forest species. The second pair of plots was covered with forest 

litter (mostly dead leaves) collected and transported manually in 

large bags. The third pair of plots remained unaffected as a control. 

The tree canopy of the first four plots was opened (for about 20–40%) 

and young individuals of Cornus mas, Carpinus betulus and Crataegus 

monogyna were additionally planted in the openings. 


2008 Soil and litter were removed from a semi-natural 

oak-hornbeam forest and transported to the experimental 

plots. 

2008–2011 Former tree plantations were gradually opened by 

cutting about 20–40% of the trees. Bottom branches 

of other trees were trimmed. 

2009 New shrubs and trees were planted to increase the 

diversity of the future forest. 

One part of experimental area A was fenced. Young 

trees in experimental area B were fenced individually. 

Results 

At the beginning of the experiment, the herb layer of all plots consisted 

of mostly ruderal and heliophilous species. Three years later, we 

observed a significant increase in species in both plots covered with 

new soil, while the diversity and species structure of the other ones remained 

rather similar (Fig. 2). Even though some ruderal species persisted, 

many new species of semi-natural deciduous forests appeared 

in these plots: Campanula persicifolia, Carex digitata, Convallaria majalis, 

Fragaria vesca, Galium odoratum, G. sylvaticum, Hieracium maculatum, 

H. murorum, H. sabaudum, Lathyrus niger, L. vernus, Luzula 

luzuloides, Scrophularia nodosa, Viola reichenbachiana, V. riviniana. 

Fig. 1. 

 



Even if this small preliminary experiment was started just three 

years ago, the presented results clearly show that forest ecosystem 

restoration can be accelerated. The increasing mining area in large 

quarries sometimes repeatedly results in destruction of areas with 

semi-natural deciduous forest. The soil transferred from such forest 

vegetation before tree cutting and mining may be a good source 

of typical forest vascular plants and probably also of soil organisms, 

fungi and anthropods. The tree plantation intended for biodiversity 

increase must be at least 10 years old and its establishment should 

already count with an additional supplement of fresh soil from areas 

prepared for mining. The tree canopy must be well developed to protect 

the new soil against direct sunlight. For optimal restoration of 

this vegetation type, an appropriate and long-term vision of quarry 

exploitation and subsequent reclamation is necessary. This sort of reclamation 

is best applied in larger quarries owned by companies with a 

highly developed environmental liability. 

Fig. 2. 

- 

 

- 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


The area is fully private, owned by the Českomoravský cement 

mining company, without free public access. The results of this experiment 

are available to serve forest restoration of other mining deposits. 


The study was supported by the Ministry of Education of the 

Czech Republic (MSM 0021622416). 

References 

Chytrý M. & Rafajová M. (2003): Czech National Phytosociological 

Database: basic statistics of the available vegetation-plot data. – 

Preslia 75: 1–15. 

Ellenberg H., Weber H.E., Düll R., Wirth V., Werner W. & Paulissen 

D. (1992): Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa. Ed. 2. – 

Scripta Geobotanica 18: 1–248. 



Fig. 3. 

 

 


Experimental acceleration of primary succession on abandoned tailings: 

role of surface biological crust 

 

Location 


Restored area 

Elbe river lowland near Chvaletice, East Bohemia, Czech Republic 

50°02' N, 15°26' E; altitude 200 m 

Initial successional stages 

40 ha 


The industrial deposit system at Chvaletice consists of three tailings 

(ore-washery basins) as a result of former pyrite ore mining. 

In 1952 a surface mine was opened here. Sulphidic gneisses and 

carbonate Fe-Mn ore deposits were the main waste material originating 

as a by-product of sulphuric acid production. This material was 

transported as sludge (mixed with water) to sedimentation basins. 

After a basin had been filled up, dikes were built around it to fill the 

artificial basin with more sludge. This was repeated several times thus 

creating a final body of industrial deposits 18 m high (Kovář 2004). 

The quarry at Chvaletice was finally closed in the mid-1970s, after 

which the two older tailings were reclaimed in a conventional way 

(partly agriculturally, partly by tree planting; Kovář 1979). The third, 

youngest basin has never been filled in completely and its surface has 

remained unreclaimed since the early 1980s and has become an important 

experimental site for the monitoring and testing of spontaneous 

colonisation of the substrate (Kovář et al. 2011). 

The ecotoxicological character of the site plays an important role 

in its reclamation. The high heavy metal concentrations, extreme pH 

values, and high sulphur and phenol content of the substrate complicate 

spontaneous processes which would lead to natural recovery 

(Kovář 1990, Vos & Opdam 1993). The soil surface is moderately 

consolidated by salt efflorescences (from gypsum and jarosite). Soil 

development greatly varies over the basin, according to the microtopography 

determined by oxidation of sulphides and leaching of 

salts. Secondary salt accumulation is determined by the length of dry 

periods in the growing season. A strongly cemented horizon with red 

ferric oxides and gypsum has developed at lower depths of soil profiles 

(Rauch in Kovář 2004: 45–58). 

The non-reclaimed basin has therefore remained largely treeless 

and non-vegetated, and no manipulations were carried out after 

abandonment. In the genesis of acid sulphate soils, chemical processes 

prevail over the role of vegetation, which is reflected in major 

adverse characteristics of the soil profiles. The vascular plant diversity 

Fig. 1. 

- 

 

Fig. 2. 

 

 


Fig. 3. 

 

 

Fig. 4. 

- 

 

 

is usually low in this toxic environment. In such places, the surface 

is often covered with biological soil crusts, originating spontaneously 

and analogous to similar crusts frequent in semi-arid and desert environments 

(Evans & Johansen 1999, Hroudová & Zákravský in Kovář 

2004: 235–247, Neustupa et al. 2009). Both types of crust are usually 

composed of fungal mycelia, cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, mosses 

and liverworts (Kovář 2004, Neustupa et al. 2009). The initial state 

of the substrate surface resists colonisation by vascular plants (Palice 

& Soldán in Kovář 2004: 200–221, Pohlová in Kovář 2004: 222–234) 

because its roughness is insufficient (extremely low interception and 

retention capacity for plant seeds transported by wind) and a humus 

soil layer is missing (absence of biotic nitrogen and carbon fixation). 

Results 

The addition of dry plant biomass resulted in a very rapid appearance 

of numerous seedlings, predominantly of Calamagrostis epigejos. 

This resistant pioneer grass species exhibits both anemochorous and 

zoochorous (myrmecochorous) dispersal strategies depending on the 

properties of the tailing substrate (Bryndová & Kovář in Kovář 2004: 

267–276, Jiráčková & Dostál in Kovář 2004: 59–76). Establishment of 

the light seeds depends on surface roughness (retention and fixation) 

and microhabitat conditions. The introduced plant litter moderates 

extremes of salinity and microclimate (Fig. 4). 

The initial stage is dominated by Calamagrostis epigejos due to 

its high abundance in the surroundings. After initial large differences 

between treatment and control plots, the abundance of this 

grass showed convergence, suggesting that the development does not 

necessarily indicate a negative trend towards a blocked successional 

stage with solely this clonal grass (e.g. Prach & Pyšek 1994). In these 

extreme ecological conditions, Calamagrostis epigejos plays a positive 

role, in contrast to its behaviour in other habitats such as spoil heaps 

after coal mining. In the second year of our experiment, seedlings of 

the following plant species were recorded: Cerastium holosteoides, Conyza 

canadensis, Epilobium sp., Puccinellia distans, Sonchus oleraceus, 

Taraxacum sect. Ruderalia, Tanacetum vulgare, Betula pendula and 

Populus tremula (Dlouhá 2000). 

The increase in species number continued during the following 

years reaching a stage in which the local stand has become similar to 

that of the species pool in the surrounding. The tree layer has reached 

a height of ca. 5 m (for details, see Kovář et al. 2011). 

The revegetation was significantly enhanced by the organic litter 

cover, which protected the rhizosphere against heat, drought and salt 

incrustation (Rauch in Kovář 2004: 45–58, Vaňková & Kovář in Kovář 

2004: 30–45). This creation of a biological crust was based on a synergy 

of two effects of the added organic material: nutrient enrichment 

by decomposition of dead matter (Kovářová & Frantík in Kovář 2004: 

153–175) and creating a vital environment for ants as distributors of 

zoochoric plants (Jarešová & Kovář in Kovář 2004: 300–310). 

Conclusions 

Addition of dry local aboveground plant biomass to the surface 

of an abandoned tailing suggests the following functions in assisted 

restoration of ecologically extreme sites: 

— it provides substrate roughness and retention of seeds transported 

by wind, 

— it protects the rhizosphere against extreme heat, drought and salt 

incrustation, 

Objectives 

Investigating the effectiveness of introducing dead plant biomass 

added to the bare surface of a non-reclaimed tailing in terms of plant 

colonisation and speed of vegetation succession, species diversity and 

the facilitation of natural processes. 

Methods 

Experimental plots were designed (1993) as paired quadrats 

(one treatment, one control) with eight replicates (i.e. 16 squares of 

1.5 × 1.5 m). The bare substrate surface was covered with a 10–15 

cm thick layer of dry local plant biomass. All plots were divided into 

15 × 15 cm squares for recording vegetation features (Dlouhá 2000). 

Abundance of the aboveground biomass was assessed (1995–1999) by 

means of using a nine-point scale (0–8). 

Fig. 5. - 

 


Fig. 6. 

 

 

— it positively modifies the hydrological regime of microsites, 

— it commences the creation of a humus soil layer and enrichment 

of the substrate with nutrients, 

— it facilitates colonisation by plant seedlings from seeds transported 

by anemochorous or zoochorous mechanisms, 

— generally speaking, it is the essential factor in creating an effective 

biological crust enhancing and accelerating species diversity during 

succession. 


The work was supported by grant no. 206/93/2256 of the Grant 

Agency of the Czech Republic, grant no. 200/1997/B/BIO of the Grant 

Agency of Charles University, by three grants of the Fund for Development 

of Universities of the Czech Ministry of Education and by 

research project no. 31300042 of the Czech Ministry of Education. 

References 

Dlouhá V. (2000): Functions of dead organic matter in primary succession 

on abandoned ore washery sedimentations basin in Chvaletice. 

– Ms.; Master thesis, Department of Botany, Charles University, 

Prague. 

Evans R.D. & Johansen J.R. (1999): Microbiotic crusts and ecosystem 

processes. – Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 18: 183–225. 

Kovář P. (1979): Geobotanical aspects of the sedimentation pond 

reclamation after pyrite processing near surface mining at Chvaletice. 

– Práce a studie, Příroda 11: 63–78. 

Kovář P. (1990): Ecotoxicological contamination processes: interaction 

with vegetation. – Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 25: 

407–430. 


landscape (biotic interactions and ore/ash-slag artificial ecosystems). 

– Academia, Prague. 

Kovář P., Štefánek M. & Mrázek J. (2011): Responses of vegetation 

stages with woody dominants to stress and disturbance during 

succession of abandoned tailings in cultural landscape. – Journal 

of Landscape Ecology 4/2: 35–48. 

Neustupa J., Škaloud P., Peksa O., Kubátová A., Soldán Z, Černá 

K., Prášil K., Bukovská P., Vojta J., Pažoutová M., Veselá J. & 

Škaloudová M. (2009): The biological soil crusts in Central European 

ecosystems, with special reference to taxonomic structure 

and ecology of the surface crusts at Czech ore-waste and ash-slag 

sedimentation industrial basins. – Novitates Botanicae Universitatis 

Carolinae 19 (2008): 9–99. 

Prach K. & Pyšek P. (1994): Clonal plants – What is their role in succession? 

– Folia Geobotanica et Phytotaxonomica 29: 307–320. 

Vos C.C. & Opdam P. (eds) (1993): Landscape ecology of a stressed 

environment. – Chapman & Hall, London. 


Abandoned military areas

Introduction 

 

Both active and abandoned military areas have recently begun to 

be perceived as areas with high species diversity, hosting many protected 

and endangered species. Biologists have gradually discovered 

that they serve as refuges for organisms which are rare or vanishing 

from the countryside (Reif et al. 2011). Research shows that these sites 

are of the same, and for some taxa even of greater importance than 

nature reserves with similar types of habitats (Cizek et al. submitted). 

Areas influenced by military activities are of key importance especially 

to organisms requiring disturbed and early successional stages, which 

have practically disappeared from the landscape in the past decades. 

Biodiversity and military activity 

How have these sites become biodiversity hotspots of the Czech 

landscape and what is the reason for such a large number of species 

living here? In military areas several factors, to which we owe the preservation 

of their species richness, have come together. Most training 

areas and shooting ranges were established in the 1950s or even before. 

They were established in an agricultural landscape, in those days 

still markedly heterogeneous, composed of a mosaic of small fields, 

pastures and open forests and therefore on average rather species-rich. 

Moreover, the training areas were established on large areas, including 

a wide range of habitats in various successional stages and thus also 

a large number of species. The actual military activities subsequently 

produced a sufficiently dense mosaic of habitats allowing survival of 

viable populations at a smaller scale than the surrounding landscape. 

Experience has shown that agricultural areas of a similar size would 

not be able to sustain a sufficiently structured mosaic of habitats. Impacts 

of military activities are naturally not equally convenient for all 

species, but support especially the creation of early successional stages 

and organisms associated with these. It is the permanent or repeated 

disturbance that is essential for the survival of many endangered species 

(e.g. White & Jentsch 2004, Jentsch 2007). Another important 

factor influencing species diversity of areas used by the military is the 

fact that these sites have escaped from eutrophication. 

Fig. 1. - 

 

 

 

Fig. 2. 

 

Fig. 3. 

 

Nature conservation 

In many aspects, the development of the nature conservationist’s 

view of military areas has been similar to that of other sites created 

by human activities, such as quarries, dumps, waste ash dumps, and 

sludge lagoons. Also their view of military areas went through a stage 

of comparison to a moon landscape and weeping over destroyed nature. 

Finally we have realised that on the contrary we have created, 

or more precisely, assisted in making, biologically interesting areas 

where the species diversity is high not despite military activities, but 

thanks to them. Unfortunately we are still failing in applying this finding 

more broadly in practice and in abandoning classical methods 

when designing the management of these areas. 

Military training activities are heterogeneous in space and time, 

which leads to formation and maintenance of a mosaic of variously 

changing habitats. It is the dynamics of army activities including 

strong disturbances that is the essential factor for maintenance of diversity. 

Impacts of military activities thus open up a living space even 

for less competitive, mostly endangered species. This is a substantially 

different approach from the usual management of open habitat communities, 

which are currently restored by grazing or mowing, with 

the objective to preserve a more or less stable state. This sometimes 

gardening-like maintenance of a successional stage of a certain habi- 

Abandoned military areas 111

tat, however, is only convenient for some target species. Disturbances 

have not yet been fully appreciated in common conservation practice 

and are mostly understood as a factor blocking succession. 

At the beginning of the 1990s, the areas used by the army underwent 

a considerable transformation. After departure of the Soviet 

army and reduction of the Czech (Czechoslovak) army at most of the 

training grounds and shooting ranges, military activities were inhibited. 

Three training areas, Milovice–Mladá, Mimoň (near Ralsko), and 

Dobrá Voda in the Šumava range, were even abandoned completely. 

Some sites have been used commercially, others changed into arable 

land or homogenous grasslands, and some were afforested, supported 

by subsidies. Several of them were designated as nature reserves, e.g. 

Bzenec Training Area, Na Plachtě 2 (Hradec Králové), Tankodrom 

(Rakovník), and Pod Benáteckým vrchem (Milovice). Most of the areas 

have however remained unnoticed by both investors and nature 

conservation authorities. 

Development since 1990 

Twenty years after military training activities ended, bare soil 

has disappeared due to succession, grasslands have grown dense, and 

shrub and tree vegetation has expanded massively. Some training areas 

or parts of them have become practically impassable. It may be 

clear which negative influence these changes have had to the species 

composition of these sites. Unfortunately, not even the designated 

nature reserves have been managed optimally during that period. 

Some have remained practically without management (e.g. Tankodrom), 

at others inappropriate management was implemented (e.g. 

homogenous mechanical mowing at Pod Benáteckým vrchem), and 

elsewhere management with the ambition to preserve selected habitats 

(Na Plachtě 2) was applied. Designating abandoned military areas 

as nature reserves unfortunately meant exclusion of motocross riders 

and off-roaders, which actually helped avoiding the worst in some unprotected 

areas of this type. 

Over the past few years there has been a lot of agitation about military 

areas. At many sites various business projects are being planned 

or have been realised, e.g. solar power plants (Stříbro, Ralsko) and 

amusement centres (Ralsko). Also nature conservation was active and 

designated more than 20 sites as SCIs. However more importantly, the 

management interventions at these sites have changed and the first 

projects simulating or using military activities have appeared. Activities 

at Milovice–Mladá and Na Plachtě are definitely noteworthy; for 

details, see the case studies. 

Desired management 

Especially simulation or maximum use of military activities which 

have produced such species-rich places are the key to preserving the 

biological qualities of the sites. No data are yet available to support 

this argument, but monitoring is being carried out on the impact of 

particular activities and combinations of them. There is, nevertheless, 

one unquestionable argument for the approach of simulating military 

activities. The army-used areas were usually established in a landscape 

of moderate quality at the time (the 1940s and 1950s). Military activities 

have not only preserved the local species to date, but the conditions 

at these sites were so favourable that the species have survived 

even 20 years without management and are only vanishing now. 

It therefore seems logical to continue the methods influencing 

and maintaining the areas for decades. It would definitely be unfortunate 

to introduce uniform types of management such as mowing large 

Fig. 4. - 

 

112 Abandoned military areas

Fig. 5. 

 

 

areas, which cannot provide a heterogeneous mosaic of habitats with 

sufficient representation of open substrate and sparse grassland vegetation. 

The first results of interventions at Milovice and Na Plachtě 

show that we are heading in the right direction. These confirm that 

it is necessary to incorporate a wide range of disturbances simulating 

the impact of driving with tracked and wheeled vehicles in these 

areas, and to restore minor variations in the soil horizon formed while 

making trenches and dugouts or by explosives. It is also essential to 

include burning in the management. These activities have of course to 

be combined randomly in space and time. 

We have to point out here that these methods do not only concern 

non-forest habitats. Most of all the sites Milovice–Mladá and 

Ralsko also include large forest stands, which are often rather atypical 

in character compared to common economically exploited forests, 

especially around shooting ranges and tank training areas which have 

been formed by fire, explosions or disturbances by heavy equipment. 

The result is strongly differentiated stands in terms of age and structure, 

with a large proportion of pioneer trees. In some places we can 

see forests comparable to savannahs in their tree density. Forest stands 

influenced by military activities are characterised by a large proportion 

of dead and decaying wood, a high rate of insolated trees and 

undergrowth, and by a considerable proportion of open soil. They are 

also a refuge of many protected and endangered organisms (cf. Vitner 

et al. 2001). These stands are unique in the Czech Republic and are 

rapidly disappearing due to succession and introduction of standard 

forestry management. 

Introducing management in abandoned military areas and conserving 

them also has another substantial benefit for nature conservation. 

Proper care of military areas requires the presence and activity of 

people. Nature conservation can thus offer the public places to spend 

their leisure time, places practically missing from the current Czech 

landscape, places where a nearly unlimited scale of activities can be 

performed. Off-roaders, quad-bikers, horse riders, and paintballers 

are all welcome. At many sites various meetings, musical and other 

events could be organised, because what is the difference between 

trampling of hundreds of soldiers and hundreds of techno dancers? 

Thanks to this approach nature conservation will have a chance to 

step a little out of their often unjustly understood position of a prohibiting 

institution and an enemy of people who do not stay on the 

marked trails in nature reserves. 

Military areas also provide a sufficiently large area for the return 

of large mammals, especially the European Bison, to our landscape. 

The first knowledge is collected by the Military Forests and Estates, 

Milovice, which is considering introduction of the European Bison 

in the Doupov Mountains in collaboration with Nature Conservation 

Authority of the Czech Republic. Restoring populations of native herbivore 

species could be a good opportunity to restore and maintain 

naturally open forest and open vegetation in these and other selected 

areas in a cost-effective way. 

Military areas are also important in offering an example of management 

in non-military protected areas. The species composition in 

the areas influenced by the army, where we can encounter combinations 

of e.g. steppe and ruderal plants, shows us on a small scale how 

the landscape used to function in the past. Knowledge of this principle 

makes us understand why a lot of – especially insect – species are 

dying out despite well-targeted management and why the landscape 

structure, particularly its current division into e.g. meadows, forests 

and steppes, does not correspond with the requirements of a range 

of (most of all animal) species. We would be able to support a large 

number of endangered and protected species this way, including those 

preferring early successional stages, just by diversifying the current 

management practice and adjusting its objectives. 


The research on abandoned military training areas was supported 

by grant VaV/SP/2d3/153/08. 

References 

Cizek O., Vrba P., Benes J., Hrazsky Z., Koptik J., Kucera T., Marhoul 

P., Zamecnik J. & Konvicka M. (submitted): Conservation potential 

of abandoned military areas matches that of established reserves: 

Plants and butterflies in the Czech Republic. – PLoS ONE. 

Jentsch A. (2007): Restoration ecology in the need to restore process 

– the crucial role of disturbance regime. – Restoration Ecology 

15: 334–339. 

Reif J., Marhoul P., Čížek O. & Konvička M. (2011): Abandoned military 

training sites are an overlooked refuge for at-risk open habitat 

bird species. – Biodiversity Conservation 20: 3645–3662. 

Vitner J., Vrabec V. & Matouš J. (2001): Předběžný soupis druhů 

členovců (Arthropoda: Crustacea, Araneida, Insecta) významných 

z hlediska územní ochrany bývalého VVP Mladá (Preliminary 

list of arthropods (Arthropoda: Crustacea, Araneida, Insecta) 

important in nature conservation of the former Mladá military 

training area). – Příroda 8: 65–74. 

White P.S. & Jentsch A. (2004): Disturbance, succession and community 

assembly in terrestrial plant communities. – In: Temperton 

V.M., Hobbs R.J., Nuttle T. & Halle S. (eds), Assembly rules and 

restoration ecology: bridging the gap between theory and practice, 

pp. 341–366, Island Press, Washington, DC. 


Disturbance management, a way to preserve species-rich communities in 

abandoned military areas 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Milovice–Mladá, 40 km NE of Prague, central Czech Republic 

50°16' N, 14°53' E; altitude 190–260 m 

NR (Pod Benáteckým vrchem), SCI (Milovice-Mladá – 1250 ha) 

Approximately half of the SCI consists of non-forest ecosystems with dominant xerothermic, mostly dense 

grassland vegetation (predominantly Bromion erecti and Arrhenatherion elatioris) and adjacent semi-ruderal 

and ruderal vegetation; the other half is covered by forest stands with prevailing Quercus robur and Betula 

pendula (predominantly Genisto germanicae-Quercion), still noticeable influenced by the military activities 

which have formed them (Čížek & Zámečník 2007) 

135 ha: Pod Benáteckým vrchem NR 69 ha, Pozorovatelna ca. 60 ha, Traviny ca. 6 ha 

Landscape management programmes, Operational Programme Environment, Agri-environmental schemes, 

Regional Authority of the Central Bohemian Region, Hutur NGO, Daphne CZ – Institute of Applied Ecology 

€300–500/year (management simulating military activities) 


The history of Milovice-Mladá Military Training Area dates back 

to 1904, making it one of our oldest areas reserved for military training. 

Since the beginning it was planned for training of various troops 

and until 1950 even artillery fire was practised in the area. From the 

1950s to 1991, when the army abandoned the area, tank training prevailed. 

After abandonment of the 59 km 2 area, Pod Benáteckým vrchem 

NR was designated on an area of 70 ha. However, unsuitable man- 

agement was applied, consisting of partial mechanical mowing of the 

area. The remaining non-forest habitats of the training area were left 

without management and the forests were managed in an economic 

way. 

Most habitats are currently biologically degraded and show a large 

proportion of expansive grass and shrub species. Long-term absence 

of interventions has led to a dense sward and reduced proportion of 

dicotyledonous plants. The originally mostly open forest stands have 

lost their character due to the cessation of military activities, subse- 

Fig. 1. 


quent significant expansion of shrub and most of all by introducing 

traditional forestry management. These changes have already led to 

the extinction of animals: many species associated with early successional 

stages are currently missing from the site, e.g. the butterflies 

Dusky Meadow Brown (Hyponephele lycaon), and Grayling (Hipparchia 

semele), and Woodlark (Lullula arborea), a rare bird. 


The mineral bedrock consists of Turonian marly siltstones and 

sandstones of the Czech Cretaceous basin, in places covered with fluvial 

sand and gravel sediments. Average annual temperature is 8 °C, 

average annual rainfall is 578 mm. 

Objectives 

The objective of the management is to simulate impacts of army 

activities, first of all by repeated initiation of succession. 

Results 

Three studies have been carried out in the area for three years and 

1.5 year, respectively. The results have not been analysed in detail yet 

and so the following provides a verbal description of the main trends. 

The management implemented in Pod Benáteckým vrchem NR 

has led to a substantial increase in the proportion of dicotyledonous 

plants (see Fig. 3) in structurally homogenous vegetation with dominant 

Bromus erectus or Brachypodium pinnatum. The total increase 

in proportion and number of dicotyledonous plant species, including 

semi-ruderal and ruderal ones, has caused an increase in nectar. An 

interesting finding is the fact that the same management interventions 

has led to a stronger increase in the number of xerothermic species 

and their fertility in (ruderal) habitats richer in nutrients and humidity 

than in typical steppe vegetation, which is most likely a reflection 

of the ecological requirements of these species. 


The interventions are currently limited to the non-forest part of 

the Military Training Area. 

2010–2011 Management simulating military activities was 

carried out on 69 ha (Pod Benáteckým vrchem 

NR): driving with wheeled and tracked vehicles, 

dragging a set of rails, removing the sward and 

topsoil with an excavator and a tracked bulldozer, 

annual burning of parts of grasslands, restoration 

and creation of new depressions simulating craters 

after ammunition disposal and dugouts for equipment. 

All activities were distributed randomly, 

thus creating a changing mosaic of habitats differently 

disturbed and in various stages of succession. 

Disturbances were also carried out by off-road riders 

and cyclists. Sheep and goat grazing is planned. 

2010–present Regular monitoring of the abundance of plants 

and selected animal groups. 

2011 Burning, sheep grazing and mowing on approx. 60 

ha (Pozorovatelna). In the next years disturbances 

by military equipment should be added to the 

management. Elimination of shrub and introduction 

of grazing on approx. 6 ha (Traviny). 

Monitoring the impact of management 

The objective of the research is to find out how the implemented 

activities lead to (a) denudation of the soil, (b) changes in grassland 

density, and (c) changes in the proportion of dicotyledonous plants, 

and what changes then occur in species composition and abundance 

of invertebrates and vertebrates. Results of the research should allow 

us to adjust possible negative influence of the management to the species 

composition and abundance of particular species, and to minimise 

financial costs. 

The following methods were used. 

1. A series of permanent transects were marked out in the area, 

where data are collected on vegetation, selected groups of invertebrates 

(butterflies, ground beetles, ants, spiders) and birds. 

2. In thermophilous Bromion erecti and Cirsio-Brachypodion pinnati 

grasslands a small-scale experiment was set up in order to obtain 

basic data on the progress of succession after various types of onetime 

disturbance: (a) driving with tracked vehicles, (b) removing 

the top soil layer with the sward, and (c) application of a graminicide 

to eliminate competitive, dominant grasses (cf. Hurst & John 

1999). 

Fig. 2. - 

- 

 

Long-term preservation of xerothermic species in semi-ruderal 

habitats is thus often obtained by a suitable arrangement of interventions 

limiting succession and leading to its repeated permanent 

initiation (cf. Konvička et al. 2005). Th is has been one of the basic 

reasons allowing an increase in abundance and further expansion of 

many (but not only) protected and endangered invertebrate species. 

This can be illustrated by e.g. increasing numbers of the critically endangered 

butterflies Phengaris alcon and Nemophora violellus. After 

introduction of measures which are drastic at first glance, the dense 

semi-ruderal vegetation, in which Gentiana cruciata plants regenerate 

well, has substantially opened up, the number and size of flowering 

shoots have increased and many seedlings have been found around 

the plants. Also butterfly species such as Polyommatus daphnis, P. 

amandus, Zygaena ephialtes, and Z. angelicae have increased in abundance. 

These species have rapidly settled areas with open, tall-sward 

grassland vegetation. There are however many invertebrate species 

preferring low-sward xerothermic grasslands, which do not settle in 

semi-ruderal vegetation even though it is open vegetation. According 

to observations these are Spialia sertorius, Zygaena carniolica and 

Jordanita globulariae. In xerothermic grasslands, however, even these 

species prefer disturbed spots with sparse vegetation. 

Preliminary analyses have demonstrated differences in the course 

of succession after using different types of disturbance. All types of 

basic disturbance show an increase in proportion of dicotyledonous 

plants, but there are differences in species composition. Mechanical 

disturbance, unlike graminicide use, suppresses Thymus spp., Prunella 

spp., Dianthus spp., and Tetragonolobus maritimus. 


Fig. 3. - 

 


Designation of the area as a SCI protects it against strong pressures 

of economic utilisation (urban expansion, solar power plants, 

an airport, etc.). On the other hand, implementation of suitable management 

which is quite unusual in Czech nature conservation is hard 

to enforce. Moreover, any management is very costly due to the large 

size of the area. Restoration of non-forest habitats and reintroduction 

of disturbances has therefore raised conflicts between representatives 

of NGOs and state nature conservation authorities. 

Out of the total area of 600 ha of open vegetation, quality management 

has been implemented on only 70 ha (Pod Benáteckým vrchem 

NR). On another approx. 70 ha (Pozorovatelna and Traviny shooting 

ranges) efforts are being made to adjust the management appropriately. 

In contrast, there is no activity on 600 ha of forest stands and, 

for various administrative and fi nancial reasons, no conservation 

measures are planned either. A greater effort of nature conservation 

authorities could therefore be aimed at using cost-free management 

offered by e.g. off-roaders and similar interest groups. 


Two military associations, seated in the neighbouring villages 

have joined the project. One of them is currently using its equipment 

(tanks and infantry combat vehicles), the other one is expected to do 

the same in the future. 


We would like to thank especially Pavel Vaňhát (Regional Authority 

of the Central Bohemian Region), who has succeeded in enforcing 

and implementing management in the Pod Benáteckým vrchem NR. 

We would also like to thank all those who have recognised the considerable 

biological value of this area and supported its conservation. The 

research was financially supported by grant VaV/SP/2d3/153/08 of the 

Ministry of the Environment and a grant from the Regional Authority 

of the Central Bohemian Region (contract no. 361/OŽP/2008). 

References 

Čížek O. & Zámečník J. (2007): Plán péče o evropsky významnou 

lokalitu (návrh na vyhlášení přírodní památky) Milovice–Mladá 

a PR Pod Benáteckým vrchem na období 2008–2017 (Management 

plan for Milovice-Mladá SCI (proposed to be designated a 

Nature Monument) and Pod Benáteckým vrchem Nature Reserve 

for the period 2008–2017). – Ms.; management plan, Krajský úřad 

Středočeského kraje, Praha. 

Hurst A. & John E. (1999): The effectiveness of glyphosate for controlling 

Brachypodium pinnatum in chalk grassland. – Biological 

Conservation 89: 261–265. 





Restoring disturbance and open vegetation in the former military training 

area Na Plachtě 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Na Plachtě NR, SE outskirts of Hradec Králové, northeast Bohemia 

50°11'18" N, 15°51'35" E; altitude 230–250 m 

NR, SCI 

Temporary and permanent pools, open-sand vegetation (Koelerio-Corynephoretea), dry and moist grasslands 

(Violion caninae, Moli nion caeruleae, Bromion erecti, and Trifolion medii), dry lowland heaths (Euphorbio 

cyparissiae-Callunion vulgaris), moist heathland (Genisto pilosae-Vaccinion) 

12 ha 

Landscape management programmes, Hradec Králové Region Authority, volunteers (public, NGOs, East 

Bohemian Friends of Military Equipment Club) 

Traversing by military vehicles €2000/ha, 85% financed by the East Bohemian Friends of Military Equipment 

Club; restoration of pools €2000 per year (ca. €12/m 3 ); mowing €800/ha; elimination of scrub €0 (sold 

as firewood and wood chips); rotational sheep and goat grazing incl. supervision €2800/ha 


The northern half of the area of interest was communal property 

for centuries and used for grazing. In 1897 the area became a military 

training area (until 2000) and was expanded by felling forest in the 

other part of the area. In the first half of the 20 th century the northern 

part was also used as an airport. 

Military activity repeatedly disturbed the surface of the training 

ground with heavy vehicles, and digging trenches created marshes. 

Sometimes fires occurred, which had a positive impact on species living 

on the former pastures. 

Termination of military training and consequently cessation of 

the regular disturbance have led to encroachment of the area with 

shrubs and trees (in 2008 over ca. 80% of the area). In the northern 

part even a dump of construction waste, and partly also domestic 

waste, have appeared. Part of the area has been built up. 

These changes have led to a loss of early successional habitats and 

therefore also to a decline or disappearance of populations of a range 

of important species. For example, the last European Ground Squirrel 

(Spermophilus citellus) population in the Hradec Králové Region has 

gone extinct (Mikátová 1997). 

The biological value of the area was first reported in the 1970s. 

To date, approximately 720 plant, 69 moss, 107 mushroom and more 

than 2300 animal species have been recorded in the former training 

area, including 900 beetles, 50 dragonflies, 750 butterflies, 220 Hymenoptera, 

114 Diptera, 40 molluscs, 16 amphibians, 5 reptiles, 140 

birds, and 14 mammals (Mikát et al. 2004). 

Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 

 


The bedrock is marlstone with protruding marl, gravel and sand 

at the top. The groundwater table is strongly influenced by rainfall, 

thickness of the sand layer and depth of the impermeable marl layer 

(mostly 0–2 m). Thus shallow temporary pools filled by rainwater as 

well as deeper pools influenced by the groundwater table occur. Annual 

precipitation is 590–630 mm and mean annual air temperature 

is 8.5 °C. 

Objectives 

Restoration and expansion of open vegetation habitats, i.e. grassland, 

heathland, open sand, pools and groups of insolated trees (exposed 

to sunlight). 

Fig. 3. 

 

Up to the late 

1970s 

Since the 

1990s 

Around 2005 

First conservation attempts, at first limited to 

safeguarding territorial protection and preventing 

dumping. 

Mowing by volunteers, and cleanup of small plots. 

Termination of encroachment of plots with preserved 

open vegetation, introduction of systematic 

management of marshes and heaths, mowing 

and maintenance of pools not overgrown by trees 

and large shrubs. Despite these activities, 85% of 

the former training area remained unmanaged. 

2009 Part of the area tenured by the Nature Conservation 

Agency of the Czech Republic, start of 

expanding the open vegetation in collaboration 

with experts of the Museum of Eastern Bohemia, 

NGOs, etc. 

2009–2012 Cutting of ca. 7 ha of 25 to 30-year old shrubs and 

trees, restoration of 20 temporary and permanent 

pools where amphibians reproduce, introduction 

of experimental sheep and goat grazing in part of 

the area. 

Solitary trees and tree fragments were left and tall 

stubs were purposely created in the restored open 

vegetation in order to obtain weakened, insolated 

trees, in which hollows easily appear. 

October 2010 

and 2011 

Traversing with tracked vehicles in an area of 4 ha 

and on 6 km of paths. 

Results 

Already in the second year after traversing and disturbance by vehicles 

transporting cut wood, dozens of temporary pools with populations 

of the Tadpole Shrimp (Triops cancriformis) and Fairy Shrimp 

(Branchipus schaefferi) reappeared. 

In 2011, the Skimmer (Leucorrhinia pectoralis) and Northern 

Crested Newt (Triturus cristatus), both Natura 2000 species for which 

the SCI was designated, were repeatedly observed in reconstructed 

marshes. After traversing in 2010, the Triops cancriformis population 

increased from a few dozen (2008–2010) to at least a few hundred 

individuals (2011), and Branchipus schaefferi increased from dozens 

to thousands of individuals. Also the population of European Green 

Toad (Bufo viridis) increased and the critically endangered Natterjack 

Toad (B. calamita) was recorded for the first time in 17 years. 

The military vehicles have restored thousands of square metres of 

habitat for insects confined to open sands on heathland, e.g. Coniocleonus 

weevils, solitary wasps and bees, and the parasitic bees and 

beetles associated with them. 

The retained solitary trees appeared to be suitable for the Ovalisia 

dives and Agrilus jewel beetles, the Longhorn Beetle Xylotrechus pantherinus, 

mycophagous insects, etc. 

As the management measures were carried out recently, their 

impact on insects cannot yet be assessed in detail. However the suppression 

of Wood Small-reed (Calamagrostis epigejos) by traversing 

with military vehicles in swards weakened by mowing was surprisingly 

successful. 

The restoration of open vegetation repeatedly met with rather inadequate 

attempts of some nature conservation authorities to protect 

and replace trees as compensation for ecological loss due to restoration 

of open habitats. 



Realisation of the project has shown that there is a potential for 

collaboration with non-environmental organisations when conserving 

nature. Active intervention in the area enabled us to verify practical 

ways of managing a former training area, its results, and costs of 

various approaches. 

The conservation of the area has unfortunately evoked conflicts 

between conservationists and developers. The greatest barrier in restoring 

open vegetation is currently however formed by the unjustified 

and groundless fear of these measures among some conservationists. 

To safeguard continuation of the project it is important that the 

public and professionals are informed sufficiently and are willing to 

listen to professional arguments. The will to realise unusual measures 

and to try them out in practice is no less important. 


The project could not have been realised without support of the 

East Bohemian Friends of Military Equipment Club. Part of the measures 

was carried out with the help of volunteers recruited from the 

public and non-profit organisations. 

Thanks to its location on the outskirts of the town, the site is extensively 

used by schools to educate pupils and by residents of the nearby 

housing estates for recreation. Amateur and expert documentation is 

a source of important data on the occurrence of particular species. 

The very high visit rate is basically a positive factor (disturbance), but 

increases the costs of maintaining facilities such as nature trails and 

fences, and of management work requiring surveillance (e.g. grazing). 


The project was realised thanks to the enlightened attitude of the 

Dept. of Environment and Agriculture of the Hradec Králové Region 

Authority (Miloš Čejka, Lenka Peterková), which also carried out part 

of the work in 2011. 

Thanks for its realisation also go out to Miroslav Tuček of the East 

Bohemian Friends of Military Equipment Club, Dr. Blanka Mikátová, 

and zoologists Miroslav Mikát and Dr. Bohuslav Mocek of the Museum 

of Eastern Bohemia for professional support and assistance with 

interpreting the project. 

References 

Mikát M., Samková V., Prausová R. & Mikátová B. (2004): Přírodní 

památka Na Plachtě – průvodce naučnou stezkou (Na Plachtě Nature 

Monument – nature trail guide). – Agentura ochrany přírody 

a krajiny a Muzeum Východních Čech, Hradec Králové. 

Mikátová B. (1997): K výskytu sysla (Spermophilus citellus) na lokalitě 

Hradec Králové – “Na Plachtě” (Occurrence of Spermophilus citellus 

at the site “Na Plachtě”, Hradec Králové). – Acta Musei Reginaehradecensis, 

Ser. A 25: 227–229. 

Fig. 4. 


Landscapes

Introduction 

 

The Czech Republic holds an exceptional position in European 

geography, being determined by four geological units meeting here 

(Hercynian, Carpathian, Polonian, and Pannonian). Its specific geological 

history is responsible for a great natural diversity. The Forecarpathian 

lowland at the foot of the Western Carpathians has created a 

natural migration route through Silesia and Moravia since the Palaeolithic, 

used by plant and animal species as well as human populations. 

The landscape of the Czech Republic, situated in the imaginary centre 

of Europe, has thus become an important crossroads, a place of transit 

and exchange of information between the Baltic, Mediterranean, 

Danubian lowlands, and western Europe. The variety of natural conditions 

and cultures has influenced the overall character of the cultural 

landscape – remarkably diverse despite its small size – made up of 

various river, mountain, karst, and other ecological features, elements, 

and habitats, which is the basis for the development of structural and 

biological diversity of our landscape (Fanta 2011). 

Development of the cultural landscape 

For many centuries, the Czech landscape has been shaped by agriculture, 

forestry, and fish farming. Since the Middle Ages transport, 

mining of mineral resources, building, and power engineering have 

been added. Despite the significant influence of industrial and urban 

development, the landscapes of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia have 

remained predominantly rural. The settlement structure of the Czech 

Republic is still characterised by a high number of villages and small 

settlements. More than 90% of villages have less than 2,000 inhabitants 

and 28% of all settlements in the Czech Republic are communities 

with less than 200 inhabitants (Anonymus 2009), whereby 26.2% 

of the population lives in the country (Střeleček & Zdeněk 2006). 

Although humans have influenced the landscape since the Bronze 

Age, it was the spatial diversity of the landscape that determined settlement 

structure and character until the early Middle Ages. Land use 

followed from man’s natural respect for the small-scale character of 

the local landscape for centuries. 

Significant changes in the landscape structure were caused by the 

industrial development of the 19 th century. Technical opportunities 

and uncontrolled human activity took large areas to the edge of an 

ecological crisis. 

The time of land nationalisation and collectivisation of agriculture 

in the second half of the 20 th century exerted excessive pressure on the 

landscape. Never before had the Czech farmland gone through such 

vast destruction of its structural and biological diversity. The environment 

became so unfavourable for over 70% of plant and animal species, 

that they have remained endangered and required special protection 

ever since (Fanta 2011). 

The ‘leitmotiv’ of the socialist era (1948–1989) was self-sufficiency 

in agricultural production at any cost. Soviet farming methods were 

an imposed directive without respect for substantial differences in 

natural conditions. All farming activities were targeted at achieving 

maximum yields. One of the consequences of this policy was consolidation 

of land plots into very large agricultural units. The high 

species and ecosystem diversity of the landscape, which was typical 

of small-scale farming in the past, significantly declined, erosion risk 

of the soils increased, soils degraded, landscape accessibility was reduced, 

residential values decreased, and the ecological equilibrium of 

farmland was disturbed. 

The Czech Republic lost about 20% of its grassland, 800,000 km 

(about 145,000 ha) of baulks, 120,000 km of rural roads, 35,000 ha 

of small woodlands and hedges during the post-war era. Moreover, 

most marshes and floodplain forests were drained and many river and 

stream courses channelised and reinforced (Weber & Hrochová 1992, 

Fanta 2011). Farmland changed into a uniform space with only one 

function – production. Devastation of the farming landscape affected 

almost all regions of the country, although not in the same intensity. 

In the early 1990s the following landscape problems were found to 

be the main ones caused by insensitive farming in the past: 

— strong simplification of the landscape pattern and overall unification 

of forest and agricultural land with prevailing large-scale 

monoculture cropland; 

— reduced accessibility of the intensively exploited landscape for 

man and other organisms; 

— heavily polluted soils and waters caused by eutrophication and 

pollutants (pesticide residues, oil products, heavy metals, nitrates, 

phosphorus and potassium compounds); 

— soils seriously affected and threatened by wind and water erosion; 

— disturbed water regime by strong drainage, regulation, and reduced 

retention capacity of watersheds; 

Fig. 1. 

 

Landscapes 123

Fig. 2. 

— forests damaged by intensive management (preference of spruce 

plantations) and air pollution; 

— degradation of a significant area by underground and open-cast 

coal mining; 

— disturbance of the landscape character and aesthetic values of the 

landscape scenery; 

— loss of people’s relation to their land, mainly caused by forced 

ownership changes (transfer of private to state or co-operative 

ownership). 

Regeneration of the cultural landscape 

The political changes started in 1989 opened a wide public discussion 

on the state of the environment and started a long-term process 

of reclamation and regeneration of the cultural landscape in the 

Czech Republic. In the 1990s new national legislation was created. 

No landscape regeneration would have been possible without e.g. the 

Environmental Act, the modern Act on Nature and Landscape Conservation, 

the Environmental Impact Assessment Act (all from 1992), 

which first brought EIA and SEA processes into practice, the 1991 Act 

on Land Consolidation and Land Registries, which created conditions 

for land restitution and restoration of the agricultural landscape, as 

well as amendments of the 1976 Building Act, which introduced the 

obligation of including ecological networks into land planning. 

Parallel with the preparation of new legislation, the Czech government 

announced several grant schemes to support landscape restoration 

and reconstruction. It is quite remarkable that most of them still 

exist, although in amended form. The most important grant schemes 

are the Rural Restoration Programme (1991), the Landscape Management 

Programme (1994), and the River System Revitalisation Programme 

(1991, replaced by a broader scheme, the Programme for the 

Restoration of Natural Landscape Functions, in 2009). However, it 

has to be stated that the implementation of these schemes has not always 

been fully successful in meeting all the environmental demands, 

hence some of the results are rather poor. 

The leading programme is the Landscape Management Programme, 

which has significantly supported the implementation of 

specific measures across the Czech Republic. Its purpose is to protect 

and enhance important non-productive landscape functions, based 

on sustainable management – especially ecological and water management 

functions. The programme supports a broad range of restoration 

activities, such as managing nature reserves, controlling invasive plant 

and animal species, establishing environmental networks, and restoring 

wetlands, permanent grasslands, extensive fruit orchards, lines of 

tree, but also historic parks and gardens. Several examples are given in 

the case studies on the following pages. 

In order to realise landscape restoration, first of all new regional 

plans had to be elaborated and land ownership rearranged by means 

of land consolidation. These are all very costly and time-consuming 

operations, which the state has performed since 1989, but which have 

not yet been completed everywhere. Thanks to comprehensive land 

consolidation, measures to control erosion, water management adaptations, 

facilities to improve accessibility to the landscape, ecological 

network elements and other measures improving the landscape have 

been realised. At the same time farmland plots have been more efficiently 

arranged. 

In 1992–2002 a total of 21,000 simple land consolidation projects 

were carried out (rearrangement and regeneration of part of a municipal 

territory) and 146 complex land consolidation projects. Until 

2011, a total of 1,146 complex land consolidation projects were realised, 

slightly less than 11% of the country’s total area. Progress is hampered 

by a lack of finances which the state can allocate (Podhrázská 

2011). Another problem with land consolidation projects is a lack of 

interest by landowners. 

Current situation and problems of the landscape 

The Czech landscape has significantly changed over the past 

twenty years. The degradation of the landscape, started in the communist 

period, has continued until the present day. It has not only affected 

the natural and spatial aspects of the Czech landscape, but also 

the cultural identity of man with respect to his landscape, reflected 

in the loss of relation to the land and lack of sense of landscape scale. 

This is proved by the decreasing importance of cultural and historic 

values of the landscape and its structures, elimination of old orchards 

and lines of trees, development of historic spaces, and by damaging 

small religious objects including the trees accompanying them. The 

landscape is definitely losing its historic memory and cultural content. 

124 Landscapes

Fig. 3. 

- 

 

It is becoming just a space purposely exploited to produce marketable 

commodities, a space we only pass through. 

Differences between regions increase depending on their socioeconomic 

and natural conditions. The main processes in productive 

and prominent regions are: a) urban sprawl taking up land and disqualifying 

it from meeting its ecological and production functions, b) 

intensive farming oriented to a small number of crop species (cereal 

crops, maize, oilseed rape). Economically marginal areas are nowadays 

characterised by extensification, most often afforestation and establishment 

of grassland, or complete farmland abandonment. These 

trends will lead to a permanent loss of some types of landscape (often 

environmentally valuable, such as Wallachia) or will be irreversibly 

altered (Miko & Hošek 2009). 

However, the same trend also has positive effects: it supports natural 

processes better, and many new habitats are formed, often with 

interesting succession (e.g. the case study ‘Restoration of semi-natural 

vegetation in old fields in the Bohemian Karst’). 

A positive trend seen in the past two decades is that agriculture 

does not merely focus on food production for the population and raw 

materials for food and light industries. More often, although not yet 

enough, it acts as a landscape ‘nurturer’, emphasising its non-productive 

functions. Th is trend is reflected in the ever-increasing public 

interest in organic production methods, subsidised by governmental 

grant policies and the EU Common Agriculture Policy, especially 

through so-called Agri-environmental schemes. Introduction of alternative 

farming methods in the Czech Republic is however problematic 

(insufficient legislative and political support, inadequate economic 

environment), which substantially limit farmers and inhibits 

development of organic agriculture. 

The largest volume of funds from the Agri-environmental schemes 

is currently provided to grassland maintenance (approximately 60% of 

all farmland), organic farming (currently 8% of farmland, but further 

increase is expected), intercropping, and establishing of grasslands on 

arable land. The impact of these schemes on nature and landscape is 

however often controversial. This counts mainly for grassland maintenance, 

where inappropriate uniform methods still prevail. 

The greatest current problems in the landscape of the Czech Republic 

are urban and suburban sprawl along with development of 

infrastructures. Developed areas are increasing in an unprecedented 

way, mainly to the detriment of farmland. Almost 11 hectares of farmland 

are developed every day, leading to a rapid growth in urbanised 

areas: since 1990 they have increased by 245 km 2 , i.e. 5%. Th is is 

almost half of the farmland lost between 1990 and 2006, which accounted 

for 537 km 2 . If the current rate of urban development continues 

until 2050, this number will grow by another 1,350 km 2 (Miko 

& Hošek 2009). 

Globalisation versus protection of 

the cultural landscape identity 

Globalisation trends are influencing the landscape in the Czech 

Republic more and more markedly. They change the layout of urban 

areas (suburban development) and the architecture of buildings, and 

increase the concentration of unified infrastructures. Moreover, aggressive 

billboards visually degrade the landscape. Globalisation also 

continues to affect the open landscape. Typical examples of this are 

Figs. 4, 5. 

 

 

 

Landscapes 125

the increasing production of oilseed rape grown as a fuel crop and the 

current boom of solar power plants on farmland. 

Land use is changing, mainly determined by market mechanisms 

and fast profit. The economically less attractive small-scale landscape 

with a varied crop structure is gradually disappearing, along with old 

terraced fields and open enclaves within forests. Abandoned land is 

encroached by woodland or is developed. 

The Czech Republic, similarly to other countries of the EU (e.g. 

Swanwick 2002, Salašová 2000), has included landscape protection 

into its legislation. Protecting the identity of the cultural landscape 

has become even more important after the Czech Republic ratified 

the European Landscape Convention in 2005 and consequently implemented 

it in the new Building Act (2006). Assessment of the landscape 

character became part of planning documents and regional 

development policies. Preventive landscape character assessments, 

including principles and recommendations on development of the 

area in question and on conservation and restoration of valuable 

landscape features, have been elaborated in most protected landscape 

areas and a range of districts, towns and villages. Thanks to an active 

approach of communities, non-governmental organisations and interest 

groups, measures to preserve characteristic landscape features 

are being gradually realised. On the other hand, landscape protection 

faces massive opposition by investors, developers, and local authorities 

preferring landscape changes yielding fast profits. 

In areas where local people identify themselves with the idea of 

restoring a certain site, attention is mainly paid to the restoration of 

characteristic lines of trees along roads and extensive orchards with 

historic and regional fruit cultivars, the conservation and sanitation 

of solitary trees, the restoration of stone heaps, scattered greenery, 

small religious objects, wells and waterholes, and the maintenance of 

memorable sites. 

Landscape character assessment plays especially an important 

role in discussions with local people about the natural, cultural, historic, 

and aesthetic value of the landscape in which they live. So far, 

people have not been used to thinking about the landscape and its 

values, and hence they do not actively perceive and understand the 

landscape, and do not participate in its conservation. Dialogues which 

occasionally take place between state authorities, experts and the public 

may help create better conditions for protection of the traditional 

cultural landscape values and their development in the full sense of 

the European Landscape Convention. 


The study was supported by ‘A pilot project of prevention of soil 

biological degradation under conditions of arid climate’ under National 

Research Programme II, no. 2B08020. 

References 

Anonymus (2009): Regionální uspořádání a regiony soudržnosti ČR 

(Regional arrangement and cohesion regions of the Czech Republic). 

– Ministerstvo pro místní rozvoj. (Available at: http://www. 

businessinfo.cz/cz/clanek/rozvoj-regionu/regionalni-usporadania-regiony/1001179/9043/) 

Fanta J. (2011): Krajina V. Česká krajina (Landscape V. The Czech 

landscape). – Živa 5: 224–226. 

Miko L. & Hošek M. (eds) (2009): Příroda a krajina České republiky. 

Zpráva o stavu 2009 (Report on the state of nature and landscape 

in the Czech Republic 2009). – Agentura ochrany přírody a krajiny, 

Praha. 

Podhrázská J. (2011): 20 let pozemkových úprav v České republice 

(Twenty years of land consolidation in the Czech Republic). – In: 

Anonymus (ed.), Krajinné inženýrství 2011, Sborník konference, 

pp. 50–57, Česká společnost krajinných inženýrů, Praha. 

Salašová A. (2000): Landscape character assessment in the Czech 

Republic. – In: Anonymus (ed.), VIII. International Conference 

“Modern Scientific Researches in Horticulture”, p. 127, International 

Association of Young Scientists-Horticulturists, Yalta, 

Crimea. 

Střeleček F. & Zdeněk R. (2006): Velikost obcí a ekonomická aktivita 

obyvatelstva (Size of towns and villages and economic activity of 

the population). – Veřejná správa. (Available at: http://www.dvs. 

cz/clanek.asp?id=6207352) 

Swanwick C. (ed.) (2002): Landscape character assessment – Guidance 

for England and Scotland CAX 84. – Countryside Agency, 

Cheltenham and Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh. 

Weber M. & Hrochová Z. (1992): Východiska obnovy venkovských 

sídel a krajiny (Principles of restoration of rural settlements and 

landscapes). – In: Anonymus (ed.), Krajinné plánování v Německu 

a možnosti využití v České republice, Sborník, pp. 113–20, Výzkumný 

ústav okrasného zahradnictví, Průhonice. 

Fig. 6. 

 

126 Landscapes

Reclamation of rural landscapes at Velké Bílovice 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Surroundings of Velké Bílovice, southeast Czech Republic 

48°51'–48°53' N, 16°50'–16°53' E; altitude 162–210 m 

NR (Trkmanec), SCI, most of the area however unprotected 

Areas A–B: originally arable land; area C (Trkmanec): waterlogged terrain depressions in fields with 

halophyte and subhalophyte communities dominated by reed beds of eutrophic still waters with patches of 

halophilous reed and sedge beds and tall-sedge vegetation (Phragmito-Magno-Caricetea); fragments include 

salt marshes (Juncion gerardii), in irregularly ploughed banks of waterlogged depressions (which dry up in 

periods of drought) also vegetation of exposed pond bottoms (Verbenion supinae and Bidentetea tripartitae) 

150 ha (10 sites) 

Landscape management programmes, Land Fund of the Czech Republic 

Area A: €25,500, area B: €37,500 (establishment and 3-year maintenance, prices on the level of the period 

1997–2000), area C: €32,000 (plantings), €212,000 (construction of polders and modifications of other plots) 


Rural landscapes in the former Czechoslovakia underwent a 

series of substantial reorganisations in the second half of the 20 th 

century, changing the scenery of the entire landscape. Socialist land 

management led to consolidation of farmland into large blocks for 

monoculture crop production and significant reduction of dispersed 

vegetation elements (avenues, linear vegetation accompanying watercourses, 

field boundaries and hedges, grassland areas). The increasing 

production intensity resulted in a high anthropogenic pressure on the 

land, and land consolidation caused a significant decrease in species 

and ecosystem diversity of the agricultural landscape, and thus a decline 

of its overall ecological stability. 

After 1989, reclamation of farmland and restoration of ownership 

rights and relationships to land have become one of the main political 

tasks. To support this aim, comprehensive land arrangement schemes 

have been introduced, including erosion-control measures, environmental 

network components, water management facilities, roads, and 

other measures improving the landscape. South Moravia has already 

seen many reclamation projects, such as the creation of biocentres and 

biocorridors, wetlands, and polders; grassland restoration, etc. Th is 

project at Velké Bílovice is one of many examples of this type of landscape 

restoration (Salašová 1996, 1998). 

Abiotic conditions and land use 

The area is situated on the boundary of the Central Moravian Carpathians 

and the Vienna Basin in a warm and dry climate. Typical 

weather features include storm rainfalls and very dry and hot summers. 

The bedrock consists of Carpathian flysch covered with fluvial 

Fig. 1. 

 

Landscapes 127

sediments. As for soils, chernozems prevail, whereas solonchak phaeozems 

occur at Trkmanec. 

The Velké Bílovice territory (1999) is 2,572 ha in size and its forest 

rate is 0.046%, whereas farmland covers 89%. 

Objectives 

Increasing biodiversity, reducing soil erosion and flood risk, improving 

the scenery, enhancing the residential function of the landscape, 

restoring marshes. 


The system of vegetation elements described below was established 

gradually, according to available finances. In all cases plants of 

certified origin produced at local nurseries were used. As an example 

only the three largest elements have been selected. The municipality 

of Velké Bílovice was investor and executor of all plantings and is currently 

responsible for their maintenance. 

 

Linear vegetation accompanying the Trkmanka water course. 

Area 1.11 ha, grassland area 0.89 ha, area of plantings 0.23 ha. Proposed 

species composition: Acer campestre, Alnus glutinosa, Fraxinus 

excelsior, Populus nigra, P. tremula, Quercus robur, Salix alba, S. fragilis, 

Tilia cordata, Corylus avellana, Euonymus europaea, Prunus padus, 

Rhamnus cathartica, Cornus sanguinea, Viburnum opulus. 

1995 Project preparation. 

1996–1997 Planting in two stages – autumn and spring. The 

plantings were carried out in five sections of various 

nature (Type 1: trees and shrubs, Type 2: trees 

only, Type 3: shrubs only). Shrubs were planted as 

space-fillers or a commercial grass seed mixture 

was sown. Grassless areas were mulched with a 5 

cm thick layer of crushed bark. 

1997–1998 Basic maintenance. 

1999 Planting check-up, cutting for weed suppression, 

recording phytosociological relevés. 

2000–present Annual check-up of the planting, continuous thinning 

of dense growths where required. 

 

Marsh and baulk at an inundation polder. Total area 12 ha. The 

project involved the construction of an inundation polder for flood 

control. Planting was divided into three areas – two of 0.3 ha in contact 

with the polder water designed as a lowland willow-poplar alluvial 

forest (Salicion albae), one of 0.6 ha planned as a lowland 

hardwood alluvial forest (Ulmenion). The established area connects 

to woodland planted south of the polder, which is also part of the 

Trkmanec-Rybníčky NR. 

1997 Project preparation. Proposed species composition: 

Quercus robur, Fraxinus excelsior, Ulmus 

laevis, Acer campestre, A. platanoides, Carpinus 

betulus, Tilia cordata; in marshy depressions: 

Alnus glutinosa; shrubs: Cornus sanguinea, Ligustrum 

vulgare, Rhamnus cathartica, Salix viminalis, 

Euonymus europaea, Corylus avellana. The shrubs 

were planted around the area on request of the 

local hunters society. 

1998 Extensive terrain work, construction of inundation 

polder. 

1999 Ploughing of littoral zones, planting work. Bare 

root saplings were used. Part of the reed beds in 

the area was preserved. 

2000–2001 Planting of water plants in the polder. Basic maintenance 

after planting, recording phytosociological 

relevés. 

2001–present Area left to succession, occasional reed bed reduction 

in the plantings. 

2006 Designation of Trkmanec-Rybníčky NR 44.59 ha 

in size. 

 

Two erosion-control measures on the slope (5 × 550 m each). The 

slope is shaped as a parabolic grassy contour furrow with shrubs and 

loosely spaced trees. 

1997 Project preparation. Originally presumed length 

of the linear feature 3.74 km, width 3 m, proposed 

planting of 2000 shrub and 1000 tree saplings 

of the following composition: Acer campestre, 

Sorbus aria, S. torminalis, Prunus padus, P. avium, 

Quercus petraea, Cornus mas, C. sanguinea, 

Crataegus monogyna, C. laevigata, Prunus spinosa, 

Rosa canina. 

Spring 1998 Linear plantings of the shrubs and trees. 

1998–1999 Basic maintenance. 

1999 Planting check-up, recording phytosociological 

relevés. 

2000–present Annual check-up of the plantings, cutting for 

weed suppression while leaving the biomass at the 

site. 

Fig. 2. 

 

128 Landscapes


The plantings were realised by local residents. The advantage of 

this process was cheap workforce and personal relationship of the local 

people to the plantings. Although performed by lay people (supervised 

by professionals) the plantings were very successful. 

At present reduction of especially Fraxinus excelsior, Populus 

tremula, and Corylus avellana is needed. 

The plantings have become significant refuges for a large number 

of bird, insect, and small mammal species, and are good examples of 

landscape restoration for other municipalities. 

Fig. 3. 

 

 

Management measures after planting 

— Cutting weeds at least once per year for 3–5 years. 

— Application of repellents against browsing by game. 

— Mowing grass plots twice per year. 

— Removing plants in too dense plantings. 

— Occasional mowing of reed beds in marshes. 

Results 

The saplings took root successfully and had a very good vitality. 

Die-back was negligible thanks to the good care and the plantings 

were hardly damaged by game. 

In 2011 the cover of the tree layer at Járek was 80%, the shrub layer 

had a cover of 15% and the herb layer 10%. The most dominant plants 

were Fraxinus excelsior, Populus tremula, Acer campestre and Cornus 

sanguinea. At Úlehle, the tree layer had a cover of 40%, the shrub layer 

50%, and herbs 20%. Here, the dominants were Rosa canina, Sambucus 

nigra and Crataegus monogyna agg. At Trkmanec the tree, shrub 

and herb layers had covers of 60%, 20%, and 70%, respectively, and 

the planted Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus robur and Corylus avellana 

were the dominants. The oak growth figures for this site are quite interesting: 

over a 12-year period the oaks have grown from the original 

1.5 m to a height of 6–7 m. 

A general problem was the protection of the plantings against 

drought and competitive ruderal species, especially Convolvulus arvensis, 

Elytrigia repens, Rumex crispus, Calamagrostis epigejos and 

Artemisia vulgaris. The plots need to be maintained for the following 

10–15 years. It is appropriate to periodically cut dense reed beds, 

which are able to overgrow shallow marshes in a short time. 

However, particular competitive species (Sambucus nigra, Cornus 

alba, Robinia pseudacacia, Amorpha fruticosa) invading from the 

surrounding caused a problem at the beginning (Salašová 1999). The 

most effective measure appeared to be cutting of the stands and leaving 

the cut biomass at the site to serve as mulch. 

At Trkmanec, six protected plant species were recorded after seven 

years, along with 13 plant species included in the Czech red list (e.g. 

Cirsium brachycephalum, Carex secalina, Thalictrum flavum, Rumex 

stenophyllus, Lycopus exaltatus, Melilotus dentatus). In a survey, the 

significant amphibians Bombina bombina, Pelobates fuscus, Hyla arborea, 

and Bufo viridis were recorded in the area. The marsh serves 

as a stop for migrant bird species. A total of 41 bird species have been 

recorded, e.g. Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Western Marsh-harrier 

(C. aeruginosus), Eurasian Hobby (Falco subbuteo), Greylag Goose 

(Anser anser), Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), 

Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), 

Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana), and Little Crake (P. parva). Since 

2000 the area has been inhabited by the beaver (Castor fiber). 


Active help with maintenance of the plantings by local interest 

groups (firemen, hunters society). Interest in the quality of the plantings 

by landowners in the surrounding. 


The study was supported by the following grants: NPV II – A pilot 

project of prevention of soil biological degradation under conditions 

of arid climate, 2B08020, and VZ VÚKOZ Průhonice, Task 0232 – 

Woody species selection for the rural landscape revitalisation and 

new approach to their planting. 

References 

Salašová A. (1996): Village restoration in the Czech Republic. – International 

Journal of Heritage Studies 2/3: 160–171. 

Salašová A. (1998): Ecological cultivation criterions of woody plants 

selection in the agricultural landscape. – In: Gorina V. (ed.), 

Problemy dendrologii, cvetovodstva, plodovodstva, Materialy 

VI. meždunarodnoj konferencii 5–8. 10. 1998, Jalta, pp. 60–63, 

Ukrainskaja akademija agrarnych nauk – Gosudarstvennyj nikitskij 

botaničeskij sad, Jalta. 

Salašová A. (1999): Studium dřevinných formací v zemědělské krajině 

okresu Břeclav. (Study of woody plant formations in the rural 

landscape of the Břeclav district.) – Acta Universitatis agriculturae 

et silviculturae Mendeleianae Brunensis 47/1: 67–81. 

Fig. 4. 

 

 

Landscapes 129

Restoration of the Včelnička stream catchment, Bohemian-Moravian 

Uplands 

 

Location 


Restored area 


Costs 

Benešov near Kamenice nad Lipou, SW margin of the Bohemian-Moravian Uplands, south Czech Republic, 

93 km SSE of Prague; 

49°20' N, 15°00' E; altitude 629–657 m 

Agricultural land and abandoned mesic and wet meadows (Molinio-Arrhenatheretea), total area ca. 180 ha; 

in 1995: arable land 135 ha (75%), mesic and wet meadows and pastures 45 ha (25%); 

in 2011: arable land 99.7 ha (55.4%), mesic and wet meadows and pastures 80.3 ha (44.6%) 

Territory of Benešov and a 6-km section of the Včelnička stream and the upper part of its catchment area 

(16.2 km 2 ) 

Landscape management programmes, Agri-environmental schemes 

a) Conversion of part of arable land (30 ha) to mesic meadows and pastures with high species diversity: 

€20,000; 

b) Revitalisation of Včelnička stream and its pond system: septic tank and wastewater treatment plant – 

€18,000; settling pond for the waste water treatment plant – €12,000; fishpond – €24,000; revitalisation 

of upper part of Včelnička stream – €70,000; 

c) Restoration of wet meadows, incl. construction of three pools: €64,000; 

d) Reconstruction of bio-corridors – shrub and tree plantings: €80,000 


Since the 1950s, the Benešov area has suffered from intensification 

of agriculture and forestry. During collectivisation in 1950s small 

fields and meadows were combined to form larger units. Trees were 

cut and hedges removed. Outside forests, the Včelnička stream and its 

tributaries were regulated to form open channels without naturally 

meandering courses (Šrůtek & Čašek 1995). The wet meadows in the 

stream floodplain were mostly drained. During the 20 th century, native 

fir-beech forest (Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica) was replaced by Norway 

spruce (Picea abies) plantations. 

In 1992 the Šrůtek family’s local farm commenced organic agriculture 

on about 40 ha of arable land and meadows, which they considered 

a first step to restore the landscape. After the farm buildings 

were reconstructed, conventional agriculture was stepwise converted 

to organic farming (for definition of organic farming, see Šrůtek & 

Urban 2008). 

The current organically run farm area is 220 ha, the main product 

of the farm is raw organic milk from 40 dairy cows. The herd includes 

another 35 calves and heifers (Fig. 1). 

The mean annual flow rate of the Včelnička stream is ca. 200 l.s -1 . 

Fig. 1. 

130 Landscapes


The mean annual temperature is 6.4 °C (Černovice station), mean 

annual precipitation 677 mm (Kamenice nad Lipou station) (Vesecký 

1961), but 775 mm according to private standard measurements in 

Benešov from 1997 to 2010; the geological substrate is biotitic gneiss. 

Soil chemical analyses for the Benešov District have indicated 

acidic soils: pH 4.90–5.50, Ca 907–2140 mg.kg −1 , Mg 62–189 mg.kg −1 , 

P 8–112 mg.kg −1 , K 132–377 mg.kg −1 (www.eagri.cz, farmer portal, 

2007). 

Objectives 

Slowing down the mineralisation rate of organic matter in the soil, 

to be achieved by a rise of the groundwater level and development of 

a rich and dense root zone in mesic meadows (cf. Ripl et al. 1994). 


1993 A concrete septic tank, wastewater treatment plant 

and settling pond (Fig. 7) were built for the village 

with a population of almost 100 people; a fish 

pond 1,500 m 2 in size on the Včelnička stream was 

reconstructed. 

1992–1993 Conversion of part of the arable land to mesic 

meadows and pastures commenced (Fig. 6) as well 

as restoration of wet meadows (regular mowing of 

ca. 12 ha). 

1993–1994 Construction and reconstruction of private farm 

buildings; the first 20 dairy cows were purchased 

and milk production started. 

1996 Revitalisation of the Včelnička stream: creation of 

meanders over ca. 950 m (Fig. 2); stone constrictions 

prolonging the water course over ca. 1,300 m 

(Fig. 3); ca. 4,000 m of line plantings of trees 

(Alnus glutinosa, Salix fragilis) and shrubs (Salix 

aurita, S. triandra); construction of three water 

pools of ca. 3,200 m 2 in total. 

Reconstruction of biocorridors: planting of three 

game refuges ca. 1,700 m 2 in total (Fig. 5) with 

locally indigenous trees and shrubs such as Sorbus 

aucuparia, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, 

Fraxinus excelsior, Crataegus spp., Rosa spp., Prunus 

avium, Salix aurita, S. caprea, Populus tremula, 

Betula pendula, Quercus robur, Prunus spinosa, 

and Tilia cordata; ca. 5,000 m of line plantings of 

selected fruit trees (Prunus avium, P. domestica, 

Malus domestica, Pyrus communis) and woody 

plants mentioned above. 

1997–2008 Monitoring of the chemistry of running waters 

to reveal effects of changes made in the Benešov 

District. 

1994–present Monitoring of secondary succession of mesic 

meadows on former arable land (van der Putten 

at al. 2000, Hedlund et al. 2003, Lepš et al. 2001, 

2007, Pakeman et al. 2008, Fortunel et al. 2009). 

Results 

The rules of organic farming are applied strictly on the farmland, 

e.g. inorganic fertilisers and pesticides are avoided. One of the most 

positive results is that organic matter in the soil increases. 

Preliminary monitoring of the wastewater treatment system has 

revealed its effectiveness in removing contaminants from wastewater. 

The mean maximum removal rates of NH 4 

+ 

nitrogen, NO 3 

− 

nitrogen 

and PO 4 

3− 

phosphorus were 67.0, 58.3 and 37.4%, respectively, from 

the sewage plant beds with Phragmites australis, and 61.8, 42.4 and 

79.8%, respectively, from the beds with Glyceria maxima (Riemersma 

et al. 1997). 

New mesic meadows and pastures on the arable land created by 

means of conventional seed mixtures have since 1992 gradually been 

occupied by native plant species from the surrounding landscape (e.g. 

Leucanthemum vulgare agg., Bistorta major, Lychnis flos-cuculi, Scorzonera 

humilis, Lotus corniculatus, etc.). 

In the man-made meanders in the Včelnička stream natural erosion 

and accumulation zones are spontaneously being created, both 

contributing to an increase in algae and bacteria, which increase the 

self-purification capacity of the stream. A streambed adapted this way 

provides at the same time a better refugium for aquatic fauna. For example, 

the occurrence of Common Minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) and 

European Bullhead (Cottus gobio) has been observed here. 

The constructed pools and the managed wet meadows support 

amphibians such as Common Frog (Rana temporaria), Edible Frog 

(Rana kl. esculenta), European Toad (Bufo bufo), European Tree Frog 

(Hyla arborea) and Smooth Newt (Triturus vulgaris) recorded in the 

area (Pechová 1996). 

Although the planted trees and shrubs in the biocorridors have 

been damaged and/or destroyed especially by European Roe Deer 

(Capreolus capreolus) and European Hare (Lepus europaeus), there are 

still good refugia for many birds and other animals to be found. 

Fig. 2. 

 

Fig. 3. 

Landscapes 131

20,0 

y = 10,1x -0,57 

R 2 = 0,92 

NO3-N concetration (mg.l-1) 

15,0 

10,0 

5,0 

0,0 

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 

Fig. 4. 

- 

 

Long-term monitoring (1992–2008) of NO 3 

− 

nitrogen concentration 

in the running waters revealed a gradual decrease of this component 

in the landscape (Fig. 4). 

The study of secondary succession in experimental mesic meadows 

on former arable land revealed current dominance of Trisetum 

flavescens, Lathyrus pratensis and Lotus corniculatus, indicating a significant 

effect of high nutrient doses after fertilising was ceased 15 

years ago. This limits their development into species-rich mesophilous 

grasslands (cf. Pavlů et al. 2011). 


We sincerely appreciate logistic, scientific and fi nancial support 

by Dr. Jan Pokorný (ENKI, Třeboň). 

Fig. 5. 

 

References 

Fortunel C., Garnier E., Joffre R., Kazakou E., Quested H., Grigulis 

K., Lavorel S., Ansquer P., Castro H., Cruz P., Doležal J., Eriksson 

O., Freitas H., Golodets C., Jouany C., Kigel J., Kleyer M., Lehsten 

V., Lepš J., Meier T., Pakeman R., Papadimitriou M., Papanastasis 

V.P., Quetier F., Robson M., Sternberg M., Theau J. P., Thebault A. 

& Zarovali M. (2009): Leaf traits capture the effects of land use 

changes and climate on litter decomposability of grasslands across 

Europe. – Ecology 90: 598–611. 

Hedlund K., Santa Regina I., van der Putten W.H., Lepš J., Díaz T., 

Korthals G.W., Lavorel S., Brown V.K., Gormsen D., Mortimer 

S.R., Rodríguez Barrueco C., Roy J., Šmilauer P., Šmilauerová M. 

& van Dijk C. (2003): Plant species diversity plant biomass and 

responses of the soil community on abandoned land across Europe: 

idiosyncracy or above-belowground time lags. – Oikos 103: 

45–58. 

Lepš J., Brown V.K., DiazLen T.A., Gormsen D., Hedlund K., Kailová 

J., Korthals G.W., Mortimer S.R., Rodriguez-Barrueco C., Roy J., 

Santa Regina I., van Dijk C. & van der Putten W. (2001): Separating 

the chance effect from the other diversity effects in the functioning 

of plant communities. – Oikos 92: 123–134 

Lepš J., Doležal J., Bezemer T.M., Brown V.K., Hedlund K., Igual A.M., 

Jörgensen H.B., Lawson C., Mortimer S.R, Peix G.A., Rodríguez 

Barrueco C., Santa Regina I., Šmilauer P. & van der Putten W.H. 

(2007): Long-term effectiveness of sowing high and low diversity 

seed mixtures to enhance plant community development on exarable 

fields. – Applied Vegetation Science 10: 97–110. 

Pakeman R.J., Garnier E., Lavorel S., Ansquer P., Castro H., Cruz P., 

Doležal J., Eriksson O., Freitas H., Golodets C., Kigel J., Kleyer M., 

Lepš J., Meier T., Papadimitriou M., Papanastasis V.P., Quested H., 

Quetier F., Rusch G., Sternberg M., Theau J.P., Thebault A. & Vile 

D. (2008): Impact of abundance weighting on the response of seed 

traits to climate and land use. – Journal of Ecology 96: 355–366. 

Pavlů L., Pavlů V., Gaisler J., Hejcman M. & Mikulka J. (2011): Effect 

of long-term cutting versus abandonment on the vegetation of a 

mountain hay meadow (Polygono-Trisetion) in Central Europe. – 

Flora 206: 1020–1029. 

Pechová D. (1996): Druhová bohatost obojživelníků a jejich fenologie 

v k.ú. Benešov a blízkém okolí, JZ okraj Českomoravské vysočiny 

(Species richness of amphibians and their phenology in the vicinity 

of the village Benešov, SW margin of the Bohemian-Moravian 

Uplands). – Ms.; Bachelor thesis, Institut pedagogiky volného 

času, Český Krumlov. 

132 Landscapes

Riemersma S., Rauch O. & Květ J. (1996): A review of the Benešov 

constructed wetland. – Ms., technical report, Institute of Botany, 

Section of Plant Ecology, Třeboň. 

Ripl W., Pokorný J., Eiseltová M. & Ridgill S. (1994): A holistic approach 

to the structure and functioning of wetlands, and their 

degradation. – In: Eiseltová M. (ed.), Restoration of lake ecosystems: 

a holistic approach, pp. 16–35, IWRB (Publication 32), 

Slimbridge. 

Šrůtek M. & Čašek J. (1995): Restoration of a small stream catchment: 

Včelnička catchment, Czech Republic. – In: Eiseltová M. & Biggs 

J. (eds), Restoration of stream ecosystems: an integrated catchment 

approach, pp. 119–125, IWRB (Publication 37), Slimbridge. 

Šrůtek M. & Urban J. (2008): Organic farming. – In: Jørgensen S.E. & 

Fath B.D. (eds), Encyclopedia of Ecology, pp. 2582–2587, Elsevier, 

Oxford. 

van der Putten W.H., Mortimer S.R., Hedlund K., van Dijk C., Brown 

V.K., Lepš J., Rodriguez-Barrueco C., Roy J., Diaz Len T.A., Gormsen 

D., Korthals G.W., Lavorel S., Santa Regina I. & Šmilauer P. 

(2000): Plant species diversity as a driver of early succession in 

abandoned fields: a multi-site approach. – Oecologia 124: 91–99. 

Vesecký A. (ed.) (1961): Podnebí Československé socialistické republiky. 

Tabulky (Climate of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Tables). 

– Hydrometeorologický ústav, Praha. 

Fig. 6. 

Fig. 7. 

 

 

Landscapes 133

Restoration of greenery elements in the Podblanicko region 

 

Location 



Restored area 


Costs 

Benešov District, southeast Central Bohemian Region 

49°25'–50°03' N, 14°24'–15°13' E; altitude 280–630 m 

PLA (Blaník – 7 lines of trees), general protection of greenery according to the Nature Conservation Act 

Mostly formerly arable land, to a lesser extent eutrophic grassland (Arrhenatherion elatioris) 

417.2 ha (295 sites) 

Landscape management programmes (80%), own resources (20%), voluntary work 

Initial costs: fruit tree planting av. €2,000/km, deciduous tree planting av. €3,200/km, planting of orchards 

€2,000/ha, planting of hedges €10,000/ha; annual costs: repair of netting against browsing, mowing €4–100/ 

km, grazing in orchards av. €800/ha, hedges practically costless (occasional checking of fences, no management) 


The landscape of the Podblanicko region has gone through 

strongly negative changes as a result of land consolidation due to agricultural 

collectivisation, elimination of baulks, cart tracks, walls, wayside 

shrines etc. in the 1950s and 60s, and due to reclamation mostly 

in the 1970s and 80s. All these changes have led to biodiversity loss, 

extensive water and wind erosion and water regime alterations. 

Since 1998, the Czech Union for Nature Conservation has therefore 

been realising a programme for the restoration of small landscape 

elements, mostly lines of trees and hedges as “first aid” for the agricultural 

landscape of Podblanicko (Kříž 2003, 2006, Kříž & Pešout 2004). 

Most sites are located on intensively farmed and strongly eutrophicated 

farmland, where these plantings significantly contribute to biodiversity 

increase as well as reduction of wind and water erosion. Local 

communities, the owners of most cart tracks and local roads as well as 

enlightened landowners have been important partners. 

Objectives 

— Restoration of landscape structures, particularly greenery elements, 

on farmland. 

— Re-accession of the landscape. 


The measures consist of two types: restoration of declining greenery 

elements (e.g. stabilisation of disintegrating lines of trees and 

hedges, usually with a conserved herb or shrub layer) and renewal 

of defunct and ploughed elements (mostly on arable land). In the latter 

case it is necessary to reduce ruderal species, prepare the soil and 

sow an appropriate grass mixture (or at least winter grain) before the 

element can be established. In the case of plantings of lines of trees 

mowing has to follow. 

1998–1999 Restoration of still existing old lines of trees (cutting 

self-seeded shrubs, treatment of old trees, planting 

new trees). 

1998–2006 Phase 1: Restoration of the first 100 km of lines of 

trees, hedge planting, restoration of two extensive 

orchards. 

2007–2011 Phase 2: Maintenance of restored elements in collaboration 

with landowners, restoration of another 

61.3 km of lines of trees, hedge planting. 

Fig. 1. 

 

Results 

Lines of fruit trees with a length of 86.63 km have been planted 

and restored to date (Tab. 1), mostly consisting of tall-trunk apple, 

pear, plum, cherry and walnut trees. In one case a line of mulberry 

trees was planted. Also lines of deciduous trees with a length of 

74.67 km have been realised. These mostly consist of Tilia cordata, T. 

platyphyllos, Acer pseudoplatanus, A. platanoides, Fraxinus excelsior, 

Quercus robur, and admixed Ulmus glabra. 

The species compositions of hedges differ according to the function 

they have. In linear hedges, shrubs prevail and trees are scattered, 

134 Landscapes

Tab. 1. 

Elements 

Lines of fruit trees 

Lines of non-fruit trees 

Newly planted Restored Newly planted Restored 

Hedges Extensive orchards Total 

Number 122 24 101 4 42 2 295 

Area (ha) 132 41 212 10 13 9 417 


In the 14 years the programme has been running we have gained 

some essential experience thanks to which the plantings have not only 

been realised but also maintained for a longer period of time. 

— When planning landscape element restoration, the easiest way is 

to use registered old (ploughed up) tracks and baulks. 

— It is advised to make appointments with the person who is in 

charge of the land use. Leaving enough passage space prevents 

intentional damage or destruction. 

— Conversely, in the case of intentional damage it is good to repair 

the damaged parts relentlessly. In most cases the damaging stops 

after a few years. 

— Adequate saplings should be used for planting: deciduous trees 

up to 150–200 cm tall, best with clod, and tall-trunk fruit trees. 

Taller trees do not survive in the landscape, since they cannot 

receive as much care as in a town or village. Moreover, they are 

unnecessarily expensive. In hedges, it is better to plant saplings 

used in forestry practice (30–50 cm tall). It is good to combine 

bare-rooting saplings for two thirds and saplings with clods for 

one third, which offers very good rooting at a yet acceptable price. 

— Planting in the open must be carried out in autumn. Spring is often 

followed by spells of drought, which demands intensive watering. 

Otherwise the saplings die. 

— Saplings have to be protected against browsing by game. The netting 

must be checked regularly, especially before and during winter. 

If this task is neglected, one winter night can ruin the whole 

work. 

— The sward under the lines of trees must not be mown. Saplings 

(particularly shrubs) are poorly visible among weeds, so that a 

large number of them may be cut off. Within 3–5 years the saplings 

will outgrow the weeds. 

— Aftercare should not be neglected, especially checking the netting 

against game browsing and pruning tree crowns (mainly cutting 

away co-dominant shoots). 

Fig. 2. 

 

whereas in wide hedges mainly trees are planted and shrubs only create 

a fringe. Species used in hedges are Prunus spinosa, P. avium, Rosa 

canina, Crataegus sp., Viburnum opulus, Cornus sanguinea, Corylus 

avellana, Lonicera xylosteum, Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Carpinus 

betulus, Sorbus aucuparia, Malus sylvestris, and Pyrus pyraster. 

It can be concluded that over 80% of the restored lines of trees are 

currently viable and the remainder (where in most cases the subsequent 

maintenance has not been realised) is gradually supplemented 

with new saplings. Hedges have successfully been realised in 100% of 

the cases (also due to conceiving them as non-managed). 


Introducing new elements into the landscape, especially lines of 

trees, is very much appreciated by the public, just as increasing the 

accessibility of the landscape is: along lines of trees or linear hedges 

a path is formed after some time. Generally, if somewhere new landscape 

elements (especially lines of trees) appear, also interest in these 

works from adjacent villages can be expected. 


Our thanks go most of all out to representatives of the communities 

involved and enlightened landowners, without whom such a 

number of landscape elements would not have been realised on the 

territory of the Podblanicko region. 

References 

Kříž K. (2003): Nové aleje na Podblanicku (New avenues in the Podblanicko 

region). – Pod Blaníkem 7/4: 2–5. 

Kříž K. (2006): Výsadba stého kilometru alejí na Podblanicku (Planting 

the hundredth kilometre of avenue in the Podblanicko region). 

– Pod Blaníkem 10/1: 2–4. 

Kříž K. & Pešout P. (2004): Obnova stromořadí na Podblanicku (Restoration 

of lines of trees in the Podblanicko region). – Veronica 

18/3: 10–13. 

Fig. 3. 

 

Landscapes 135

Restoration of standard orchard at Habrůvka 

 

Location 


Restored area 


Costs 

SW of the village of Habrůvka (see Fig. 2), N of Brno, southeast Czech Republic 

49°18' N, 16°43' E; altitude 490 m 

PLA (Moravský kras) 

3 ha 

Landscape management programmes, South Moravian Region 

€1900/ha (removal of invasive species with a brushcutter, mowing of the grassland and subsequent removal 

of the biomass, planting of 10 young standard apple trees) 


Around 1932, an orchard was established on the “Na stání” commons 

and named Tyrš Orchard in honour of the founder of the Sokol 

sport organisation. It was gradually expanded to a size of 3.8 ha. The 

former maintenance included gradual replacement of old trees, planting 

of new trees, grass mowing and fruit harvesting by local citizens. 

In 1982–1995 the management was carried out by members of the 

local gardeners society. 

After 1995, the orchard was not systematically managed and became 

gradually overgrown by self-seeded and invasive shrubs and 

trees (mostly Robinia pseudacacia and Rosa canina) and suckers from 

the rootstock (Prunus cerasifera) of planted plum trees. Some old trees 

(especially cherries) are instable, their trunks damaged, branches broken 

and crowns desiccated. The orchard has also been negatively affected 

by the presence of an illegal waste dump nearby. 

In 2010 a new non-governmental organisation called Habrůvka 

– Traditional Village was founded. It set the main target of its activities 

to restoring Tyrš Orchard, and a management plan was drawn up 

in cooperation with Biosférická rezervace Dolní Morava, o.p.s. (Biosphere 

Reserve Authority) and Mendel University, Brno. 

Fig. 1. - 

 

Objectives 

Restoration and creation of an extensively managed, species- and 

variety-rich orchard, formation of a gene bank, increasing biodiversity, 

creating a meeting point for local citizens. 

Fig. 2. 


2011 

— Inventory of the fruit trees including assessment of 

their health and general value. 

— Removal of self-seeded and invasive woody species, 

especially Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia). 

— Removal of remnants of illegal waste dump, terrain 

levelling. 

— Summer pruning of stone fruit trees (cherries) – removal 

of diseased and dead branches (while retaining 

dying and dead trees in the orchards if they are not a 

risk to people’s safety). 

— Mowing grass with a brushcutter including subsequent 

biomass removal. 

— Planting 30 apple trees of different historical varieties 

(e.g. ‘Oranienapfel’, ‘Wesener’, ‘Graham’s Royal Jubilee’, 

‘Coulon’s Renette’) and landraces (e.g. ‘Granatapfel aus 

Třiblice’, ‘Korbapfel’, ‘Sudeten Renette’, ‘Vlk’s Seedling’, 

‘Himbeerapfel von Holowaus’). 


— Maintenance of fruit trees by pruning. 

— Mosaic mowing of the grass twice a year with subsequent biomass 

removal (grazing by domestic animals could be an alternative). 

— Planting new trees, mainly pome fruit (apple, pear). 

— Subsequent maintenance of newly planted trees (improvement 

cutting of young trees and hoeing the soil around the trees for at 

least 3 years after planting). 

136 Landscapes

Fig. 3. 

Fig. 4. 

Methods 

In 2011 a detailed inventory of the fruit trees in the orchard was 

conducted in order to identify the fruit cultivars present. For each 

tree, we assessed the following features on a five-point scale (excluding 

the rate of crown desiccation): 

— General value of the tree (1 – high value; 5 – low value) (Pejchal 

& Šimek 2011). 

— General state of health (1 – completely healthy individual; 5 – 

heavily damaged individual). 

— Trunk damage (1 – none; 5 – extensively damaged). 

— Rate of crown desiccation (0–100%). 

Results 

The orchard comprises a total of 416 planted fruit trees: 9 pear 

trees (cv. ‘Hardy’), 33 apple trees (cv. ‘Gascoyne’s Scarlet Seedling’, 

‘Kuhländer Gulderling’, ‘The Queen’, ‘Roter Böhmischer Jungfernapfel’, 

‘Winter Goldparmäne’, ‘Sudeten Renette’), 37 Persian walnut trees 

(saplings), 127 plum trees (cv. ‘Common Prune’, ‘Durancie’, ‘Wangenheim’), 

and 210 cherry trees (cv. ‘Annonay’, ‘Hedelfingern’, ‘Kaštánka’, 

‘Karešova’, ‘Libějovická’, ‘Napoleon’, ‘Früheste der Mark’, ‘Skalka’). Tyrš 

Orchard is not significant from the viewpoint of gene pool conservation. 

Except for the relatively rare varieties ‘The Queen’ and ‘Skalka’, 

the orchard includes a range of common, old standard fruit trees. 

The average values of the assessed features were as follows: overall 

state of health 2.8, trunk damage 1.9, crown desiccation 30.8%. The 

general value of all assessed trees reached a mean score of 3.0, which 

indicates moderately valuable trees supposed to live long, possibly 

with reduced vitality and health. The trees can be utilised for fruit production 

as well as ornamental or compositional vegetation elements. 


Long-neglected extensive orchards can be restored relatively 

quickly using appropriate agrotechnical operations including special 

pruning for tree improvement and maintenance, cleaning the area 

from unwanted vegetation (self-seeded trees, rootstocks), and planting 

new trees. Retaining dead or unviable trees creates suitable habitats 

for xylophagous insects and other organisms. 

Traditional extensive orcharding seems to be the optimal way of 

conserving on farm genetic resources of vegetatively propagated species 

(Holubec & Paprštein 2005), especially old and regional cultivars 

found in a particular area (Paprštein & Kloutvor 2006, Boček & Tetera 

2008). 


Local citizens are interested in actively participating in the management 

of Tyrš Orchard. The orchard is suitable for educational seminars 

(pruning trees, biological fruit crop control, etc.). 


The study was supported by the Czech Ministry of Agriculture 

under project no. QI112A138 ‘Local identity of greenery in countryside 

and villages’. 

References 

Boček S. & Tetera V. (2008): Ovocné dřeviny Bílých Karpat (Fruit 

trees of the White Carpathian Mts.). – Zahradnictví 1: 10–12. 

Holubec V. & Paprštein F. (2005): Možnosti uplatnění in situ a on 

farm konzervace v Č R (Possibilities of applying in situ and on 

farm conservation in the Czech Republic). – In: Faberová I. 

(ed.), Konzervace a regenerace genetických zdrojů vegetativně 

množených druhů rostlin a Dostupnost a využívání genetických 

zdrojů rostlin a podpora biodiversity, pp. 92–96, Výzkumný ústav 

rostlinné výroby, Praha. 

Paprštein F. & Kloutvor J. (2006): Záchrana krajových odrůd ovocných 

dřevin v České republice (Conservation of local fruit cultivars in 

the Czech Republic). – Vědecké práce ovocnářské 20: 115–120. 

Pejchal M. & Šimek P. (2011): Sadovnická hodnota: oborový standard 

v zahradní a krajinářské architektuře (Orchard value: professional 

norm in garden and landscape architecture). – In: Anonymus 

(ed.), Odborný seminář Provozní bezpečnost stromů, 24.–25. 

března 2011, Brno, Sborník přednášek, pp. 20–28, Agentura ochrany 

přírody a krajiny Č R a Lesnická a dřevařská fakulta Mendelovy 

univerzity, Brno. (CD-ROM) 

Landscapes 137

Restoration of semi-natural vegetation in old fields in the Bohemian Karst 

Location 



Restored area 

Costs €0 

Bohemian Karst (Český kras) PLA, SW of Prague, Czech Republic 

49°52'–50°00' N, 14°03'–14°21' E; altitude 251–488 m 

PLA 

 

Deciduous woodland (dominated by mesophilous oak-hornbeam and thermophilous oak woods), mesic 

meadows, shrubland, dry grasslands 

91.7 ha (110 original old fields dating from 1975), 18 ha (46 still existing, spontaneously developed fields) 


Arable land in the Czech Republic, just as in other central and 

eastern European countries, was extensively abandoned in the 1990s 

as a result of political and economic changes (Brouwer & van der 

Straaten 2002). However, abandonment of arable land had also earlier 

been practised for various reasons. 

Altogether 110 abandoned arable fields were recorded in the mid- 

1970s, covering 0.7% of the karst area (Osbornová et al. 1990). This 

case study focused only on those with spontaneous succession. 


It is a relatively warm and dry region, with mild winters; a mean 

annual temperature of 8–9 °C and a mean annual precipitation of 

530 mm. Limestone is the bedrock in most of the area. 

Objectives 

The following main questions were asked: 

— Do target stages, identified as shrubby grassland (SG) and seminatural 

deciduous woodland (W), develop and, if so, which species 

are involved? 

— Are the target stages predictable? 

— What is the influence of the surrounding vegetation on the target 

species composition of the old fields? 

Data collection 

1975 Klaudisová (1976) sampled 58 of 110 old fields in the 

area. 

2008–2009 A total of 28 of them were re-sampled (Jírová et al. 

2011). 

2009–2011 Complete lists of vascular plant species were 

recorded for 46 fields and their surroundings up to 

100 m from their margin. 

Results 

 

The spontaneous succession in old fields proceeded towards target 

stages, either deciduous woodland or shrubby grassland (Fig. 2). 

Their establishment can be tentatively predicted by soil pH and early 

occurrence of grassland species. Moreover, shrubby grasslands develop 

on the shallower soils. 

 

In total, 589 vascular plant species were recorded in the studied 

old fields and their surroundings, 154 of which were classified as target 

species (belonging to the Querco-Fagetea, Festuco-Brometea and 

Fig. 1. 

138 Landscapes


Spontaneous succession can be considered a suitable restoration 

measure in old fields. Shrubby grassland and deciduous woodland as 

target vegetation have developed in this case without any intervention. 

However, in some cases of shrubby grassland a reduction of 

woody species is desirable to support and maintain rare heliophilous 

species. Shrubby grassland, resembling natural steppe-like communities 

typical of the region, is valuable from the restoration point of view. 

Landowners can save money by replacing expensive reclamation by 

spontaneous succession at suitable sites. 

Fig. 2. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Trifolio-Geranietea classes in the European classification system), the 

remainder being either weeds, common and widespread species or 

species typical of mesic grasslands. Forty-four target species were not 

recorded in the fi elds, but most of them, except for 13 species, occurred 

in the surrounding area once or twice. Target and native species 

were generally successful in the late successional stages. This result 

is important from the viewpoint of nature conservation. The four 

most successful establishing taxa were Aster amellus, Crataegus sp., 

Rosa canina agg. and Cornus sanguinea. Some rare species spontaneously 

arrived at the restored sites, e.g. Orchis purpurea, Lithospermum 

purpurocaeruleum, Gentianopsis ciliata, and Anthericum ramosum. 


The study was supported by the following grants: MSM 

6007665801, AVOZ 60050516, P505/11/0256, GAJU 138/2010/P, and 

SGA2008/015. 

References 

Brouwer F. & van der Straaten J. (eds) (2002): Nature and agriculture 

in the European Union: New perspectives on policies that shape 

the European countryside. – Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK. 

Jírová A., Klaudisová A. & Prach K. (2012): Spontaneous restoration 

of target vegetation in old fields in a central European landscape: 

a repeated analysis after three decades. – Applied Vegetation Science 

15: 245–252. 

Klaudisová A. (1976): Fytocenologicko-pedologická studie opuštěných 

polí Českého krasu (Phytosociological and pedological 

study of abandoned fields in the Bohemian Karst). – Ms.; Master 

thesis, Charles University, Prague. 

Osbornová J.M., Kovářová J., Lepš J. & Prach K. (eds) (1990): Succession 

in abandoned fields: studies in Central Bohemia, Czechoslovakia. 

– Kluwer, Dordrecht. 

Fig. 3. 

Landscapes 139

Conclusions 

This publication reflects the state-of-the art of restoration ecology and practical ecological restoration in the Czech Republic, although only 

selected examples are presented. Many valuable restoration projects have been conducted or are in progress, however more needs to be done. We 

believe that our country will comply with the Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological Diversity for the post-2010 period, which recommends 

restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems by 2020. 

We can draw especially the following conclusions: 

1. Our landscape is traditionally based on a diverse fine-scale mosaic of natural, semi-natural and anthropogenic habitats, which should be 

respected by restoration projects. Sometimes even less traditional measures, such as prescribed fire, topsoil scraping, off-road activities, etc., 

can be integrated into restoration projects to diversify their output. Heterogenous restoration in space and time seems to be most desirable. 

Uniform, large-scale projects, such as many of those under the present Agri-environmental schemes, can be detrimental to many biota if 

not appropriately modified. 

2. Restoration projects should not target just one group of organisms or one ecosystem service. If the various interests cannot be balanced, 

mosaic management can be an appropriate solution. 

3. Collaboration across scientific disciplines and between practical restorationists, decision-makers and the public must be improved. Even 

during the preparation of this publication we came across some very narrow views of the problem of habitat restoration and biodiversity 

conservation, which we hope this publication will help to overcome. 

4. Natural processes, usually manifested in spontaneous succession, are often effective and cheap tools of restoration. Frequently, habitats valuable 

from the nature conservation point of view are formed. Succession often needs arresting or even reversing, because early successional 

stages may be more appreciated for their biodiversity. This could be easily financed by a fragment of the huge amount of money invested 

into often useless technical reclamation. 

5. We have rather good scientific and practical knowledge of how to restore various disturbed habitats preferably in near-natural ways. However, 

there are still many obstacles to applying this knowledge in practice, often due to low interest by target companies, officials, decisionmakers, 

and sometimes due to inconvenient legislation. 

We thank Jonathan Mitchley for language improvement, Karel Fajmon for valuable comments, and Dagmar Uhýrková for technical assistance 

with some of the figures. David Jongepier is acknowledged for the graphic design of the entire publication. Valuable comments particularly 

by our reviewers Ladislav Miko and Tomáš Kučera are very much appreciated. 

The editors 

141

List of authors 

Bastl Marek 

Bělohoubek Jiří 

Boček Stanislav 

University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Branišovská 

31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Labské pískovce PLA Authority 

and Ústí nad Labem Regional Office, Bělehradská 17, CZ - 400 01 Ústí nad Labem 

Mendel University Brno, Department of Forest Botany, Dendrology and Geobiocoenology, 

Zemědělská 1, CZ - 613 00 Brno 

marek.bastl@bf.jcu.cz 

jiri.belohoubek@nature.cz 

bocek@mendelu.cz 

Brabec Jiří Cheb Museum, nám. Krále Jiřího z Poděbrad 493/4, CZ - 350 11 Cheb jbrabcak@seznam.cz 

Bufková Ivana Šumava NP and PLA Authority, Sušická 399, CZ - 341 92 Kašperské Hory ivana.bufkova@npsumava.cz 

Čašek Jaromír 3E - projektování ekologických staveb s.r.o., Pražská 455, CZ - 393 01 Pelhřimov j.casek@3eprojektovani.cz 

Čiháková Kateřina Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Benátská 2, 

CZ - 128 01 Praha 2 

katerinacihakova@seznam.cz 

Čížek Lukáš Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Entomology, lukas.cizek@gmail.com 

Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; University of South Bohemia, Faculty 

of Science, Department of Zoology, Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 

Dlouhá Veronika Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Benátská 2, veronika.dlouha@natur.cuni.cz 

CZ - 128 01 Praha 2 

Donocik Roman Českomoravský cement, a.s., nástupnická společnost, Mokrá 359, CZ - 664 09 roman.donocik@cmcem.cz 

Mokrá-Horákov 

Dvořák Petr University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South dvorakp@frov.jcu.cz 

Bohemian Research Centre of Aquaculture, Husova tř. 458/102, CZ - 370 05 České 

Budějovice 

Edwards Magda Global Change Research Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na edwards.m@czechglobe.cz 

Sádkách 7, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 

Frouz Jan 

Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Institute for Environmental Studies, frouz@natur.cuni.cz 

Benátská 2, CZ - 128 01 Praha 2 

Gaisler Jan 

Crop Research Institute, Department of Plant Ecology and Weed Science, Rolnická gaisler@fzp.czu.cz 

85/6, CZ - 460 01 Liberec; Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Faculty of Environmental 

Sciences, Kamýcká 129, CZ - 165 21 Praha 6 

Hanousek Martin Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Orlické hory PLA Authority martin.hanousek@nature.cz 

and Hradec Králové Regional Office, Pražská 155, CZ - 500 04 Hradec Králové 

Harčarik Josef Krkonoše NP Authority, Dobrovského 3, CZ - 543 01 Vrchlabí jharcarik@krnap.cz 

Hartvich Petr University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South hartvich@frov.jcu.cz 

Bohemian Research Centre of Aquaculture, Husova tř. 458/102, CZ - 370 05 České 

Budějovice 

Hejcman Michal Crop Research Institute, Department of Plant Ecology and Weed Science, Rolnická hejcman@fzp.czu.cz 



Heřman Petr Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Český kras PLA Authority, petr.herman@nature.cz 

Karlštejn 85, CZ - 267 18 Karlštejn 

Horn Petr 

University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Ecosystem Biology, petr.horn@seznam.cz 

Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 

Jírová Alena University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Branišovská cralenka@yahoo.co.uk 

31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the 

Czech Republic, Dukelská 135, CZ - 379 82 Třeboň 

Jiskra Petr 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Slavkovský les PLA Authority petr.jiskra@nature.cz 

and Karlovy Vary Regional Office, Drahomířino nábřeží 197/16, CZ - 360 09 Karlovy 

Vary 

Jongepierová Ivana Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Bílé Karpaty PLA Authority ivana.jongepierova@nature.cz 

and Zlín Regional Office, Nádražní 318, CZ - 763 26 Luhačovice; Czech Union for 

Nature Conservation, Local Chapter Bílé Karpaty, Bartolomějské nám. 47, CZ - 698 

01 Veselí nad Moravou 

Just Tomáš 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Headquarters Praha and Střední 

Čechy Regional Office, U Šalamounky 41/769, CZ - 158 00 Praha 5 

tomas.just@nature.cz 

142

Klaudys Martin 

Konvička Martin 

Czech Union for Nature Conservation, Local Chapter Vlašim, Pláteníkova 264, CZ 

- 258 01 Vlašim 

Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Entomology, 

Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; University of South Bohemia, 

Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České 

Budějovice 

martin.klaudys@csop.cz 

konva333@gmail.com 

Kopečková Michala Ametyst Civil Association, Koterovská 2127/84, CZ - 326 00 Plzeň misa.kopeckova@gmail.com 

Kovář Pavel Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Benátská 2, 

CZ - 128 01 Praha 2 

Král Kamil 

Kříž Karel 

Silva Tarouca Research Institute for Landscape and Ornamental Gardening, Department 

of Forest Ecology, Lidická 25/27, CZ - 602 00 Brno 

Czech Union for Nature Conservation, Local Chapter Vlašim, Pláteníkova 264, CZ 

- 258 01 Vlašim 

Ludvíková Vendula Crop Research Institute, Department of Plant Ecology and Weed Science, Rolnická 



Malenovský Igor Moravian Museum, Department of Entomology, Hviezdoslavova 29a, CZ - 627 00 

Brno 

Marhoul Pavel Daphne CZ – Institute of Applied Ecology, Emy Destinové 395, CZ - 370 05 České 

Budějovice 

Mayerová Hana Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Benátská 2, 

CZ - 128 01 Praha 2 

Mudrák Ondřej Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Section of Plant 

Ecology, Dukelská 135, CZ - 379 82 Třeboň 

Münzbergová 

Zuzana 

Pavlů Lenka 

Pavlů Vilém 

Pelc František 

Pešout Pavel 

Pithart David 

Charles University Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Benátská 2, 

CZ - 128 01 Praha 2; Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 

Zámek 1, CZ - 252 43 Průhonice 

Crop Research Institute, Department of Plant Ecology and Weed Science, Rolnická 



Crop Research Institute, Department of Plant Ecology and Weed Science, Rolnická 



Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Kaplanova 1, CZ - 148 00 Praha 

11 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Nature and Landscape Protection 

Section, Kaplanova 1, CZ - 148 00 Praha 11; Czech Union for Nature Conservation, 

Local Chapter Vlašim, Pláteníkova 264, CZ - 258 01 Vlašim 

Daphne CZ – Institute of Applied Ecology, Emy Destinové 395, CZ - 370 05 České 

Budějovice 

pavel.kovar@natur.cuni.cz 

kamil.kral@vukoz.cz 

karel.kriz@csop.cz 

ludvikovavendula@fzp.czu.cz 

imalenovsky@mzm.cz 

pavel.marhoul@daphne.cz 

mayerova.ha@volny.cz 

ondrej.mudrak@centrum.cz 

zuzmun@natur.cuni.cz 

pavlul@fzp.czu.cz 

pavluv@fzp.czu.cz 

frantisek.pelc@nature.cz 

pavel.pesout@nature.cz 

david.pithart@daphne.cz 

Ponikelský Jaroslav Podyjí NP Authority, Na Vyhlídce 5, CZ - 669 02 Znojmo ponikelsky@nppodyji.cz 

Prach Karel 

University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Na Zlaté prach@prf.jcu.cz 

stoce 1, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of 

the Czech Republic, Dukelská 135, CZ - 379 82 Třeboň 

Rauch Ota Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Zámek 1, CZ - 252 rauch@butbn.cas.cz 

43 Průhonice 

Rous Jiří Terén Design, s.r.o., Dr. Vrbenského 2874/1, CZ - 415 01 Teplice jiri.rous@pireo.cz 

Rous Vít Grania s.r.o., nám. 14. října 1307/2, CZ - 150 00 Praha 5 rous.vitek@seznam.cz 

Řehounek Jiří Calla – Association for Environmental Protection, Fráni Šrámka 35, CZ - 370 01 rehounekj@seznam.cz 

České Budějovice 

Řehounková Klára University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Branišovská ms_cora@hotmail.com 

31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the 

Czech Republic, Dukelská 135, CZ - 379 82 Třeboň 

Salašová Alena Mendel University Brno, Faculty of Horticulture, Department of Landscape Planning, 

alena.salasova@mendelu.cz 

Valtická 337, CZ - 691 44 Lednice 

Stíbal František Šumava NP and PLA Authority, Sušická 399, CZ - 341 92 Kašperské Hory frantisek.stibal@npsumava.cz 

Šlechtová Anna Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Species Protection Office, Kaplanova 

1, CZ - 148 00 Praha 11 

anna.slechtova@nature.cz 

143

Šrůtek Miroslav 

Tichý Lubomír 

Tichý Tomáš 

Trochta Jan 

Tropek Robert 

Vrška Tomáš 

Zámečník Jaroslav 

Zimmermann Kamil 

University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany, Na Zlaté 

stoce 1, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of 

the Czech Republic, Department of Geobotany, Zámek 1, CZ - 252 43 Průhonice 

Masaryk University Brno, Faculty of Science, Department of Botany and Zoology, 

Kotlářská 2, CZ - 611 37 Brno 

Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic, Český kras PLA Authority, 

Karlštejn 85, CZ - 267 18 Karlštejn 


of Forest Ecology, Lidická 25/27, CZ - 602 00 Brno 

University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology, Branišovská 

31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice; Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech 

Republic, Institute of Entomology, Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 


of Forest Ecology, Lidická 25/27, CZ - 602 00 Brno; Mendel University Brno, 

Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Silviculture, Zemědělská 

3, CZ - 613 00 Brno 

Museum of Eastern Bohemia Hradec Králové, Eliščino nábřeží 465, CZ - 500 01 Hradec 

Králové; Hutur Civil Association, J. Purkyně 1616, CZ - 500 02 Hradec Králové 

Biology Centre, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Entomology, 

Branišovská 31, CZ - 370 05 České Budějovice 

miroslav@srutek.cz 

tichy@sci.muni.cz 

tomas.tichy@nature.cz 

jan.trochta@vukoz.cz 

robert.tropek@prf.jcu.cz 

tomas.vrska@vukoz.cz 

j.zamecnik@muzeumhk.cz 

cimmin@gmail.com 

144


The Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic (NCACR) 

is a state institution preparing and performing nature and landscape 

management in the country. 

NCACR manages all significant protected areas in the Czech Republic 

except for National Parks. It maintains these areas, for which it 

also provides civil service administration and prepares management 

plans. Protected areas under the auspices of NCACR, making up approx. 

15% of the area of the Czech Republic, include: 

— 24 Protected Landscape Areas 

— 213 National Nature Reserves and Monuments 

— 537 Nature Reserves and Monuments 

NCACR monitors the state of Czech biodiversity by: 

— managing the Nature Conservation Finds Database containing 9 

million data 

— supporting decision-making by public administration institutions 

— prepares documents for the Natura 2000 network and recommended 

principles for the management of 41 Important Bird Areas 

and 1087 Sites of Community Importance 

— delimiting and managing the National System of Ecological Stability 

of the Landscape 

— representing the state in nature conservation matters at the European 

Commission 

NCACR prepares and realises action plans for endangered species. 

NCACR supports, from various fi nancial sources, landscape 

measures such as: 

— tree planting, anti-erosion measures 

— stream and wetland restoration 

— management of valuable habitats 

— improvement of species composition and spatial arrangement of 

forests 

NCACR informs the public about the beauty of Czech nature by 

means of: 

— 91 nature trails in a range of protected areas 

— the 'House of Nature' programme aimed at building visitor centres 

— the impacted Příroda journal, the Ochrana přírody magazine, and 

other publications. 

More at www.nature.cz 

Address: Kaplanova 1931/1, Praha 11, Chodov, Czech Republic 

145

Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) 

The 8 th European Conference on Ecological Restoration is a regular, biennial event of the Society 

for Ecological Restoration, European branch. The Society was established in 1987 in the USA 

and has gradually grown into a worldwide network. Nowadays, it has about 2,500 members from 

40 countries. The members include scientists, practitioners, volunteers, decision-makers and even 

some politicians. Since 1993, the Society has published Restoration Ecology as the main journal 

in the fi eld. Besides, the Society issues a practically oriented journal under the name Ecological 

Restoration and the electronic weekly bulletin RESTORE. The European branch of the Society was 

officially established in 2001, but the European conferences have been organised since 1996. All relevant 

information, including that about membership, can be found at www.ser.org. For more about 

the European branch, simply add /europe. 

Working Group for Restoration Ecology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic 

The Working Group for Restoration Ecology is a part of the Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České 

Budějovice (Budweis). This informal group includes, under the leadership of Prof. Karel Prach, not only botanists but also specialists from other 

fields and departments of the faculty, as well as several institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. The members are especially 

interested in using ecological succession in the restoration of various human-disturbed sites (such as mining sites), ecosystems on ex-arable 

land, and various neglected and wrongly managed grasslands, as well as the restoration of natural species composition and functioning of 

degraded forests, especially plantations. Results are published in top ecological journals as well as popular publications. Emphasis is placed on 

spreading the ideas of restoration ecology to the public. 

The working group is the main organiser of the 8 th European Conference on Ecological Restoration, 2012. For details about the group, see 

http://botanika.prf.jcu.cz/restoration. 

146

Brief reviews 

“ 

A useful publication in the field of modern nature conservation, demonstrating experience and results, but also problems, 

gained in the Czech Republic in practical applications of restoration ecology. A wide range of case studies in different types of ecosystem 

is documented, including conditions for the use of particular approaches, financial demands, and the degree of public support 

for the illustrated projects. Even though restoration ecology is a relatively recent ecological discipline, the publication clearly shows 

it is quite a respectable tradition in the Czech Republic. Individual case studies indicate that under certain conditions a restored 

ecosystem can be left or led to natural processes, preserving desirable dynamics and without risk of degradation, while in other cases 

systematic, suitably applied management is needed, dependent on the availability of the necessary human and financial resources. 

All the presented knowledge, including the documented problems and identified future challenges, is of great value for practical 

conservation of nature, individual natural phenomena or the landscape as a whole. At the same time, it also meets the Czech 

Republic’s international commitments, for example the implementation of the European Natura 2000 network, the requirements of 

the European nature conservation directives, and the commitment to restore 15% of degraded ecosystems in this country by 2020. 

Conciseness, a clear and simple structure and photographs and diagrams documenting the case studies are the great advantages 

of this publication. It also provides contacts to the authors, who may on demand pass on further detailed knowledge to whoever 

interested. 

Ladislav Miko 

“ 

This collection of papers is above all a synoptic summary of a whole range of nature conservation activities started in the past, 

which now provide us with essential information on the management of species, habitats and large areas. It deals systematically 

with the issue of so-called conservation and restoration management, both at the ecosystem level and on a spatial scale, and documents 

various activities, from forest conversion through traditional grassland management to wetland restoration and rehabilitation 

of natural streams. 

Considerable attention is paid to areas disturbed by draining (peat bogs) and mining, into the disputable reclamation of which 

still huge sums of money are invested. However, the presented studies demonstrate that nature at these sites (sand pits, quarries, 

spoil heaps, tailings) can also be restored by spontaneous succession. 

The chapter on abandoned military areas presents the principles of sustainable management of these areas. This happens at a 

time when the military is planning massive withdrawal from these areas and it is high time to know how to manage these areas and 

maintain the very specific biota which have been created here during decades of military activity. The communities here are initial 

successional stages and their conservation requires so-called disturbance management. 

The final chapter summarises the issue of landscape restoration. 

The editors have managed to unify the various contributions in a way which enables comparison of the data, including financial 

support. This provides extremely valuable information, complementing our ideas about the “price of nature”. Also worth mentioning 

are the chronological tables of restoration measures, showing that the ecological restoration of habitats and ecosystem functions 

is a long-term affair and well exceeds the time length of relevant subsidy programmes. 

This publication will undoubtedly become a popular handbook on ecological restoration, not only in common conservation 

practice, but also among students a pedagogues. 

Tomáš Kučera 

147

Ecological restoration in the Czech Republic

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