(Nestor notabilis) Husbandry Manual - Kea Conservation Trust

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Kea (Nestor notabilis) 

Husbandry Manual 

Tamsin Orr-Walker 

Kea Conservation Trust 

Kea Conservation Trust Final 25/11/2010

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Prepared by 

Tamsin Orr-Walker 

Kea Conservation Trust 

August 2010 

This husbandry manual sets new standards and expectations for the captive 

husbandry of kea in New Zealand. The minimum standards throughout this 

document are designed to provide the minimum welfare guidelines for captive 

kea. It is hoped that all kea holders will strive for the best practice standards 

outlined here and even better, exceed them. 

This husbandry manual has been the subject of extensive consultation with 

captive holders, experienced vet's, the Captive Management Coordinator (CMC) 

and industry participants. This husbandry manual is considered best practise by 

the KCT and ZAA and in line with the WAZACS. It has been submitted to the 

Department of Conservation for formal approval in terms of the Department of 

Conservation Captive Management Standard Operating Procedure. 

This document is dedicated to Ariki, Hopara and Sweety (Nauhea) and for all 

other kea in captive facilities throughout New Zealand; here’s to a brighter future 

for you all! 

“the critical role of zoos and aquariums within conservation is more 

important than ever. Zoos and aquariums are in a unique position: that of 

providing conservation in a genuinely integrated way. For the young people of the 

world’s cities, zoos and aquariums are often the first contact with nature and so 

you are the incubator of the conservationists of tomorrow.” 

Achim Steiner - Director General, IUCN (WAZACS, 2005) 

Ariki during a training session, spreading 

his wings during a health check. 

Photo credit: T Orr-Walker 2003 

Cover Photo: 

Alyssa Salton and Silver during a relaxed training session in Orana Parks 

walk through Kea enclosure. Photo credit: Orana Wildlife Park 


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Contents 

1.0 PREFACE ............................................................................8 

2.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................8 

2.1 Taxonomy ................................................................................. 9 

2.2 Conservation Status.................................................................. 9 

2.2.1 Population Estimates ..................................................................9 

2.3 Captive Management Coordinator and Contacts...................... 9 

2.4 Captive Population.................................................................. 10 

3.0 NATURAL HISTORY..........................................................12 

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 12 

3.2 Biodata.................................................................................... 12 

3.3 Distribution, habitat and home range ...................................... 13 

3.4 Habits, movements and social structure ................................. 13 

3.5 Feeding behaviour .................................................................. 14 

3.6 Reproduction........................................................................... 15 

3.7 Protected species’ role in ecosystem...................................... 15 

3.8 Threats in the wild................................................................... 16 

3.8.1 Human Induced threats ............................................................ 16 

3.8.2 Predation .................................................................................. 17 

4.0 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY.....................................................18 

4.1 Housing/Environment Standards ............................................ 19 

4.1.1 Introduction............................................................................... 19 

4.1.2 Enclosure Types ....................................................................... 19 

4.1.3 Size........................................................................................... 22 

4.1.4 Materials for housing ................................................................ 24 

4.1.5 Shelter/screening/barriers......................................................... 25 

4.1.6 Water ........................................................................................ 26 

4.1.7 Furnishings, vegetation and substrates .................................... 27 

4.1.8 Multi-species Exhibits ............................................................... 28 

4.1.9 Enclosure Siting........................................................................ 30 

4.1.10 Enclosure Security.................................................................. 31 

Minimum Standard 4.1 - Housing Environment Standards .... 31 

Best Practice 4.1 - Housing Environment Standards.............. 34 


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4.2 Enrichment.............................................................................. 35 

4.2.1 Introduction............................................................................... 35 

4.2.2 Behavioural needs .................................................................... 36 

4.2.3 Enrichment programme ............................................................ 37 

4.2.4 Additional Links......................................................................... 39 

Minimum Standard 4.2 - Enrichment......................................... 39 

Best Practice 4.2 - Behavioural Enrichment............................. 40 

4.3 Training and conditioning........................................................ 41 

4.3.1 Introduction............................................................................... 41 

4.3.2 Relevance................................................................................. 41 

4.3.3 Methods.................................................................................... 41 

4.3.4 Trainers..................................................................................... 42 

Minimum Standard 4.3 - Training and Conditioning................ 42 

Best Practice 4.3 – Training and Conditioning ........................ 43 

4.4 Social Structure....................................................................... 43 

4.4.1 Introduction............................................................................... 43 

4.4.2 Life stages and gender requirements ....................................... 44 

4.4.3 Development of new social groupings ...................................... 44 

Minimum Standard 4.4 – Social Structure ................................ 45 

Best Practice 4.4 – Social Structure.......................................... 46 

4.5 Health Care Standards ........................................................... 46 

4.5.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning ........................................ 46 

4.5.2 Health problems........................................................................ 47 

4.5.3 Preventative measures ............................................................. 51 

4.5.4 Treatments and Veterinary Procedures .................................... 52 

4.5.5 Dead specimens ....................................................................... 52 

4.5.6 Quarantine procedures ............................................................. 53 

4.5.7 Handling/physical restraint........................................................ 53 

4.5.8 Transport Requirements ........................................................... 54 

4.5.9 Transfer and quarantine ........................................................... 55 

Minimum Standard 4.5 – Health Care Standards..................... 55 

Best Practice 4.5 – Health care Standards ............................... 57 

4.6 Feeding Standards.................................................................. 57 

4.6.1 Introduction............................................................................... 57 

4.6.2 Toxic Foods .............................................................................. 58 

4.6.3 Diets and supplements ............................................................. 59 

4.6.4 Presentation of food.................................................................. 60 

4.6.5 Seasonal/breeding changes in feeding requirements ............... 61 

4.6.6 Food Hygiene ........................................................................... 61 

Minimum Standard 4.6 – Feeding Standards ........................... 61 


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Best Practice 4.6 – Feeding Standards..................................... 62 

4.7 Reproduction........................................................................... 62 

4.7.1 Introduction............................................................................... 63 

4.7.2 Forming new breeding pairs ..................................................... 65 

4.7.2 Nesting/breeding requirements................................................. 65 

4.7.3 Requirements and development of young ................................ 66 

4.7.4 Hand rearing Techniques.......................................................... 66 

4.7.5 Methods of controlling breeding................................................ 66 

4.7.6 Breeding recommendations...................................................... 67 

Minimum Standard 4.7 – Reproduction .................................... 67 

Best Practice Standard 4.7 – Reproduction ............................. 68 

5.0 IDENTIFICATION...............................................................69 

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 69 

5.2 Individual Identification............................................................ 69 

5.3 Sexing Methods ...................................................................... 70 

5.3.1 Morphological Sexing Method................................................... 70 

5.3.2 Behavioural Indicators for Sexing ............................................. 70 

5.3.3 DNA Feather Sexing................................................................. 71 

Minimum Standard 5 – Identification ........................................ 71 

Best Practice Standard 5 – Identification ................................. 72 

6.0 RECORD KEEPING...........................................................73 

6.1 Individual records.................................................................... 73 

6.2 End of breeding season reports.............................................. 73 

Minimum Standard 6 – Record Keeping ................................... 73 

7.0 Acknowledgments ..............................................................75 

9.0 Appendices.........................................................................80 

9.1 Appendix 1- Internal Audit Document ..................................... 81 

9.2 Appendix 2 – Important Links ................................................. 99 

9.3 Appendix 3 – List of Appropriate Enclosure Materials .......... 100 

9.4 Appendix 4 – Massey University (Huia) Wildlife Submission 

Form............................................................................................ 101 

9.5 Appendix 5 – Quarantine Protocol........................................ 102 


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9.6 Appendix 6 – Example of diet and feeding regime (Franklin 

Zoo)............................................................................................. 103 

9.7 Appendix 7 - Hand raising techniques (Woolcock, 2000) ..... 104 


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1.0 PREFACE 

The production of this husbandry manual has been supported by the Kea 

Conservation Trust (KCT), Zoo and Aquarium Association (ZAA) and Department 

of Conservation (DOC). Changes to this document require appropriate 

consultation with all stakeholders including the author, KCT, ZAA and DOC. 

This document is to be considered a living document and updated as required. It 

will be formally reviewed in 2012 and at five yearly intervals thereafter. 

2.0 INTRODUCTION 

This husbandry manual has been prepared for all holders of captive Kea, Nestor 

notabilis. It reflects the collective experience of many individuals and 

organisations that have held kea in captivity nationally and internationally, and 

seeks to document current best practice in husbandry of captive kea. It also 

reflects the collective knowledge of researchers and field workers working directly 

with kea in-situ and as such aims to increase the standard of care the species 

receives in captivity. 

This manual also establishes clear minimum standards for some aspects of kea 

husbandry. These minimum standards have not been established with the 

purpose of eliminating all variation on how holders keep and care for kea (and/or 

present them for display). Rather, they are there to reassure all those with an 

interest in kea, including the captive management community, the Department of 

Conservation, Kea Conservation Trust, iwi groups, and the public of New 

Zealand, that the fundamental requirements of kea husbandry are being met by 

all holders. It is envisaged that fulfilment of minimum standards will be a staged 

process with all stakeholders working practically and in collaboration to ensure 

the best outcome for captive kea in New Zealand. 

Optimal standards are also provided for relevant sections and are in addition to 

the minimum standards. 

Consistent terminology is used throughout the document. Recommendations or 

guidelines are worded using ‘may’, ‘can’, ‘should try to’ etc, whereas requirements 

or minimum standards use ‘must’. A six monthly internal audit document can be 

found in Appendix 1. This aims to provide holders with a means of assessing 

minimum standards in regards their own kea. It also provides holders with a tool 

to help them focus on where they need to improve to come up to standard. This 

document will be used with other resources by DOC to assess permit approval. 

It is not the intention of this manual to reproduce material which has been 

published elsewhere. As such this manual should not be considered in isolation, 

but as part of a series of resources that lay out why and how we care for kea in 

captivity. All resources may be found on the Kea Conservation Trusts website 


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(www.keaconservation.co.nz). Resources available to download or access 

include papers and manuals on kea behaviour and enrichment and captive and 

wild research as well as a comprehensive bibliography on the species or related 

issues and links to other organisations involved in kea specific work. These links 

at the time of publication are as follows: 

• http://www.avianbibliography.org/kea.htm 

• http://bsweb.unl.edu/avcog/research/keapubs.htm 

• http://www.keaconservation.co.nz 

People with an interest in the husbandry of kea, especially those that care for kea 

on a daily basis, are encouraged to contact the Captive Management staff (see 

section 2.3) with suggestions and comments. 

2.1 Taxonomy 

Class: Aves 

Order: Psittaciformes 

Family: Nestoridae 

Species: Nestor notabilis 

2.2 Conservation Status 

Kea are presently classified as ‘naturally uncommon” (Townsend et al., 2008) and 

as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List (Birdlife International 2008). 

2.2.1 Population Estimates 

The current population status of Kea in the wild is poorly known. The lack of 

accurate population data is due to the difficulties in surveying and monitoring kea. 

The low density, marked seasonal and life stage variation and extremely rugged 

habitat of this species present a number of challenges to obtaining an accurate 

total population count (Elliot & Kemp, 2004). 

The most recent estimate of overall population size gives numbers of between 

1000-5000 individuals remaining (Anderson, 1986). 

Results of research into the effects of hunting and predation on kea by Elliot and 

Kemp (2004) suggest a marked increase in the risk of extinction over 100 years 

from 0.8% in the 1850’s versus 32% in 2004 and a lack of confidence in 

population stability. 

2.3 Captive Management Coordinator and Contacts 

DOC Lead Technical Support Officer (TSO) for kea 

Bruce McKinley 

bmckinlay@doc.govt.nz 


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DOC Appointed Captive Management Coordinator 

Tony Pullar 

Dunedin, 

New Zealand 

Email: tpullar@es.co.nz 

Phone: +64 3 4738740 

ZAA Kea Contact 

Stephanie Behrens 

Zoo and Aquarium Association 

New Zealand Office 

Email: steph@zooaquarium.org.au 

Phone: +64 9 360 3807 

2.4 Captive Population 

As of March 2010 the known New Zealand captive kea population numbered 86 

birds (58.5 males, 27.5 females) held by 19 public facilities (14 of which are ZAA 

members) and 12 private holders. Age of captive population is shown in Fig 1 and 

founder representation in the current ZAA membership population is shown in Fig 

2 (Behrens, 2010). 

Figure 1: Age Pyramid for total living captive population 


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Fig 2: ZAA member organisation founders. #45; 53; 80; 162; 170; 232; 320 and 

324 are still living although they are not genetically represented in the current 

captive population. It is thought founders #123 and #124 escaped. #6; 68; 78; 

114; 136; 140 and 172 are dead. Of the 12 living founders, 11 are male (seven 

with no genetic representation in the population) and one is female (also without 

genetic representation). 


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3.0 NATURAL HISTORY 

3.1 Introduction 

Kea (Nestor notabilis), are a psittacine species endemic to New Zealand’s South 

Island alpine areas. They are the world’s only alpine parrot and as such are 

unique. Kea, along with the kaka (Nestor meridionalis) and kākāpo (Strigops 

habroptilus), are thought to together form the sole members of a distinct parrot 

family, Nestoridae, within the avian order Psittaciformes (parrots and cockatoos). 

It seems likely that the Nestoridae lineage diverged from that of other parrots 

some 80 million years ago, perhaps as a result of geographical isolation 

associated with the separation of 'Zealandia' (the precursor to New Zealand) from 

Gondwanaland (Christidis & Boles, 2008). 

Kea have been subject to an extended and unusual period of persecution in New 

Zealand which has resulted in a major decline in numbers and an uncertain 

present day status. Kea gained full protection under the Wildlife Act (1953) in 

1986. Prior to this they were hunted in a government bounty system up until 1971, 

which resulted in an estimated 150,000 killed. 

They are considered by scientists nationally and internationally, to be one of the 

most intelligent bird species. They are also considered the ‘Clown of the 

Mountains’ by our overseas tourists and do much to bring life and colour to the 

Southern Alps. They are of both national and local significance to the peoples of 

New Zealand and are considered to be " the guardians of the mountains" by the 

Waitaha Maori (Temple, 1996). 

Maori gave the species their common name, kea, describing the sound of their 

call. Kea were considered guardians of the mountains for the Waitaha Maori 

during their search for Pounamu (greenstone) (Temple, 1996). The keas species 

name, Nestor is from Greek mythology. Nestor was said to be a wise old 

counsellor to the Greeks at Troy. Notabilis (latin), means, ‘that worthy of note’. 

3.2 Biodata 

Adult weights and measurements vary significantly between individuals 

particularly in beak length. However males are generally larger and heavier than 

females (Fijn, 2003). A combination of weight, skull and beak measurements can 

be used to identify probability of gender in kea as follows: 

Gender *Weight range Body Beak Skull 

length length length 

Males 850 -1000g (average 930g) 46cm >45mm >65mm 

Females 750-950g (average 840g) 46cm

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3.3 Distribution, habitat and home range 

Kea are now restricted to the South Island of New Zealand. They inhabit lowland 

areas of podocarp forest on the West Coast of the South Island, through to alpine 

beech forests, alpine meadows and mountain scree slopes along the length of the 

Southern Alps. A separate population inhabits the Kaikoura Mountains on the 

East coast of the South Island. It is not known if this is a genetically distinct 

population isolated from the rest of the South Island population. Genetic testing of 

this population is currently being undertaken by researchers at Otago University 

(Robertson, pers. comm., 2009). 

Fig 3. Present distribution of kea in the South Island of 

New Zealand (Robertson et al, 2007) 

A significant decline in kea distribution from the 1980’s has been identified in the 

North West part of the South Island (Robertson et al., 2007). 

Territories are extensive and can cover up to 4kms² (Jackson, 1969; Elliott & 

Kemp, 1999). Breeding pairs may have one or more nest cavities positioned on a 

spur and their territory will extend from the forest floor up to the alpine area above 

tree line (Kemp pers. comm., 2009). There has never been evidence of more than 

one breeding pair occupying a spur (ibid). 

3.4 Habits, movements and social structure 

Although kea are considered to be diurnal they are generally more active early 

morning and late afternoon/evening. 


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They are a highly gregarious species which in the wild, form large flocks with nonlinear 

hierarchies. Once adults reach breeding age they tend to leave the main 

flock and pair up for breeding (Jackson, 1963; Jackson, 1960). Studies by Clarke 

(1970), of kea population, movements and foods in Nelson Lakes National Park, 

showed very definite changes in group composition and location related to 

different times of the year. During August - September it was observed that kea 

formed flocks of 6 -8 birds which dispersed in October – December into smaller 

groups of 2 – 3. In January and February large flocks of up to 13 individuals again 

formed. 

Studies by Jackson (1960) in Arthur’s Pass also observed large groups of around 

20 first year birds during the summer period. These large flocks were then seen 

to disperse into groups of 2 -6 in autumn. Movement of all groups was seasonally 

and food related with those birds that moved to higher altitudes (1,219m – 

2,133m) in the warmer months observed foraging for food and retreating back to 

the shelter of beech forests (up to 1219m) during autumn and winter. 

3.5 Feeding behaviour 

Kea are opportunistic omnivores and consume a wide variety of foods in the wild. 

Behavioural, faecal and gut studies have shown that kea eat over 200+ different 

varieties of natural foods including a wide range of animal and vegetable matter. 

Foods include grasshoppers, beetles (adults and larvae), ant larvae, weta and 

cicada nymphs, other invertebrates and the roots, bulbs, leaves, flowers, shoots, 

seeds, nectar and fruit of over 200 native plant species (Brejaart, 1988; Clarke, 

1970). 

Kea have also been recorded eating other bird and mammal species including: 

Huttons Shearwater (chicks and eggs), racing pigeon, sheep meat and bone 

marrow, stoat and possum carcasses (Brejaart, 1988). 

Kea eating snowberries 

Andrew Walmsley 

They have also been known to consume fat 

from the carcasses of hunted introduced 

mammal species such as Tahr, deer and 

Chamois (Maloney, pers. comm.), and on 

occasion are also known to attack the fatty 

area around the kidneys of live sheep left 

high in the alpine areas (i.e. above 600m) 

during winter when resources are low 

(NHNZ, 2006). 

Kea are one of the few species which have 

managed to take advantage of humans 

moving in to their habitat. They use their 

beak, cognitive abilities and tenacity to 

access resources and investigate any 

potential uses of new objects. Rubbish 

dumps/bins, seasonal deer culls, farms and 

ski fields continue to provide useful sources 

of food (and toxins in some cases) for kea in 

times of hardship. 


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Historical burn-off of high country forests by farmers, and continued legal annual 

burn-off of these areas between June and October (ECAN, 2005) have 

significantly decreased the availability of natural food sources throughout the 

natural range of kea. How this impacts the survival of the species is unknown. 

However, research into the major cause of death in kea has historically been 

attributed to lack of food resources (Jackson, 1969). 

3.6 Reproduction 

Pairs are generally considered monogamous, although there have been accounts 

of males pairing with more than one female (Jackson, 1963). Kea reach sexual 

maturity around 3-4 yrs of age. Mating behaviour begins in midwinter around 

June. Egg laying begins in July and peaks in October, but can extend right 

through into January (Jackson, 1962; Jackson, 1960). 

Up to six eggs may be laid but the typical clutch size is 2–3 in the wild. The eggs 

are incubated for approx 28 days by the female. The male feeds the female at the 

nest entrance who in turn will regurgitate food to the chicks inside the nest. In the 

latter stages of rearing, the male will also directly provision the chicks until after 

fledging. This is a resource intensive period for the male who must not only 

provide for his own maintenance in often harsh conditions, but also his mate and 

offspring. Chicks spend up to 12 weeks or more in the nest (Pullar, 1996). Kea 

chicks have a long juvenile period and as such are dependant on their parents for 

the first 4-5 months of their lives. The majority of kea chicks fledge from 

December – end of January (Kemp, 1999). 

Because of the long period associated with rearing chicks (approximately four 

months from start of incubation to chicks fledging) it is uncommon for kea to rear 

more than one brood in a season. However, if the eggs fail to hatch or are 

damaged, or if the chicks die or are removed, pairs will generally re-nest almost 

immediately. This has been observed in both the wild and captive situations 

(Pullar, 1996; Barrett, pers. comm. DoC, 2009). 

Lifestage Timeframes Time of Year 

Egg to hatching 28 days (23-26 days Woolcock, 

2000) 

July - October 

Fledgling 13 weeks December - February 

Parental care period Minimum 19 - 26 weeks invested in 

chick rearing (2-6 weeks of this after 

fledging) 

June - March 

Table 2: Life stages and time frames (adapted from Fijn, 2003) 

3.7 Protected species’ role in ecosystem 

Kea, as a significant berry and seed eating species in alpine areas, are 

considered to be important in the dispersal of the seeds of native alpine plants 

(Brejaart, 1988; Clarke 1970). Kea habitat covers an extensive area (4ha²) with a 

large proportion of this regenerating native bush from high country areas 

previously cleared for farming. Dispersal of native plant species in these areas is 

important to help combat invasion of pest plant species. 


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Although not considered carrion feeders, kea are opportunistic and have been 

observed feeding off the carcasses of rabbits, possums and deer which have 

been killed on the roads, through pest poisoning programmes and/or hunting 

(Walmsley, pers. comm., 2009; Maloney, pers. comm., 2009; Kemp & van Klink, 

2009). Kea may have played a role in cleaning up carcasses prior to human 

arrival. 

3.8 Threats in the wild 

The main threats to kea are intentional and unintentional human induced deaths, 

predation by introduced species and reduced availability of natural foods (Elliott & 

Kemp, in press; Kemp & van Klink, 2009; Grant, 1993; and Temple, 1996). 

Ongoing research continues to highlight the often widespread incidence of these 

pressures. 

3.8.1 Human Induced threats 

Intentional 

Kea underwent extensive historical persecution in a government bounty which 

reduced the population by an estimated 150,000 individuals (Temple, 1978; 

Temple 1996) from 1860 – 1971. Kea gained partial protection in 1970 and full 

protection in 1986 under the Wildlife Act (1952). Persecution of kea still occurs 

throughout the species’ range. Intentional poisoning and/or shooting of kea 

continues to be reported in the media (NZ Herald, 2008; McDonnell, 2009) 

although prosecutions are rare. Smuggling of kea for the international black 

market has also been documented in the past and as with other unique New 

Zealand species, remains a concern (Diamond & Bond, 1999). 

Kea were persecuted for their attacks on sheep in high 

country areas. Unknown artist 1882. Photo credit: Alexander 

Turnbull library 


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Unintentional 

Human made toxins identified as having potentially widespread and extensive 

impacts on kea include lead (McLelland, 2009) and 1080 (Kemp & van Klink, 

2009). Both toxins have been used throughout kea habitat over an extended 

period of time and are now known to directly impact the health and survival of kea 

populations throughout the species’ range. Lead, predominantly in the form of 

lead flashing and nail heads, has been used extensively throughout the 

landscape since the late 1800’s – 1990’s and still exists in substantial quantities in 

old mining areas, public and private high country dwellings inclusive of ski fields, 

tramping huts and sheep stations. 1080 has also been used widely by DoC and 

the Animal Health Board (AHB) throughout New Zealand since the 1950’s for 

control of introduced pest species and in particular brushtail possums as they are 

a vector for bovine TB. Research is currently being conducted by the KCT and 

DOC into preventing 1080 poisoning with initial positive results and subsequent 

changes in 1080 drop protocols. Investigations into the extent of lead throughout 

Conservation estate is currently being undertaken by the NZ Royal Society 

(supervised by Unitec, NZ). 

Other human induced causes of death include vehicle incidents, accidental 

capture in possum traps and ingestion of other pest control poisons, and ingestion 

of human foods toxic to kea (e.g. chocolate). 

3.8.2 Predation 

Predation by introduced predators such as rats, stoats and possums, has 

historically been considered a lesser issue to kea than many other New Zealand 

endemics (Elliott and Kemp, 2004). Kea ground nest and are therefore potentially 

as vulnerable to predation as their close relative the kaka, although nesting 

success has previously been found to significantly increase above 600mtrs (Elliott 

and Kemp, 1999). However, with evidence of predators moving higher into alpine 

areas, possibly due to changing climatic conditions, this threat may be increasing. 

Possum remains and fresh scat have being found in or around kea nest sites over 

1000m (KCT, unpublished report 2009). Possums may not only directly predate 

on nesting kea and/or their chicks, they may also compete for available nest sites 

and natural food sources. 


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4.0 CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY 

Kea are an easy species to hold badly and a difficult species to hold well. 

In the poorest of captive environments they will survive. However, they will not 

only be an unexciting exhibit for the public, but be a poor advertisement for the 

facility holding them. Yet in stimulating and welfare driven facilities, they make an 

engaging and popular exhibit that enthralls the public. Kea thrive on new 

experiences; they have evolved to investigate new objects in new situations and 

as a result are insatiably curious; a characteristic familiar to visitors to our South 

Island alpine huts. Kea are one of our most robust avian species, reacting more 

positively to stimulus than to inaction in their environment. Provision of a 

stimulating, complex environment should therefore be considered a basic 

husbandry requirement for this species. 

Primary reasons for holding kea in captivity are advocacy, education and 

research to support conservation of the species in the wild. Recommendations for 

management of Nestor captive populations by the Conservation Breeding 

Specialist Group (CBSG) state a strong research priority for this species to 

enhance in-situ knowledge. This includes studying and analysis of reproductive 

behaviours and population dynamics and developing techniques for husbandry 

that may be used for enhancing wild populations or help with possible reintroduction 

and supplementation (Grant et al., 1993). 

Captive facilities also play an important role in conservation through advocacy. 

However, the way in which animals are displayed is crucial to the perception of 

the public and their take home message; 

“In the very best zoos, wild animals can be seen as ambassadors for 

the survival of their species in the wild. In the worst zoos, they 

generate nothing but negative reactions”. 

– Hancock (2001) 

Advocacy involves taking the conservation message outside captivity to in-situ 

initiatives in order to increase public understanding and buy-in of conservation 

efforts. This is achieved through clearly displayed links to in-situ 

organisations/initiatives at the enclosure (for a list of links, please refer to 

Appendix 2). 

Captive holders must be aware that the public today are more cognisant of 

welfare standards and what constitutes natural behaviour in species. Animal 

welfare standards are increasingly under scrutiny, and captive holders are now 

obligated to provide for both the physical and behavioural necessities of species 

under the Animal Welfare Act, 1999 and as encouraged by the WZACS (WAZA, 

2005). It should be seen of particular importance that facilities run by local and 

central government lead the way in ensuring standards for kea are of a 

consistently high standard. 

This manual sets new standards and expectations for the husbandry of kea in 

New Zealand. The minimum standards in this section are designed to provide the 


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minimum welfare guidelines for captive kea. An audit document is also included to 

aid facilities in assessment of their own minimum standards (Appendix 1). 

It is hoped that all kea holders will strive for the best practice standards outlined 

here and even better, exceed them. 

4.1 Housing/Environment Standards 

4.1.1 Introduction 

Enclosure complexity and design is crucial for maintenance of an animal’s 

physical and psychological wellbeing. Successful management of wild animals in 

captivity can be difficult, requiring housing of animals in a way that fulfils both their 

physical and psychological requirements (Croke, 1997; Young, 2003). 

From a physical point of view, if an enclosure does not enable a species to 

perform its basic form of locomotion, then it is viewed as deficient in design 

(Young, 2003). Inability of animals to perform basic locomotor behaviours (in this 

instance flight) may result in atrophy of associated muscle groups as well as 

manifestation of inappropriately directed behaviours – namely stereotypies. This 

is documented in Kiepers (1969) where stereotypic route pacing in wild birds was 

extinguished when birds were introduced to larger aviaries which allowed 

appropriate levels of flight. However, larger enclosures on their own are not 

necessarily better, as space within that area may not be physically or 

psychologically useable by the species concerned. Enclosure design should 

therefore be species specific and take into account variation in topography, 

substrate types (as defined by Eisenberg, 1981 as cited in Young, 2003, p 122) 

and include a range of useable space and levels. 

Kea are considered a highly intelligent and complex social species with many of 

the attributes that support a high level of cognition (Gadjon, 2005). They are 

opportunistic feeders with an almost complete lack of neophobia (fear of new 

things), and as such fit into Kreger and Mench’s respective models of a high 

priority species requiring high levels of novelty and variability in their captive 

environment (Mench et al., 1998). Additionally, kea in the wild cover an extensive 

range and variety of ecotones (Diamond & Bond, 1999). 

The behavioural repertoire of captive kea in New Zealand facilities has been 

observed to be significantly effected by provision and complexity of enrichment 

and enclosure complexity (Orr-Walker, 2005). High enclosure standards are 

considered a basic requirement for this species. 

4.1.2 Enclosure Types 

There are three main types of enclosure presently housing kea in New Zealand; 

public walkthrough enclosures, limited access enclosures and traditional aviaries. 

Each has its place in housing kea and can provide vastly different experiences for 

kea and public alike. 


20 

Walkthrough enclosures are excellent for immersion and provide positive and 

exciting experiences for the public. Assuming that there are ample off display 

areas that are inaccessible to the public, and enclosures are of a size to 

accommodate public presence, they are also extremely effective for ongoing kea 

enrichment. 

Spot the kea! Walkthrough enclosure – Staglands 

Orr-Walker 2005 

If the design of walkthrough enclosure is carefully thought out, all life and 

reproductive stages can be housed successfully and safely. Additionally due to 

the larger size typical of these enclosures, a greater number of birds can be 

housed together, providing for an increased potential for complex social 

interactions. 

Pros: 

• Excellent advocacy and public interactive immersion experiences 

• Excellent enrichment opportunities for kea 

• Excellent social opportunities for kea 

• Excellent advertisement for the facility 

• Benefits for training and conditioning to be included in encounter 

Cons: 

• Costly 

• Public access may need to be monitored throughout the day to ensure 

public are not feeding birds, offering dangerous items or entering kea only 

areas 

• Care must be taken to meet individual kea requirements; some birds may 

not be suitable in public access enclosures 

• Potential issues relating to territorial behaviour. This would need to be 

assessed on an individual basis 

• Potential transfer/introduction of disease 


21 

Limited access enclosures are useful for holding of kea where birds are less able 

to cope with direct human presence in their enclosure. This may be particularly 

true of older wild sourced birds, or non breeding pair-bonds. 

Limited access enclosures allow for unobstructed views of the enclosure while 

containing public access to one area of the enclosure by use of a solid barrier 

system. Birds get the benefit of the extra space the public viewing offers when the 

public are absent (particularly at night when kea are active). 

Pros: 

• Allows public easy viewing with 

no mesh between public and 

birds 

• Cost effective method of public 

immersion 

• Provides increased space for the 

kea 

• Safe for birds which may be less 

tolerant of public presence 

• Easy to construct on existing 

enclosures with minimal 

disturbance to birds 

• Allows for great encounters with 

the public (e.g. An alternative to 

free flight) 

Kea enclosure with limited public access 

at Paradise Valley Springs, Paradise 

Valley, 2009 

Cons: 

• Public access may need to be monitored as with walk through enclosures 

(i.e. maximum numbers in larger holdings) 

• Potential issues relating to territorial behaviour. This would need to be 

assessed on an individual basis 

• Potential transfer/introduction of disease 

Traditional aviaries are those which do not allow any human access into 

enclosures. They are appropriate for valuable breeding pairs which will have little 

desire for interaction with the public and may also be territorial during the 

reproductive season. 

Traditional aviaries do not generally enable an interactive exhibit for the public 

unless kea are provided with good enrichment opportunities. Excellent signage 

and/or interactive interpretation will increase visitor interest in these cases (i.e. 

encouraging observation and describing what they are seeing in the enclosure 

and why). 

Pros: 

• Assuming best practice standards are followed, these aviary types are 

good for housing valuable breeding pairs 

Cons: 

• Difficult to provide an interactive experience for the public 


22 

• Advocacy potential substantially lowered 

• Enrichment potential for birds substantially lowered 

Enclosure design: Housing environment is extremely important for advocacy 

purposes – a poor enclosure can send the wrong message to the public and 

reflect badly on the facility. Enclosure design should seek to increase expression 

of natural behaviours in the kea of a normal duration (i.e. which decrease the 

incidence of stereotypic behaviours) and send a clear conservation message to 

the public providing a meaningful link for the public to species issues in the wild. 

Signage: This may be static (fixed printed signs and images), interactive (quizzes, 

tactile, technological, encounters) and/or passively active (e.g. video footage). 

Information may include: 

• Taxonomy 

• Bio-data 

• Natural habitat and range 

• Population numbers 

• Why are kea held in captivity? 

• What are the issues in the wild? 

• What can the public do to help the species? 

• Links to outside organisations for more information (KCT, DOC)* 

(*For a list of Links please refer to Appendix 2). 

Signage type: 

• Static: Traditional signage should be colourful, bold and to the point 

getting across key messages with minimal text. Use of powerful 

images should be used to lend weight to the text which should include 

questions to stimulate enquiry. 

• Interactive: Signage which involves some physical interaction with the 

public is more likely to be read and information retained (Crawford, 

2007). Examples may include quiz panels, tactile (kinaesthetic) 

displays (models of kea beaks etc), interactive touch panel video 

technology and/or cameras to view live animal footage 

• Passively active: Displays which are constantly changing rely on 

installation of comparatively expensive equipment, however once in 

place this type of display can be updated indefinitely. A video display 

with voice over can showcase natural kea behaviours and send key 

messages relating to issues in the wild thus providing a visually 

powerful conservation message 

4.1.3 Size 

Stating minimum enclosure sizes for captive kea is problematic. In the wild kea 

are strong flyers covering great distances both horizontally and vertically 

(altitudinal) in any one day. Satellite tracking of juveniles and observations of 

adult kea at Nelson Lakes (unpub. KCT, 2009) has shown birds to fly several 

kilometres in a matter of minutes and over 40kms in normal dispersal behaviour 


23 

over a 2 month period. Kea territorial range for a breeding pair in the wild is 

estimated at 4km2 (Bond & Diamond, 1992). 

For a highly intelligent, social and mobile parrot species living in a complex alpine 

environment, flight, social interactions and exploration are fundamental 

behaviours for kea. Unfortunately captive environments for birds often allow only 

limited expression of these behaviours (Engebretson, 2006), denial of which can 

result in physical (Graham 1998) and behavioural abnormalities (van Hoek & ten 

Cate 1998; Garner et al., 2003b; Meehan et al., 2003a, 2004; Meehan et al., 

2003b cited in Engebretson, 2006). 

A measure of adequate housing for kea is difficult to define as a smaller but more 

complex enclosure may be preferable to a large empty one. It is a combination 

of enclosure size, complexity and enrichment that helps prevent 

stereotypies and encourages the expression of natural behaviours in kea. 

All holders must provide sufficient space and enrichment so that birds do not 

develop overt stereotypic behaviours. 

Research on the development of locomotor stereotypies (route tracing) in parrots 

has been identified as related to lack of space and physical complexity while 

development of oral stereotypies (i.e. feather plucking) to lack of opportunity to 

perform foraging behaviour. Both stereotypy types are seen to be related to lack 

of social interaction (Sargent & Keiper 1967; Keiper 1969; Meehan et al., 2003a, 

2004; Meehan et al., 2003b cited in Engebretson, 2006). Changes in the captive 

environment including enclosure size, enrichment, and socialisation have been 

shown to improve the welfare of captive parrots (Engebretson, 2006). 

The high level of stereotypies observed in the New Zealand captive population 

(Orr-Walker, 2005), which include both oral and locomotor stereotypies, would 

suggest that the present captive environment does not provide adequately for the 

welfare of kea particularly in the areas of space, complexity, social structure and 

opportunity to perform foraging behaviours. Although the majority of facilities 

involved in this study have exceeded pas minimum standards, the results of this 

research may indicate that these still fall short for this species. 

An increase in enrichment, and number of feeds per day, were seen to 

significantly decrease the amount of stereotypic behaviours observed. The role of 

enclosure size and social structure was less clear although as larger enclosures 

tended to correspond with enclosure complexity, size may be an important factor 

in reducing stereotypies by providing more areas for exploration, space between 

animals and more opportunity with larger group size for socialisation. 

As such, until further research can be conducted to ascertain minimum 

acceptable enclosure size for kea, it should be presumed that the average 

enclosure size (which provides an area of

24 

(Each additional kea = 3m³) 

It is important to remember that more birds in an enclosure are likely to increase 

conflict issues, particularly in the case of pairings. As such simply increasing by a 

further 90m3/bird may not be adequate in some instances. Groupings of 6+ kea 

must be closely monitored to ensure that subordinate birds do not become 

aggressed by dominant birds or breeding pairs. Although kea can form large 

flocks in the wild, these tend to be fluid groupings of juveniles and sub adult birds 

moving over an extensive area prior to pairs forming and establishing breeding 

territories (Clarke, 1970). 

Height of the enclosure must be a minimum of 3 metres. All other proportions are 

up to the holder assuming that the minimum area is surpassed. 

The dimensions above are to be reviewed and may also be determined by group 

makeup (i.e. a breeding pair may be intolerant of other females in their 

environment whereas flocking juveniles/sub-adults may be more comfortable in 

larger groups). 

If birds are to be kept in below minimum housing areas for longer than 6 months, 

an exemption will need to be applied for (to be reviewed 6 monthly thereafter) 

Exceptions to housing standards: 

Kea less than three months old or undergoing medical treatment or quarantine 

can be held in any enclosure suitable for housing an individual of that life stage 

and/or medical condition temporarily (e.g. brooders, small enclosures, if required 

to limit movement of injured birds). 

Although kea should never be housed singly long-term, birds which have not 

been properly socialised (i.e. are hand reared and are unable to be integrated 

with other kea) may require a separate enclosure. This must have a minimum 

volume of 108m3 (6x6x3m). The number of birds unable to be integrated will 

decrease over time as current practice ensures birds are appropriately socialised. 

4.1.4 Materials for housing 

(For a list of housing materials and sources, refer to Appendix 3). 

All materials used in the construction of kea enclosures (both public display and 

holding facilities) should be durable, non-toxic and of a strength that can 

withstand manipulation by kea beaks. 

• Mesh – mesh size should ideally exclude entrance of pest species into the 

enclosure (e.g. mice, rats and sparrows). Care must be taken with 

galvanized welded mesh that poisoning does not occur through ingesting 

of coating (this should not occur in a well equipped and enriched 

enclosure). Mesh should extend into the ground (or conversely 

foundations should extend above ground level) to ensure that kea do not 

dig out under enclosure perimeter. Breach of containment through digging 

by kea has been observed. 


25 

Mesh must be of a strength which ensures no other animal species (e.g. 

dogs) can access the enclosure and that unauthorized access by humans 

is discouraged. 

Control of pest species such as rodents and sparrows may be effectively 

controlled with the addition of weka into the enclosure. However this 

requires careful monitoring and a large area with appropriate refuges for 

both species. 

• Frame – enclosure framing should be of a material that is not prone to 

decay over time. Care must also be taken that frame materials are not 

toxic. No lead based paints should be used at anytime. Tanalised timber 

may be used but care should be taken that there are no available perching 

areas which allow direct access to framing as birds may gnaw and ingest 

timber. Galvanised metal framing should be painted where possible or be 

inaccessible to birds. The keas beak is designed more for digging and 

probing than gnawing and they are generally less likely to gnaw on hard 

materials if other furniture is made available. 

• Footings – perimeter footings must extend well below ground level, 

preferably to 600mm (Pullar, 1996). Alternatively, a 600mm skirt (10mm 

square galvanised mesh) may be folded out from the base of the 

enclosure and buried approximately 50mm below ground. This skirt must 

run the entire enclosure perimeter. Toxic plants should be kept well clear 

of the enclosure perimeter fencing. 

• Entrance/exit doors – a double gating system where outside door must be 

shut before accessing the enclosure should be installed. This is essential 

in a public accessed enclosure. All doors must be lockable. 

• Nest boxes – a nest box should be provided for all enclosures which 

house a female whether authorised to breed or not. Nest material should 

also be provided during the nesting season (June – December) to all 

enclosures (inclusive of all male only groupings) to allow natural 

behaviours to be expressed. Any eggs produced by a non breeding 

female should be removed and replaced with dummy eggs. Nest box 

dimensions should ideally be 1m² with a tunnel 250mm diameter x 1m 

long extending from the front of the nest box (a round concrete drain is 

perfect for this purpose). Nest material may include tussock, hay/straw, 

rotten logs (kea will strip off wood and bark), sphagnum moss (available 

from garden centers) untreated wood wool etc. Material should be dry and 

free of dust, mould and foreign objects (watch for baling twine). It is 

particularly important that any hay/straw introduced should be 

checked for aspergillosis spores as this has been a cause of death in 

captive kea. Hay/straw must always be stored in a dry, well aired storage 

area to inhibit mould development. 

4.1.5 Shelter/screening/barriers 

Shelter and screening can be temporary or permanent depending on the reason 

for use (i.e. additional temporary screening may be required on introduction of 

new birds) and may be made from naturalistic or manmade materials. Rock walls 


26 

or overhangs, timber structures (e.g. tramper’s huts or roofs), live vegetation or 

browse are examples of shelter/screening type. Public barriers in walkthrough or 

limited access enclosures should be obvious to visitors and of a design that 

discourages breaching. 

• Undercover area – multiple undercover areas should be made available to 

kea to ensure that subordinate birds are excluded by more dominant 

individuals. If only one area is available, it should be of a size that is able 

to accommodate all birds easily and must have sight barriers and multiple 

access/exit points. Each bird should have a 1m² area which is undercover 

to access. Separate naturalistic shelter areas can be achieved by 

provision of rock ledges, large fallen logs etc. 

• Visual barriers between birds – each bird should have access to at least 

two areas that allow visual separation from other kea. This can be in the 

form of vegetation, rocks or solid screens/walls. 

• Visual barriers to public– vegetation, rocks and barriers should be used to 

ensure that the public are not allowed constant visual and/or physical 

access to all areas of the enclosure which may cause stress to the birds. 

This is particularly important in the case of public access enclosures. 

4.1.6 Water 

Kea in the wild have access to fast running alpine streams and high altitude tarns 

at all times. Bathing in these areas is a part of daily maintenance. Kea are also 

sensitive to heat (Freudenberger et al., 2009) and need to be able to cool off in 

warmer temperatures. 

Fresh water must be provided at all times in enclosures. If using containers, the 

main water container must be large and deep enough to allow birds to bathe 

(approx 1m² x 200 mm deep). A second water bowl should be located elsewhere 

in the enclosure to ensure a subordinate bird is not kept from drinking water at 

any time. 

Ideally running water features and 

pools should be used in 

enclosures but care must be taken 

to ensure that birds can easily exit 

the pool should they fall in. Water 

presented in appropriate sized 

containers will likely be used for 

bathing. Positioning of the water 

source in relation to human 

proximity is therefore very 

important especially with respect 

to public access enclosures (ie 

water should be away from public 

access to ensure birds are not 

restricted in their use of water 

throughout the day). 

Kea bathing in enclosure stream. 

Photo credit: User Avenue. 


27 

Running water – a water feature (natural waterfall or flowing water through/spigot 

system) can be easily set up with a circulating pump system. Water and 

receptacle area in a closed system will need changing and cleaning on a regular 

basis (twice weekly) to prevent build up of pathogens and algae. Kea also have a 

tendency to dip their food into water during feeding so it is important to ensure 

that food remnants are removed on a daily basis. 

4.1.7 Furnishings, vegetation and substrates 

In the wild Kea spend a large proportion of their time foraging on the ground in 

alpine herb fields or on the beech forest floor. They dig up the roots of plants and 

search for invertebrate species. It is therefore very important to provide them with 

diverse vegetation, substrates and enclosure furniture (such as rotting logs) that 

can be manipulated by the birds on a daily basis. 

Captive kea are predominantly held at low altitude across the length and breadth 

of New Zealand. These environmental conditions may not support the growth of 

vegetation native to their natural habitat. Local or introduced plant species will 

likely be more practical to grow. However care must be taken to ensure they are 

non toxic (refer to the list below). 

All new leaf-litter and soil should be screened before being placed in the 

enclosure to ensure it is free from harmful material such as small metal or plastic 

objects, and/or herbicide/pesticide residue (Fraser, 2004). 

Enclosures should also contain shrubs/trees. Vegetation may provide some food 

if appropriate species are planted. Plant cover will also generate leaf litter. 

In general, native plant species are considered appropriate, however if the safety 

of a plant species is not known then do not introduce into the enclosure until 

confirmed safe. 

The following toxic plant species must not be used in any enclosures as they 

are either known or thought to be toxic (see Shaw & Billing 2006 cited in Fraser, 

2004) This is not a complete list: 

• Onion Weed – Asphodelus fistulosis 

• Black Nightshade- Solanum nigrum 

• Bittersweet Nightshade – Solanum dulcamara L 

• Jerusalem Cherry – Solanum pseudocapsicum 

• Karaka – Corynocarpus laevigatus 

Examples of furnishings, substrates, and vegetation 

• Ground vegetation: kea have been observed in captivity foraging on the 

young shoots of grass or picking up scattered food in carex grasses. A 

grass area to simulate an alpine herb field in the enclosure is considered 

ideal to encourage expression of normal foraging behaviours. 

• Substrates: A variety of substrate types should be included in the 

enclosure to encourage foraging and digging activities. These should 

include, soil, leaf-litter, different sizes of stones/rocks, mulch bark and 

snow where possible. Different substrates can also be used to vary the 

topography in the enclosure and encourage natural behaviours such as 


28 

climbing on moving scree slopes etc. Research into kea nest site 

preference indicates mainly coarse and very coarse gravel is preferred 

followed by gravel, and sand. Areas with silt and clay as well as areas with 

boulders received very low probabilities of presence (Fredenberger et al., 

2009). 

All introduced substrate should be checked for foreign objects, spores and 

be screened for seeds etc. Existing soil in enclosures should be turned 

over each year to ensure soil health and decrease anaerobic organisms. 

• Trees and shrubs: Kea spend much of their time within alpine beech 

forests foraging for food. Enclosures should be able to support the growth 

of nontoxic native/exotic trees and shrubs which will provide shelter, 

shade, perching areas and encourage natural behaviours. Vegetation may 

need supplementing with browse to support investigative behaviour and 

decrease damage to live vegetation. 

• Furniture: Semi permanent items such as large logs, tree trunks, ponga 

logs, live trees, and multiple perches will increase the enclosures useable 

area and encourage flight behaviour between areas. 

• Human objects: Human objects can demonstrate a link for the public and if 

presented appropriately can provide opportunities to send useful advocacy 

messages to those intending to visit the South Island (e.g. don’t feed the 

kea, ensure your equipment stowed in kea habitat). Objects may also 

provide a diversity of enrichment for the kea (e.g. swandri, 

camping/tramping gear, ski equipment, farm equipment, DoC/tramping 

huts) which can readily and frequently be changed. Care must be taken 

to ensure that introduced items are safe, non-toxic and do not have 

parts which can be ingested. 

4.1.8 Multi-species Exhibits 

Kea in the wild interact with many introduced and endemic species, Native 

species include kaka, kakariki, bellbird, NZ robin, tomtit, blue duck and kiwi in the 

lowland and montane forest areas; falcon, takahe, kākāpo, rock wren and alpine 

reptile species in the higher alpine areas. This list is by no means exhaustive. 

Introduced species which share kea habitat include large grazing mammals; 

sheep, thar, deer and wild pigs; and smaller animals; birds, mice, rats, rabbits, 

stoats and possums. 

DOC Guidelines for holding protected wildlife for advocacy purposes (DOC, 

2007), states that exotic and protected native species cannot be held together. It 

may be argued however that in the wild kea share their environment with many 

introduced species and important advocacy messages and enrichment 

opportunities may be gained by holding kea with exotic ungulates (other exotic 

animal groups such as birds, rodents and mustelids would not be appropriate, 

unacceptably increasing the risk of disease and stress for the kea). This would be 

particularly interesting in a walkthrough enclosure area assuming there was 

ample grazing area for any large herbivores and they were of a type that was of 

no threat to the public. Holding appropriate exotic and endemic species together 


29 

would also provide an opportunity to discuss high country farmers concerns of 

kea interaction with their stock and competition of grazing species for native 

plants on conservation land. 

The majority of native species listed previously would not be recommended to 

hold with kea unless in a very large enclosure which allowed for adequate territory 

sizes. Kea can become very territorial so any species held with kea must be 

either non-threatening to the kea, occupy quite different niches and/or be equally 

as robust. Each species must be given the ability to safely utilize different portions 

of the enclosure through provision of species specific areas (nest boxes/cavities, 

perches, ecotones etc). There must also be provision of adequate space and 

visual barriers (vegetation, topography, rocks, enclosure furniture). It is important 

to ensure that no corners exist where an individual animal can become trapped. 

Consideration of kea social structure is essential to ensure that another species 

are not stressed. Kea are particularly aggressive during the reproductive season 

and breeding pairs may not tolerate another species in their local environment. 

Seasonal rotation can mitigate this. Individual kea may also react quite differently 

to the presence of other species, therefore integration should be observed closely 

to ensure animals do not become stressed, injured or killed. 

At present only one facility in New Zealand holds kea in a multi species exhibit 

with weka. At the time of writing an initial integration of kea with two male weka 

had resulted in a weka fatality whilst subsequent integration of a pair of weka with 

resulting chicks was observed to be highly successful with all weka chicks 

successfully raised and normal behaviours of both species observed. As such 

introduction of kea into multi species situations must only be undertaken with 

standardised monitoring protocol in place and in an enclosure of significant area. 

Holding of kea in multi species exhibits will require further research to 

determine best practice and welfare standards for all species involved. 

Native species to be considered 

Weka (Gallirallus australis). Weka are a robust flightless species and have been 

successfully held with kea in New Zealand. Inclusion of this species in an 

enclosure has the added benefit of controlling pest species such as rats, mice 

and sparrows. Observations of the Otorohanga Kiwi House kea enclosure over a 

three week period showed a complete lack of pest presence (including faecal 

matter) and infrequent and non-injurious territorial displays by the kea to counter 

weka incursions into kea ‘territory’ (an undeliniated area at the front of the 

enclosure designated by the kea). A lack of pest species was also noted 

throughout the year by staff (Fortis, pers. comm., 2009) Care must be taken 

however as fighting between kea and weka has occurred in other holdings. 

Pukeko (Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus) Pukeko are a common native ground 

swamp dwelling species which may be used as an analogue species for the 

threatened Fiordland Takahe. Pukeko have a very strong beak and may be 

territorial so care should be taken when first introducing this species to ensure 

that no injuries result. 

Duck species Kea inhabit areas where threatened Blue Duck (Hymenolaimus 

malacorhynchos) are present. Other more common less territorial native duck 


30 

species such as Scaup may potentially be integrated into a multi species exhibit. 

Scaup and Grey duck are presently held successfully in multispecies exhibits with 

pukeko and weka. Their different niches should ensure they have limited and nonterritorial 

contact with kea. Water margin areas should be designed to be less 

accessible to the kea to ensure duck species are afforded safe areas to escape 

easily to water. 

The success of a multispecies exhibit depends on the ability of each species to 

safely utilize separate portions of the enclosure through provision of species 

specific areas. There must be provision of adequate space and visual barriers. No 

corners or funnels should exist where an individual animal may become trapped. 

In the case of any large grazing species, it may be prudent to have night quarters 

separate from the kea to ensure that a sleeping animal does not get harassed 

when staff are not around. 

Consideration of kea social structure must also be taken into account to ensure 

that any other species are not put under undue stress during the reproductive 

season. Pairs going into reproductive behaviour may not tolerate another species 

presence in their local environment so animals may need to be rotated seasonally 

in this case. 

4.1.9 Enclosure Siting 

The enclosure must be sited in such a way which provides for correct 

thermoregulation and humidity taking into account the following: 

• Sunlight: The natural environment of kea is exposed to high levels of solar 

radiation. Research has identified that kea prefer areas of high solar 

radiation (approx MJ m -2 day -1) (Freudenberger et al., 2009) although areas 

with very high solar radiation are preferred less than low solar radiation 

areas. Sunlight is very important for manufacture of vitamin D in all 

species (important for bone mineralization); a deficiency can result in bone 

softening diseases (Grant, 2005). Access to adequate sunlight (minimum 

2-3 hours per day) within the captive environment is considered vital for 

maintenance of health in kea. 

• Shade: The kea is a stocky bird which has evolved to survive in low 

temperatures. They are essentially an alpine forest dwelling species and 

may therefore be prone to heat stroke. Access to shaded areas 

throughout the day, particularly during the middle of the day when they 

generally rest, is necessary. Multiple shade areas ensure that subordinate 

birds are not displaced by dominant individuals. In public access areas, 

these should be away from direct human access points. 

• Airflow: Adequate airflow is important to ensure an environment does not 

become persistently damp as this may encourage the development of 

pathogens. 

• Moisture: Kea tolerate higher rather than lower precipitation rates 

(Freudenberger et al., 2009) with known wild nest sites located in areas of 

higher humidity. 


31 

• Ambient Air Temperature: Kea live in alpine regions where temperatures 

can drop below -4°C in winter (Nelson Lakes, Freude nberger et al., 2009). 

This may be the high end of the scale with kea habitats further south 

routinely exceeding this. They have evolved to tolerate cooler, wetter 

conditions. In warmer areas kea have been observed ‘swimming’ when a 

larger body of water is provided. This may be an important requirement for 

thermoregulation in more northern facilities. 

• Topography: Kea live and nest on steep and often unstable mountain 

terrain. They spend much time walking on uneven ground foraging, 

digging and investigating. Enclosure design should therefore incorporate 

variations in topography. This can be achieved by the addition of rock 

walls, scree slopes and building up of soil mounds. 

4.1.10 Enclosure Security 

All reasonable steps must be taken to ensure that kea on public display are 

secure from theft, physical disturbance and injury. This is particularly important 

where kea are housed in public walk through or limited access enclosures. The 

following steps should be implemented to ensure security of kea areas: 

• Materials must be of a strength to prevent unauthorised access to 

enclosures and prevent a containment breach by larger animal species 

such as dogs 

• Appropriate locks and latches are to be used to ensure no unauthorised 

access 

• No entry signs should be displayed in non-public access areas 

Areas containing the kea enclosure should have an external perimeter fence 

which cannot be accessed by the public after hours when staff are offsite. This is 

also preferable for those facilities which do not fall under MaF regulations (i.e. that 

do not hold new organisms and are therefore not subject to the HSNO Act, 1996). 

______________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.1 - Housing Environment Standards 

(refer Internal Audit Document in Appendix 1). 

All kea must be held on public display except in the following situations: 

• During temporary holding while building a new display enclosure, for a 

maximum period of 1 year. During time off display living conditions must 

fulfill the minimum requirements of 4.1 and birds must be accessible within 

reason for research and advocacy purposes 

• Undergoing veterinary treatment 

• Undergoing quarantine 

• If introductions are being made in ‘neutral’ territory 

• In transit from one facility to another 

• Involved in permitted research project (with relevant ethics approval) 


32 

• Proven to have breeding difficulties on display (evidence required to be 

documented) 

• Held by private holders prior to 2009 

Please contact the Captive Managment Coordinator if birds are to be held off 

display for any other reasons. An exemption is required for longer periods. 

4.1.2 Enclosure type 

For those kea held in public access enclosures the following is required: 

• Barriers (natural/manmade) to kea only areas and signs clearly stating no 

public access into these areas must be clearly visible within the enclosure 

• A safe double gating system in place at the exit/entrance points 

• Enclosure must be checked (walk through) a minimum of twice daily (on 

top of feeds) to ensure birds are safe and public are not feeding birds or 

straying from public pathways 

4.1.3 Size 

All kea must be held in facilities that provide an adequate mix of space, 

complexity and enrichment to prevent the development of stereotypies and to 

encourage natural behaviours. Locomotor stereotypies such as repetitive pacing 

in parrots (a common stereotypy observed in captive kea), have been identified 

as related to lack of space and physical complexity while development of oral 

stereotypies (i.e. feather plucking) to lack of opportunity to perform foraging 

behaviour. Both stereotypy types are seen to be related to lack of social 

interaction. 

Enclosures should therefore have the following dimensions: 

• 1 kea - 108m (e.g. 6Wx6Lx3m H) (justification for holding a single bird 

must be documented and available) 

• 2 kea - 180m³ (e.g. 10x6x3m) 

• 3 kea - 312m³ (e.g. 13x8x3m) 

• 4 kea - 528m³ (e.g. 16mx11mx3m) 

• 5 kea - 798m³ (e.g. 19mx14mx3m). 

• 6 kea – 1122m³ (e.g. 22mx17mx3m) 

• Each kea after this must be provided with an additional 3 cubic metres of 

space (because of territorial behaviour, more kea will require more space) 

Enclosure height to be a minimum of 3 metres. 

4.1.4 Materials for housing 

All enclosure materials must provide for the requirements of full containment and 

be: 

• Non-toxic/unavailable to be gnawed by birds 

• Rust and rot resistant 

• Of a strength to prevent a containment breach by predators and humans 

into the enclosure and by kea out of the enclosure. 

4.1.5 Shelter/screening 

The following natural or manmade shelter/screening must be provided: 


33 

• A minimum of 1 undercover shelter area per bird (ie fallen log/rock 

structure of a size to provide shelter for a single bird from rain, wind and 

sun) 

• A minimum of 2 visual barriers between each pair of birds per enclosure 

(ie trees, rock wall, screens) 

• A minimum of 2 visual barriers per enclosure for each pair of birds from 

direct human eye contact (as above) 

4.1.6 Water 

Fresh water must be provided at all times in a way which enables all birds to 

access freely as follows: 

• A main water source of minimum dimensions 1m² x 200 mm deep (to 

allow bathing behaviours) 

• In the event of only one confined water source being accessible to multiple 

birds, an additional water bowl must be provided at all times at another 

location in the enclosure to ensure subordinate birds have access to water 

at all times (a stream system which provides water across an extended 

area is adequate on its own). 

4.1.7 Furnishings, vegetation and substrates 

A minimum of 3 different types of each of the following must be included in the 

enclosure: 

• Movable substrates (one of which is soil to encourage digging) 

• Ground vegetation (one of which is grass/ground covers to encourage 

foraging) 

• Trees/shrubs (to encourage foraging, provide perches and or visual 

barriers) 

• Furniture (one of which is rotten logs to encourage foraging) in addition to 

basic enclosure furniture (nest cavity/box, perches, water source etc) 

4.1.9 Enclosure siting 

The enclosure must be sited in a way which provides for correct thermoregulation 

and humidity taking into account: 

• Sunlight: access to full sunlight for a minimum of 2 hours of each day 

• Shade: must be accessible in multiple outdoor locations at all times to 

allow birds to cool down 

• Airflow: throughout external enclosure areas only 

• Moisture: to be at a level which does not encourage the build up of 

pathogens, fungus and slime but enough to ensure the environment is not 

arid 

• Ambient Air Temperature: to be naturally variable throughout the 

enclosure with adequate cool areas available throughout the day 

• Topography: a variety of gradients must be provided to ensure 3dimensionality 

and encourage exercise. Where there are no naturally 

occurring variations in topography, built areas must be provided 

4.1.10 Enclosure security 

• Correct materials of a strength and quality that ensure containment is not 

breached 

• Locks and latches to be attached to all doors accessing the enclosure 

• No public access areas clearly visible 


34 

• Public standoff barriers to boundary fence are in place to ensure 

enclosure fence integrity 

• Presence of an external perimeter boundary fence (for facilities subject to 

MAF containment requirements) 

4.1.11 Advocacy and Links 

Enclosure design: Enclosure must be of a standard which encourages natural kea 

behaviours of a normal duration (i.e. which decrease the incidence of stereotypic 

behaviours) and which sends a clear conservation message to the public. 

Signage: At least one form of signage must be clearly visible at the enclosure with 

appropriate conservation messages and links displayed. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.1 - Housing Environment Standards 

4.1.3 Size 

Dimensions of enclosures should exceed the minimum standards to allow a full 

range of natural locomotor activities such as full flight and foraging to take place 

and to allow larger social groupings. In particular enclosure height should be 

exceeded as kea utilise their natural environment vertically as well as horizontally. 

4.1.6 Water 

Water source should be running and of a size which replicates a natural montane 

stream/tarn. 

4.1.7 Furnishings and vegetation 

The amount and variability of furnishings and vegetation in the enclosure should 

be increased as much as possible to allow expression of all natural behaviours 

(from ground level through to high canopy). 

4.1.8 Sharing of enclosures with other species 

In a larger enclosure area, kea should be housed with a variety of other species 

(native and/or exotics where appropriate), to encourage normal interactive 

behaviours. 

4.1.9 Enclosure siting 

Enclosure should not only be sited to take into account thermoregulation 

requirements but also be positioned where possible to take into account height to 

maximise the birds’ outlook. Enclosure should be sited in an area to maximise 

natural environmental (sun, shade, wind, temperature gradients) and landscape 

factors (topography, vegetation, water sources). If these are not available, design 

of an enclosure which takes the keas natural environmental conditions into 

account to maximise expression of normal behaviours should be developed. 

4.1.11 Advocacy and Links 

Advocacy potential should be maximised through optimal enclosure design which 

encourages natural behaviours in kea and allows for a public immersion 

experience. Appropriate human related conservation messages should be 

portrayed through signage (with preference for interactive and passive active 


35 

displays) and encounters with links to outside organisations clearly seen on 

enclosure signage and facilities website/ literature. 

________________________________________________________________ 

4.2 Enrichment 


Stereotypies - repetitive behaviours 

which appear to have no obvious 

goal or function (Mason, 1990) have 

long been used as welfare 

indicators. As they are not seen in 

wild animal populations, their 

development has been linked to suboptimal 

captive environments which 

discourage expression of natural 

species specific behaviours (ibid). 

One method of preventing and 

reversing stereotypies is with appropriate environmental modification (Meehan et 

al., 2004). Five types of environmental enrichment have been identified and 

include social, occupational, physical, sensory and nutritional enrichment 

(Bloomsmith et al., cited in Young, 2003). Nutritional enrichment is often 

introduced via different modes of delivery (which includes variation in frequency 

and presentation), and type (e.g. browse and treats) (Young, 2003), and is widely 

used in captive facilities to increase foraging and investigative behaviours. These 

behaviours have been shown to decrease stereotypic behaviours (Croke, 1997). 

Research on kea behaviour in NZ facilities 

(Orr-Walker 2005) showed a high 

prevalence of stereotypies performed by 

captive kea (50% of individuals observed 

over 13 facilities). 

All stereotypies involved some form of 

locomotor activity (flying, running, hopping 

or rocking from one leg to the other) and 

anecdotally were linked to pre-feed times. 

Carlstead (1998) maintains that the form 

in which stereotypies are expressed often 

indicates which wild behaviour is being 

frustrated. Therefore stereotypic 

locomotor activities may indicate a need 

to forage for food, search for mates or fly 

long distance - all high energy activities in 

the wild. Stereotypies that are linked to a 

Snow! Photo credit: T.Orr-Walker 2003 

Feather plucking in kea may also 

indicate a lack of ability to perform 

foraging and social interactive 

behaviours. Photo credit: KCT 2009 


36 

food motivation may be observed to increase prior to feeding episodes 

(Carlstead, 1998). This has been observed in species which expend much time 

and/or energy in procurement of their food source and may be reduced by varying 

temporal feeding patterns and providing in a form which more closely replicates 

the natural situation (ibid). This was found to be evident in New Zealand captive 

kea as provision of additional feeds during the day (as a form of nutritional 

enrichment) in 3 of the 13 facilities observed, significantly increased foraging, 

investigative and manipulative behaviours across all groups and decreased body 

maintenance behaviours such as self-preening. Therefore it can be surmised that 

complex, daily enrichment was found to increase species typical behaviour 

patterns and decrease abnormal behaviours particularly in captive bred birds. 

This highlights the benefits and rationale for increasing enrichment frequency and 

variability in the captive environment for high priority species (Mench, 1998; 

Kreger et al., 1998) and shows as a management tool, enrichment can be useful 

for this species (Orr-Walker, 2005). 

Kea are considered to be highly intelligent (Gadjon, 2005) and have developed to 

survive in a complex environment. They fall into the category of a high priority 

species as described by Kreger et al., (1998) and are considered to require high 

levels of complexity and novelty in their environments to prevent stereotypies. 

Any enrichment programmes must be highly variable, evolving and adaptable and 

encompass the keas physiological, psychological and social requirements. Where 

possible, routines should be flexible to ensure the reduction of any anticipatory 

behaviour. 

As any degree of stereotypic performance has been linked with a deficit in the 

captive environment (Mason, 1991), it may be concluded that there are potential 

welfare issues in holding kea in captivity that require careful management. 

4.2.2 Behavioural needs 

Wild kea spend over half of their day inactive (over 54%) with the remainder 

spread fairly evenly between foraging, locomotor and body maintenance activities 

(Brejaart, 1988; 1994). Stereotypic behaviour has not been recorded in the wild. 


37 

Although no comprehensive daily activity budget studies of kea in captivity have 

been undertaken, initial behavioural studies do suggest a higher proportion of 

motor activities expressed (Orr-Walker, 2005). It must be remembered however 

that wild activities such as flying between ridges and digging up the roots of plants 

in a cold environment are likely to be much more resource expensive than in 

captivity. Holders should therefore seek to increase the energy expenditure of 

their kea over the course of the day by encouraging natural foraging activities and 

flight opportunities. This can be achieved with additional perches, increased flight 

area and by giving birds reasons to fly between areas such as enrichment and/or 

food placement. 

Percentage of Average Wild Male Kea 

Activity 

14% 

Foraging/Manipulation 

14% 

Body Maintenance 

Locomotor 

18% 

Kea Conservation Trust Final 25/11/2010 

54% 

Inactive 

Fig 4. Although wild kea spend over half their day 

inactive, activity expenditure is high at all other 

times involving resource expensive activities such 

as foraging, exploration and flying. 

Kea behavioural needs in captivity may more closely be satisfied through the 

provision of: 

• Complex enclosures (inclusive of walkthroughs) 

• Larger flight areas with multiple perches to encourage flight between 

areas 

• Complex enclosure furniture which encourages manipulation 

• Variable diet and multiple feeds throughout the day 

• Frequent introduction of new furniture and substrates 

• Appropriate and complex social interactions (inclusive of multispecies 

exhibits) 

• Positive keeper interactions – training/conditioning 

• Daily (unpredictable) enrichment 

4.2.3 Enrichment programme 

Enrichment may include either naturalistic or man made objects. The message 

which an individual facility wishes to convey to the public will dictate which design

38 

is preferred - both are considered highly effective to decrease abnormal 

behaviours and increase natural behaviours assuming they are used inventively. 

Behavioural enrichment should be rotated on an ad lib, non-cyclic system and 

provided on a daily basis. Setting up a rigid timetable for a highly intelligent 

species is counter intuitive to the concept of enrichment – enrichment must be 

unpredictable to be enriching. 

A list of enrichment types and items should be made available to keepers for 

reference. A combination of two or three items should be picked out at random 

from each type on a daily basis so that birds do not end up with predictable 

regimes. If there is repetition of one or two enrichment items on subsequent days 

that is part of the unpredictability. 

Enrichment is only limited by your imagination – get everyone to suggest ideas; 

the more people involved in this the better. All enrichment ideas and items must 

first be checked prior to introduction to ensure that no components are toxic or 

could be broken off and ingested. This is extremely important in the case of 

juveniles who are prone to ingesting novel objects in the wild (e.g. rubber, toxins) 

with often fatal results (Grant, 1993). It is also important to closely monitor 

animals’ access to enrichment during or after a period of illness to ensure they do 

not develop unusual behaviours and ingest an object previously considered safe. 

The following is a basic enrichment list incorporating different types of enrichment 

(please note that social enrichment in the activities section only relates to 

cooperative enrichment and not changing of social groupings). 

Nutritional: 

• Different browse/food types; native browse species, nectar (jam/honey 

water mix), grass, vegetables/fruit/ ice blocks. These should be presented 

in multiple and unusual ways e.g. hole in a pumpkin or coconut stuffed 

with nuts, grass etc or in a different form than usual. Liquids may be 

frozen or warm for example, or constituents not mixed (e.g. blob of honey 

in bowl of water). 

• For additional ideas on food 

presentation as enrichment see 

Auckland Zoo’s Kea Enrichment 

Manual (Freeman et al., 2003). 

Physical/ Sensory: 

• Smell herbs/spices, keeper’s tshirts, 

bedding from other species 

enclosures (non avian to minimise 

cross infection), perfume. Kea 

appear to be very responsive to 

smell 

• Taste herbs/spices, honey, jam 

smeared on branches, drop of 

essence in water (rose, vanilla, 

honey, lemon etc) 

• Visual mirrors, cut out objects (e.g. 

Kea in pile of clean,dry straw – 

Otorohanga 

Kiwi House (KCT, 2009) 

kea model, hawk, cat), lights (bomb proof torch), different coloured objects 


39 

• Tactile big clump of straw, smooth surfaces (metal plate), thick rubber mat 

or ball (watch they don’t ingest it), non toxic coloured wax (not white) or 

clay they can manipulate etc 

• Auditory other kea calls, music, etc 

Occupational: 

Puzzles to manipulate (requires use of 

cognitive abilities) 

• Large hessian sack or large paper 

rubbish bag filled with other enrichment 

items (birds can make holes in sacks and 

pull items through – large enough for 

several birds to have a go at once) 

Social: 

Those items which require cooperation or 

interaction from other kea or keepers: 

• Puzzles requiring cooperation 

• Kea are motivated to watch keepers 

pulling items apart or burying them 

• Training sessions would also fit into this – 

must be fun and positive 

Be inventive and have fun! Anything that could be 

broken of and ingested will need to be monitored carefully, particularly where 

there are juveniles present. However kea are unlikely to swallow most items 

unless they think they are food. Watch for white objects which may illicit a fat 

response – anything that is white and able to be manipulated may be considered 

high energy food (fat) and ingested. This has been noted by hunters who have 

observed kea eating white candle wax instead of fat at the site of a deer carcass 

(Moloney, pers. comm., 2009). 

4.2.4 Additional Links 

For additional enrichment ideas refer Auckland Zoo’s Kea Enrichment manual 

(may be downloaded from www.keaconservation.co.nz). 

Enrichment ideas and information can also be found at the following websites: 

• The Shape of Enrichment – www.enrichment.org 

• Enrichment Online (Fort Worth Zoo) – www.enrichmentonline.org 

• Animal Enrichment – www.animalenrichment.org 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.2 - Enrichment 


Kea checking out a puzzle. 

Photo credit: Rachel Johnston 


These must be met through provision of a complex enclosure which stimulates 

both physical and mental activity. This is particularly important for high 

maintenance birds, such as those exhibiting high levels of stereotypic behaviour 


40 

or those which are human orientated. These birds must be housed in an 

enclosure of maximum complexity. 

Minimum requirements depend on the size, complexity and social interaction 

available to the birds. However all enclosures should be designed to stimulate 

interest and encourage activity. This should include: 

• Large flight area: a minimum of 1/3 rd of the enclosure area with perches 

placed so as to encourage flight between areas 

For an enclosure of 180m³ the following must be made available (larger 

enclosures require a proportional increase in these requirements) to ensure 

complexity and encourage increased physical and mental activity: 

• A variety of perches of varying composition, levels, angles and stability 

between flight areas 

• A variety of large complex enclosure furniture pieces (rotting log/s, stream, 

trampers hut, ponga logs, climbing apparatus, rock wall/pile) which 

encourage manipulation 

• A minimum of 2 new browse or small furniture items introduced into the 

enclosure per week (substrate, logs, straw (remove if wet), human objects 

etc) 

• Positive keeper interactions – training/conditioning a minimum of twice 

weekly 

• A minimum of two feeds per day (in addition to browse presentation) 

presented in different ways (e.g. scatter feed spread out in enclosure 

trays, furniture holes) to encourage foraging over an extended period of 

time 

4.2.3 Enrichment Programme 

Daily (unpredictable) enrichment is to be administered on a rotational adlib basis 

as follows: 

• A minimum of 1 item from 3 different types of enrichment must be supplied 

per day (nutritional, occupational, physical/sensory or nutritional, social 

and occupational etc) on a rotational, unpredictable basis. 

* For additional enrichment ideas use the links specified in 4.2.4 and refer to 

Appendix 4. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.2 - Behavioural Enrichment 


A highly variable environment that allows expression of all natural behaviours 

should be maintained with addition of new items on a daily basis. 

4.2.3 Enrichment Programme 

Any programme should take into account the high activity times of kea (morning 

and evening) and as such provide kea with stimulation after hours (introduction of 

additional enrichment items and browse last thing before leaving). 


41 

4.3 Training and conditioning 


Training is used in captive facilities to aid in the husbandry, health, advocacy and 

enrichment of a diverse range of species. However training of birds has, until 

recently, generally only been used for free flight shows and public entertainment. 

Difficulty managing larger more dangerous species such as big cats or primates 

has led to development of training regimes to reduce incidence of injury to 

keepers. Birds are not routinely trained for basic husbandry practices (worming, 

health checks, crating etc) as it is considered less resource intensive to catch 

birds up on an annual basis. However with minimal input, training for basic 

husbandry procedures can significantly reduce stress and increase positive 

interactions for the public, keeper and kea. 

Public encounters and keeper talks are an extremely powerful tool providing a 

direct link to the birds via the keeper. By providing a personal interaction which 

illustrates a relationship between humans and kea, the public are more likely to 

be able to identify with and as a result care for the species in the wild; Live 

interpretation is generally considered to be the most effective method of getting 

across conservation messages (WAZA, 2005). 

4.3.2 Relevance 

It is important that training and 

conditioning is relevant to the husbandry 

of the species and has direct welfare 

benefits to the individual birds. As such 

training should include basic 

management techniques inclusive of 

stationing, body presentation, weighing 

and crating. These behaviours will 

ensure less stress when moving birds or 

performing basic health checks. 

Additional behaviours sought by trainers 

should be relevant to captive 

management, aid in behavioural 

research and/or should aim to send 

important advocacy messages to the 

public. Expression of behaviours which 

are not natural for the bird or for the 

express purpose of public entertainment 

should not be undertaken. 

4.3.3 Methods 

Only positive reinforcement methods 

during training should be used. Food 

deprivation techniques are not 

appropriate for this species and are 

considered unethical. Bridging 

Orana Wildlife Park - relaxed training 

session enjoyable for both trainer and 

kea. 

techniques to reinforce desired behaviours should be used – a whistle, voice 

command or clicker can be used for this purpose depending on trainer 


42 

preference. Training techniques and advice may be found in “Don’t Shoot the 

Dog”, Pryor, 2002. 

All social groups (except breeding pairs during reproductive season) should have 

a minimum of twice weekly husbandry routines (5-10mins per bird per session). 

Routines must cover basic husbandry and health requirements (weighing, crate 

training, checking body etc). Additional training to capture desired behaviours for 

advocacy (encounters) may also be developed if birds are receptive to training 

regime. 

4.3.4 Trainers 

At least 2 people should be trained up in all aspects of husbandry and training 

/conditioning to ensure that if one person is on leave a secondary trainer can take 

over. Multiple trainers also add to the enrichment value of the training as there will 

be natural variation in training technique between trainers. 

All training events and regimes (aims and outcomes) must be recorded in daily 

diaries. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.3 - Training and Conditioning 


4.3.2 Methods 

• Only positive reward methods must be used. No food deprivation 

techniques may be used to train or condition birds. 

• Training/conditioning to be conducted twice weekly for 5-10 mins per 

bird/or 30 mins for a larger group (whichever is less). The goal being to 

illicit the following behaviours that enable health checks and husbandry 

procedures: 

• Targeting and stationing: basic training to allow for development of 

other behaviours (refer below) and for ensuring stress free 

interactions (particularly when there are dominant/subordinate 

interactions between birds) 

• Weighing: for the purpose of attaining regular weights of birds 

• Crate training: to allow for stress free movement of birds from one 

enclosure to another 

• Body presentation (spreading wings, allowing touch on keel and feet) 

for parasite and basic health checks 

Training must be at a level and speed which is comfortable to the individual bird/s 

(some birds may remain uncomfortable in close proximity to staff and only accept 

targeting/stationing while others require increasing stimulus). 

4.3.3 Relevance 

• Training must include the following basic management techniques; 

stationing, body presentation, weighing and crating. 

• All other behaviours sought are relevant to captive management, aid in 

behavioural research and/or send important advocacy messages to the 

public. 


43 

• Training can also be used as an enrichment tool to increase complexity. 

4.3.4 Staff 

• A minimum of two committed persons who are confident and competent in 

basic kea training methods 

• Staff must detail each training session’s objectives and results in a daily 

diary (e.g. Crate training – Pluto stepping into crate with more confidence 

today. Will look to extend time he spends in the crate over the next week). 

NB. Those birds involved in breeding behaviour may not respond to training 

between the months of June - January however training must resume once 

reproductive activity has finished or if a bird within the pair is expressing 

stereotypic behaviours 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.3 – Training and Conditioning 

4.3.2 Methods 

As above with training regime extended to a daily training and inclusive of 

behaviours for advocacy and education of the public (utilising birds that show 

interest in “throwing “behaviours). 

4.3.3 Staff 

Kea respond well to change and novel items and as such should be provided with 

some level of exploratory value in their training through introduction of new 

personnel and training objectives introduced by staff. This should be aimed at 

increasing stimulation rather than measurable outcomes (i.e. this may be linked to 

some cognitive research work). 

_________________________________________________________________ 

4.4 Social Structure 


Social enrichment of species is considered to be crucial for maintenance of 

normal species specific behaviours (Kreger et al., 1998). It is generally 

acknowledged that group housing of any social species is necessary for 

psychological health of individuals and as a form of enrichment is one of the most 

complex and effective, assuming group structures are appropriate (Young, 2003). 

Inappropriate group makeup and size can negatively impact on reproductive 

success of some species. However research has concluded that the benefits of 

social enrichment far outweighed the benefits of any other forms of enrichment, 

hence its importance in captive management (Schapiro et al., 1996). 

Kea as a social species must be held with other con-specifics (Pullar, 1996). They 

are a highly mobile species, forming and dissolving flock groupings depending on 

age of individuals and season (Jackson, 1960; Clarke, 1970). Although changing 

social groupings seasonally is not logistically possible or necessarily in the best 

interests of the birds in captivity, holding of kea in age and reproductive 


44 

appropriate groups is important to ensure optimal psychological and physiological 

wellbeing. 

4.4.2 Life stages and gender requirements 

Females: There is some indication that holding single sex female groups 

is stressful with high stereotypies and aggressive behaviours observed in 

research to date (unpubl, Orr-Walker, 2005). It is therefore preferable that 

females be grouped with males in multi sex enclosures. If females pair 

bond with males, they should be allowed to go through reproductive 

process, inclusive of nest building and laying of eggs. Those pairs not 

recommended to breed must have their eggs replaced with dummy eggs 

to ensure that the female does not continue to lay eggs (which may cause 

health problems). If female only groups are held, and until additional 

research is carried out to ensure that welfare is not compromised, females 

will require standardised monitoring to be undertaken in facilities with 

appropriate expertise, due to a potential increased risk of stress and 

aggression. 

• Males held in single sex groups have been observed to pair and to 

demonstrate mating and regurgitative behaviours during breeding season. 

• Juveniles should be held together to allow appropriate flocking behaviour 

for first 3-4 years. After this time they should be placed in either bachelor 

or mixed adult groups or pairs for future breeding. 

• Present adult pairs should be allowed to remain in existing pair-bond 

where possible. Kea mate for life and it may be unnecessarily stressful for 

females in particular to be removed from the pair-bond. Parrots are also 

notorious for being picky with mates and may not bond with a new mate 

(even if genetically a perfect match). 

Wild juvenile kea playing 

Photo:Andrew Walmsley 

4.4.3 Development of new social groupings 

When establishing new social groupings or introducing new birds into an existing 

group, care must be taken to ensure that aggressive interactions are minimised. 


45 

There have been cases when new kea introduced into an existing social unit have 

been badly injured or killed. The introduction process must be carried out by staff 

with a sound knowledge of kea behaviour and over a period of time. 

All new kea must be quarantined to minimise possible disease transfer. Stress 

during transport can depress an animal’s immune system thereby increasing its 

susceptibility to any baseline conditions in local birds. Stress can also result in 

expression of an underlying disease lying dormant in a previously healthy 

individual. 

Integration should be carried out as follows: 

• Introductions should be made early on in the day to ensure behavioural 

observations can be carried out 

Release area must: 

• be of a size which allows birds space to get away from each other 

• have appropriate sight barriers in place to ensure birds can move out of 

eyesight 

• have multiple food and water receptacles to ensure all birds are not restricted 

from basic nutrition 

• have access to multiple shelter areas to ensure basic shelter requirements are 

met 

• be enriched to ensure environmental distraction 

Integration duration is dependent on individual birds so it is important to be 

flexible with procedure. If overt aggression is evident, birds should be separated 

when not under observation (e.g. overnight). Newly introduced birds must be 

monitored at all times utilising standardized protocol to ensure unwanted 

behaviours do not develop. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.4 – Social Structure 


Kea should not be held singly unless the following applies: 

• Where birds have been held singly for the entirety of their lives and are 

proven to be unable to be integrated with other kea (evidence required) 

• Undergoing medical treatment 



• Adult females: are housed in mixed sex exhibits with equal male/female 

ratio or more males than females represented where possible. If females 

are held in single sex groups, and until such time that evidence shows 

welfare is not compromised, birds should be placed by the authority of the 

species coordinator, in facilities with appropriate expertise and 

standardised monitoring in place to ensure undesirable levels of 

aggression and/or stereotypies do not occur. Records to this effect must 

be documented. 


46 

• Adult males: may be held in single sex groups 

• Juveniles: must be housed together where possible in mixed sex flocking 

situation until sexual maturity at 3-4 years. Juveniles may also be housed 

with other adults 

• Current non-reproductive pairs: Unless a particular bird is required for 

important pairing at another facility, current pairs engaged in normal pair 

behaviours should not be separated 

4.4.3 Development of new social groupings 

• Integration of new birds must be undertaken in appropriate facilities by 

experienced personnel 

• Birds must be monitored during this period utilising standardised protocol 

by competent personnel 

• Daily records of integration process must be maintained 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.4 – Social Structure 


All life stages and gender requirements should be fully met with natural social 

groupings maintained at all times. Juvenile flocking should be undertaken for 3-4 

years and pairings (non-breeding and breeding) developed after this period. Non 

breeding pairs should be maintained as single pairs or housed in groups with 

appropriate contraceptive methods in place to ensure no unwanted breeding 

occurs. Important breeding birds may be held as pairs only but should be held 

within audible and/or visual distance of other kea. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

4.5 Health Care Standards 

Build up of gross matter in a closed environment can encourage the development 

of harmful pathogens. Daily maintenance to ensure a clean, pathogen free 

environment is important to for optimum health of any captive animal. However in 

the case of kea, a clean enclosure should not be confused with a tidy enclosure. 

Tidy enclosures may equate to an unstimulating environment which may ensure 

physical health but not mental health. A complex “untidy” enclosure must however 

still maintain acceptable physical health standards. 

4.5.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning (adapted from Fraser, 2004) 

Avoid build-up of food debris in enclosures by removing all food scraps around 

feeding sites daily. 

Nest boxes must be cleaned as required (i.e. if faecal material has accumulated 

within the box) and should be moved periodically to prevent a large build up or 

concentration of faecal material in one area. Nest boxes should be cleaned at the 

end of the breeding season, disinfected by washing with Trigene or similar 

disinfectant, and rinsed thoroughly in readiness for the following year. Boxes 

washed with Virkon or Trigene must be completely dried, then allowed to stand 

for at least 24 hours before being placed back with birds due to the respiratory 


47 

irritation associated with these disinfectants. Boxes in which kea are nesting 

should not be moved or disinfected during the breeding season. 

As far as possible, ensure that no foreign material (e.g. tacks, screws, tape, nails, 

hairclips or jewellery) is introduced into kea enclosures as kea may inadvertently 

ingest such material. Be especially vigilant after extensive enclosure renovations 

or construction of new enclosures. A metal detector should be used following any 

construction work in or significant renovation of an enclosure. 

Feed dishes, behavioural enrichment containers and hoppers must be cleaned 

daily in hot water and detergent. They should also be rinsed thoroughly with water 

before drying to remove detergents. 

Food preparation surfaces and areas must be kept clean at all times and should 

be constructed of impermeable material such as stainless steel or formica. 

4.5.2 Health problems 

Kea are not known to have any disease or health problems that are specific to the 

species (other than a wild flea) however they are susceptible to common parrot 

diseases and health problems. Records of ill birds must be reported to DoC’s 

Wildlife Database at http://www.doc.govt.nz/wildlifehealth 

Health problems or diseases which have been known to affect kea or are 

significant parrot diseases which require monitoring include: 

• Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) 

• Aspergillosis 

• Avian Malaria 

• Ingestion of foreign bodies 

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) (Also known as Psitticine 

circovirus PCV)- (Information from Avian Biotech) 

Beak and Feather is a serious 

disease which causes high juvenile 

mortality and chronic lowered 

suppression in parrots and has been 

found in wild populations of parrots 

in New Zealand (DoC, 2004). 

Although this disease has not yet 

been identified in kea, there is no 

reason to suppose that kea cannot 

contract this disease (Potter, pers. 

comm.) The virus is extremely 

infectious and as well as affecting 

the beak and feathers of infected 

birds, can also affect the liver, brain, 

A wild salmon crested cockatoo with 

PBFD. Photo credit: Burdr.com 

and immune system causing diminished resistance to infections. Consequently 

premature death usually occurs from these secondary bacterial, fungal, parasitic, 

or viral infections. 

Signs and Symptoms 

Symptoms include irreversible loss of feathers, shedding of developing feathers, 

development of abnormal feathers, new pinched feathers, and loss of powder 


48 

down. Other possible symptoms include overgrown or abnormal beak, 

symmetrical lesions on the beak and occasionally nails. 

Immunosuppression, rapid weight loss, and depression are also possible in later 

stages of the disease. 

Secondary viral, fungal, bacterial or parasitic infections often occur as a result of 

diminished immunity. 

NB cases of PBFD have been found in Antipodes Island Parakeets where no 

common physical symptoms have been observed (i.e. beak or feather issues). 

Transmission 

Transmission of the virus between birds is primarily through direct contact, 

inhalation or ingestion of aerosols, crop-feeding, infected fecal material and 

feather dust. Most chicks are infected in the nest from a carrier parent. The virus 

can also be transmitted via contaminated surfaces such as bird carriers, feeding 

formula, utensils, food dishes, clothing, and nesting materials. The viral particles 

can remain viable in the environment for months. 

Lovebirds and budgies are common carriers of the virus. Kea should be tested 

prior to transfer if held in facilities that also house these species, 

Prevention and Treatment 

There is no known treatment for this disease so prevention is the key to stop 

spread between birds. Strict quarantine should be practiced if beak and feather is 

suspected and testing of all parrot species in the facility should be conducted to 

rule out latent infection in individuals. 

Testing 

If an outbreak of Beak and Feather is suspected, it should be confirmed by PCR 

testing from a blood sample together with one or two feathers (especially 

abnormal or suspicious-looking feathers). Strict quarantine should be practiced 

and the bird should be re-tested after 4-6 weeks. If the bird tests negative the 

second time, a third test after 4-6 weeks is recommended. 

In the event of a dead bird, post-mortem samples should be tested inclusive of 

liver, spleen, kidney, feathers and swabs (as above). 

. 

As with any incidence of illness in a sick native species, DoC must be informed 

http://www.doc.govt.nz/wildlifehealth 

Aspergillosis (Information from Avian Biotech) 

Aspergillus species of fungus are common in the environment and in most cases 

do not cause ill health. However fungal spores of some species produce 

endotoxins which can cause fatal aspergillosis in immunosupressed individuals. 

Very high numbers of spores may overwhelm a bird’s immune system. This 

opportunistic pathogen is common among domesticated and cage birds and has 

been known to affect kea. 


49 

Signs and Symptoms 

Symptoms range from respiratory distress, gasping, accelerated breathing, voice 

changes, abnormal droppings, emaciation, regurgitation, poor appetite, diarrhoea, 

anorexia, gout, increased thirst, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, dyspnoea, 

neuromuscular disease, and somnolence, lesions (yellow or gray nodules and/or 

plaques in the lungs, air sacs, or trachea; less often in the peritoneal cavity, liver 

or other sites). 

Infected eggs may develop a slightly greenish tint when candled. Well developed 

lesions may appear on infected embryos after they hatch. 

Transmission 

Spores can may be inhaled from contaminated feed, fecal material, and soil and 

develop in the respiratory system, lungs, eyes, and ears. Young and old birds, 

birds on antibiotics, and those birds whose immune systems are suppressed by 

surgery, reproduction, environmental changes, capture, shipping, or age are 

frequently infected. 

Aspergillus can also infect the developing embryo by penetrating the egg while 

the embryo is developing. 


Use of damp and contaminated hay, straw, leaf litter or similar material inside bird 

enclosures must be avoided to reduce the number of spores in the environment. 

All such material must stored in dry area. If a bird is suspected of having 

aspergillosis, aggressive veterinary treatment should begin immediately. Long 

courses of antifungal treatment such as Amphoteracin, & Itraconazole may be 

given as well as immunostimulants. Surgery may be required with certain 

localised aspergillomas. 

Prevention is through minimisation of stress and overcrowding and provision of 

adequate ventilation and uncontaminated nesting materials. Feed should be 

stored in a dry environment to prevent fungal growth. Enclosure placement and 

design are also important in preventing this disease. See 4.1 

Housing/Environment Standards. 

Testing 

Tentative diagnosis can be made with clinical signs, blood tests (showing a very 

high white cell count), x-rays and is sometimes confirmed by culture. 

Unfortunately this disease is most often confirmed after death. 

Avian Malaria 

In 1996 Avian malaria was first confirmed as causing a severe disease outbreak 

in New Zealand dotterel chicks (Charadrius obscures) in two captive rearing 

institutions in the North Island (Auckland Zoological Park and Otorohanga Kiwi 

House), leading to the deth of 10 out of 16 birds – a significant loss for this 

endangered species (Jacob-Hoff et al., unpublished data.) Another captive 

outbreak occurred in 2003-2005 in mohua at Orana Wildlife Park after they were 

translocated from the wild. 

This is a potentially serious disease which has caused widespread extinction on 

the Hawaiian Islands due to the naivety of the wild bird population to this disease 


50 

and corresponding lack of natural resistance (Derraik et al., 2008). The actual 

symptoms depend very much on the species, as many species carry the parasite 

but remain clinically unaffected. It is not known whether kea are susceptible to 

this disease. 

Signs and symptoms 

Weakness, lethargy, anaemia and death if severely affected. 

Transmission 

Spread by biting insects such as mosquitoes. 


Mosquito control is the best way to prevent spread of the parasite. Seek 

veterinary advice for possible treatments if the clinical signs of this disease are 

seen. 

Testing 

Can sometimes be confirmed by the presence of the parasite in blood smears. 

Ingestion of Foreign Bodies 

Ingestion of foreign bodies may also pose a significant risk for captive kea, 

particularly in the case of young or sick birds. Care must be taken when objects 

are placed in the kea’s enclosure and daily monitoring must be undertaken to 

ensure no changes in behaviour or physical status occur. Signs of damage to 

plastic/hard rubber objects must be recorded and removal considered if it is 

suspected material has been ingested. 

Changes in behaviour have been recorded in kea when ill, with death resulting 

from ingestion of objects normally considered safe. Early identification of 

behavioural changes through daily monitoring may help prevent serious effects. 

Parasites (external and internal) 

External and internal parasites can impact on general health over time by placing 

pressure on the bird’s immune system. External parasites may be identified 

visually either through presence of the parasite itself (this may be achieved 

through conditioning/training routines) or through visible damage caused to 

feathers through excessive preening or poor skin/feather health. 

Identifying the presence of internal parasites is more difficult and routine testing of 

faecal samples is required as part of normal husbandry practices. 

Internal parasites 

Faecal screening should be carried out in spring, summer and autumn. As the 

parasite is dormant in winter testing may not pick up presence of worms during 

this period. Birds should be treated when parasites are present as testing on birds 

shows presence/absence only. 

External parasites 

Presence of external parasites (mites, lice) can be established during routine 

training sessions. 


51 


Daily cleaning of the bird’s environment to remove faecal matter, particularly from 

feeding utensils and areas, will help prevent build up of parasites. Internal 

parasites are usually treated with ivermectin or fenbendazole (panacur) and 

external parasites with Frontline. Veterinary advice must be sought regarding 

dose rates as these will differ depending on the parasite. 

4.5.3 Preventative measures 

Sensible aviary design, hygienic management, a balanced diet, and preventative 

health care (e.g. daily monitoring and faecal screening) should reduce disease 

risks to a minimum. 

Monitoring (inclusive of distance examinations) must be conducted on a daily 

basis as part of daily husbandry practices. Any behavioural or physical changes 

must be recorded in a daily diary as these may indicate a chronic or acute 

condition. Changes in the following should be noted: 

• Food consumption 

• Interaction with con-specifics 

• Weight 

• Behaviours 

• General demeanor 

• Movement 

Weights from kea should be recorded at least once per month; this can be 

achieved through instigation of a basic conditioning/training programme. Weight 

ranges for males and females (fledglings through to adults) are as follows: 

Gender Weight 

Male 850 -1000g 

Female 750-950g 

Table 3. *Chick weights can be viewed in section 4.7.3. 

Faecal samples 

It is recommended that faecal samples be taken once in spring, summer and 

autumn for internal parasite examination at a laboratory. 

Enclosure checks 

Enclosure checks must be made on a daily basis as part of the normal husbandry 

routine to check that the environment has not been compromised in anyway. 

Daily inspections should check perimeter integrity, presence of any introduced 

foreign objects, evidence of pest species invasion (toxic plants, animals) etc. 

Staff 

All staff must be aware of procedure in the event of a sick kea. This must include 

knowledge of veterinary contact details, isolation/quarantine protocols, 

information records and additional contact requirements. Note: in the event of 

illness the DoC Wildlife Database must be contacted. 


52 

Any staff in contact with other parrots (wild or pets at home) must follow proper 

hygiene protocol to prevent cross contamination: 

• Disinfect all clothes/field gear/equipment using Trigene disinfectant. 

• Trigene can be added to a normal warm or cold wash in the washing machine 

(instead of laundry detergent) at 50mL per 4.5kg load. 

• Boots must be cleaned of gross dirt or debris and then soaked in 1:20 dilution 

for 10 minutes and then rinsed thoroughly (McInnes, pers. comm. 2009). 

• Alternatively, clothing and footware used at work must remain separate from 

that worn while with wild or pet parrots 

4.5.4 Treatments and Veterinary Procedures 

All birds must have access to veterinary treatment. Contact name and details 

must be easily accessible to staff in the event of an emergency. 

Useful reference material can be found in Clinical Avian Medicine by Harrison 

and Lightfoot (2006). 

4.5.5 Dead specimens 

It is a Department of Conservation requirement (Wildlife Health Standard 

Operating Procedure) that all dead native wildlife undergo necropsy (post-mortem 

(PM) examination) to attempt to determine the cause of death and to provide 

information that might contribute to our understanding of the species. 

Any dead kea must be submitted to a veterinarian for necropsy. The procedure 

for preservation is as follows (from Fraser, 2004): 

1. Do not freeze the carcass. Wet the carcass thoroughly with clean water to 

reduce the temperature of the carcass quickly, and refrigerate it as soon as 

possible. Do not put it in the freezer as this will damage tissues and make a full 

investigation more difficult. Only freeze the carcass if it is unable to be delivered 

within 36 hours of discovery. 

2. Complete a Huia Database Wildlife Submission Form. This can be downloaded 

from http://wildlife.massey.ac.nz/diagserv/diagserv_diagnosticspecs.asp or copied 

from Appendix 5. The purpose of the form is to identify the specimen, list any 

background information that may help identify the cause of death (including 

behavioural factors), state any special information the submitter is seeking about 

the sample, aside from cause of death, and to record if there are any special 

instructions regarding the disposal of the carcass following necropsy (e.g. 

returned to submitter, given to iwi, offered as teaching resource). 

3. Place the labelled (tag around leg) carcass in multiple puncture and tear 

resistant plastic bags or a plastic container with a secure and tight-fitting lid. Put a 

paper towel or other absorbent material in the bag or container to absorb any fluid 

that may seep out. Put the bag/container in a robust container (either a small 

polystyrene chilli bin, or a strong cardboard box) together with a non-leak freezer 

pack (or frozen, half-filled, soft drink bottle) and packaging (e.g. screwed-up 

paper, bubble-wrap) to ensure the contents do not move around in transit. Label 

the package urgent, perishable and/or keep cool, do not freeze and courier to: 


53 

Attention: Maurice Alley/Brett Gartrell/Kerri Morgan 

Room 8.28, Vet Tower, Massey University, Palmerston North. 

A copy of the necropsy report must be sent to the Captive Management 

Coordinator and DOC. 

4.5.6 Quarantine procedures (Refer appendix 5 for Quarantine Procedures) 

(adapted from Fraser, 2004) 

Pre- or post-transfer quarantine is undertaken to minimise the risk of transferring 

diseases between institutions or between an institution and the wild. Advice 

should be sought from the DOC veterinarian (kmcinnes@doc.govt.nz) on the 

tests recommended for each transfer. 

A full quarantine period often needs to be undertaken by either the receiving OR 

the sending institution, not both. The two institutions involved in the transfer 

should discuss quarantine options and decide which facility will undertake to hold 

the birds in quarantine. Commonly it is the sending institution that will do the 

quarantine, but this can be reversed if the parties involved agree to it. 

Results from laboratory analyses for internal parasites should be available from 

the laboratory providing the analysis 24 hours after they received the sample. 

Enteric screen results (Salmonella, Yersinia, Campylobacter) are normally 

available after 48 hours, but further time is often needed to identify specific 

strains. If the receiving institution is doing the quarantine the sending institution 

must still ensure that the bird is fit for travel by getting an experienced veterinarian 

to examine the bird prior to transfer. 

A complete copy of a bird’s individual records must be sent by the holding 

institution to the receiving institution - including any records from pre-transfer 

quarantine and vet checks. An information sheet with a summary of the 

individual’s specimen record should accompany the bird being transferred. 

Facilities using ARKS software can use a modified specimen report while 

institutions not using ARKS software should use a report such as the one shown 

in Appendix 5. In addition, a current diet sheet and a list of observed personal 

behavioural traits can be included with the animals’ information to help ensure 

ease of transition to a new facility. 

4.5.7 Handling/physical restraint 

No one should handle kea without first having been trained and supervised by 

someone experienced with handling the species. Although kea are a robust 

species which do not stress easily, physical restraint of any bird species should 

be done with care. Avian bones are less dense than mammalian species and are 

easier to damage as a result. 


54 

There are three main capture 

techniques. It is important that proper 

technique be learned from an 

experienced handler. DOC and staff of 

Zoos/Birdparks are a good resource for 

learning how to properly work with kea. 

Contact the species coordinator for 

further information. 

Handlers’ hands must be clean and dry 

so as not to damage feathers. Correct 

handling protocol must be followed at all 

times to ensure that both the kea and 

handler do not sustain any injuries. Kea 

are a strong bird with a particularly 

strong beak which can cause serious 

injury. 

Kea should be held with one hand 

controlling the head and the other the 

legs. One finger should be positioned 

under the jaw and the other on the crest 

of the head. Care must be taken not to 

obstruct the airway at anytime. Legs should be held together in the other hand 

with a finger in between the legs to allow for easy banding (refer photo of 

restraining method). 

An alternative common restraint method is the parrot hold where the hand 

restraining the head uses two fingers to hold on both sides of mandible (fingers 

do not cover the crop). Leg hold with the other hand is the same. 

4.5.8 Transport Requirements 

(Adapted from Fraser, 2004) 

Correct restraint technique. 

Photo: Brent Barrett, 2010. 

Over short distances (i.e. from one enclosure to another within a single institution) 

kea can be transferred in a solid carry cage (available from any vet practice) 

which the kea cannot stick its bill through. Cage must have the following; 

• Non-slip floor surface (newspaper/toweling/mat of a type not able to be 

ingested) 

• Ventilation 

• Water supply with refilling capabilities on the outside of cage or a suitable 

moist food such as apple or melon. 

For air transport, containers must comply with the principles specified for the 

relevant International Air Transport Association (IATA) container requirement 

(Container Requirement 21, IATA 2008). 

A DOC transfer permit (Authority to Transfer Protected Wildlife) must be obtained 

from the local conservancy office prior to transferring a bird between captive 

facilities. A copy of the permit should accompany the bird in transit. 


55 

Transport boxes should be wiped down with disinfectant (e.g. Trigene or Virkon 

S) after use. 

4.5.9 Transfer and quarantine 


All Kea being sent to or received from another captive facility, or from the wild, 

must, as a minimum, undergo the following quarantine procedure either 

immediately before or after the transfer: 

a) Birds should be isolated in quarantine for a minimum of 14 days after arrival or 

before being transferred (depending on whether the quarantine is being 

undertaken by the sending or the receiving institution). If birds that have 

been/are about to be transferred are held in an enclosure with other birds then 

ALL birds in the enclosure must undergo the quarantine, including all medical 

checks and faecal and blood sampling and analysis. 

b) Enclosures containing birds undergoing post-transfer quarantine must be 

serviced after other enclosures containing kea and or related species. 

Enclosures containing birds undergoing pre-transfer quarantine must be 

serviced before other enclosures containing kea etc. 

c) The bird(s) must undergo a thorough physical examination by a vet at the start 

and end of the quarantine period. 

d) The birds must be weighed at the start and end of the quarantine period (and 

the weights recorded). 

e) A faecal sample from each bird undergoing quarantine (or a pooled sample for 

birds sharing an enclosure) must be collected and analysed by a veterinarian 

or suitably trained laboratory technician for eggs of endoparasites (Ascarid, 

Heterakis, Capillaria, Strongylate and Coccidia ) at the start and again on day 

seven-nine of the quarantine period (to allow for analysis to be completed 

before the quarantine period ends). A faecal sample or cloacal swab should 

also be collected for Enteric screen. 

f) A blood sample must be collected from each bird in quarantine at the start of 

the quarantine period to check for haemoparasites and to check that blood 

cells and chemistry is within the normal range for kea if known. 

g) Except where birds have been transferred to undergo medical treatment, only 

birds that have undertaken the quarantine procedure outlined here, and have 

been found to be healthy, should be released into the general kea population 

at your facility. If medical checks or samples reveal health problems these 

should be resolved or adequately controlled before the birds are released from 

quarantine. 

h) A complete copy of the bird’s individual record must be sent by the sending 

institution to the receiving institution. 

i) All kea being transferred must undergo a thorough physical examination by a 

veterinarian prior to transfer (regardless of whether the quarantine is being 

conducted by the sending or receiving institution). 

_______________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.5 – Health Care Standards 


4.5.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning must include the following: 


56 

• Daily cleaning of food and water bowls 

• Daily removal of gross matter in enclosures 

• Cleaning of water sources as appropriate 

4.5.2 Health problems 

The following diseases/health problems are a potential threat to parrots and as 

such the signs and symptoms of each must be known by staff: 

• Beak and feather (PBFD) 

• Toxic response 

• Respiratory infection 

Any instances of ill health must be reported to DOC’s Wildlife Database at 


4.5.3 Preventative procedures 

Monitoring must be conducted as follows: 

• Observations: Daily distance observations (recorded in daily diary) 

recording changes in behaviour 

• Weights: Weights attained through training programme to be recorded on 

a weekly basis 

• Daily enclosure and perimeter checks for foreign materials, introduction of 

pest species and toxic plants or enclosure breach 

• Worming: faeces should be collected for parasite screens 3 times per 

year. Animals should only be treated for internal parasites on veterinary 

advice after analysis. 

All staff must be aware of the following: 

• What constitutes behaviour indicative of ill health in kea 

• The procedures to follow in the event of a sick kea 

• Any staff that come into contact with wild parrots must follow proper 

hygiene protocol to prevent cross contamination 

• Any staff that come in contact with pet parrots at home must follow proper 

hygiene protocol as above 

4.5.4 Treatments and Veterinary Procedures 

• All birds to have access to vet (contact name and details to be sighted). 

4.5.5 Dead specimens 

• Dead specimens are to be sent to Massey University for full post mortem. 

• PM report must be sent to species coordinator and DOC 

• Full reporting system to include cause of death and physical, 

environmental and behavioural factors leading up to death 

4.5.6 Quarantine procedures 

• Quarantine must be carried out by either the receiving or sending facility 

(to be determined between the parties) to minimise the risk of transferring 

diseases between institutions or between an institution and the wild (refer 

Appendix 6 for example of quarantine protocol) 

• A complete copy of a bird’s individual records (including summary of 

specimen records and current diet) must be sent by the holding institution 

to the receiving institution at time of transfer. 


57 

4.5.7 Handling/physical restraint 

• Handling and restraint should be conducted by trained personnel or under 

supervision of trained personnel as per documented handling protocol. 

• Restraint of birds must be for husbandry and/or research purposes 

• Records must be maintained stating reasons for restraint, outcomes and 

techniques used 

4.5.8 Transport Requirements 

Appropriate transport containers available: Over short distances kea can be 

transferred in a solid carry cage with the following: 

• Non-slip floor surface (newspaper/toweling/mat of a type not able to be 

ingested) 

• Ventilation which does not allow the keas beak access outside the cage 

• Water supply with refilling capabilities on the outside of cage or suitable 

moist food available. 

Compliance with IATA container requirements where relevant: Air transport 

containers must comply with the principles specified for the relevant International 

Air Transport Association (IATA) container requirement (Container Requirement 

21, IATA 2008). 

DOC transfer permit - A DOC transfer permit (Authority to Transfer Protected 

Wildlife) must be obtained from the local conservancy office prior to transferring 

a bird between captive facilities. A copy of the permit obtained by the receiver 

from the senders conservancy, should accompany the bird in transit. 

Appropriate hygiene protocol during transfer - All transport boxes should be 

wiped down with disinfectant (e.g. Trigene) after use. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.5 – Health care Standards 

4.5.1 Environmental hygiene and cleaning 

In larger environments, the issues of hygiene and cleaning should be kept to a 

minimum. Kea enclosures should not be unnaturally tidy as this will limit 

complexity for the birds. 

Detailed records should be kept regarding changes in behaviour (physical and 

mental). 

_______________________________________________________________________ 

4.6 Feeding Standards 


Kea are opportunistic omnivores. In the wild kea are known to forage on almost 

200 different food items from over 100 species of plant and a variety of animal 

food sources including insects and their larvae (Clarke, 1970; Brejaart, 1988), 

animal carcasses (Brejaart, 1988; Maloney pers. comm.), and live animals. Live 


58 

animals include both native and introduced species, the chicks (Huttons 

shearwater) and eggs (shear water, Tokoeka brown kiwi and whio (McMurtrie et 

al., 2004, cited in Reid, 2008) of other native bird species and introduced 

mammals such as mice (Beggs and Mankelow 2002, cited in Reid, 2008), and 

sheep (Brejaart 1988; NHNZ, 2003). Kea also scavenge carcasses as well as 

human rubbish and food around areas of human habitation and tourist locations 

throughout the South Island (Diamond & Bond 1999). 

Kea at Arthur’s Pass eating rabbit. 

Photo credit: Andrew Walmsley 

Because of the diversity of plant material consumed, kea are considered to be 

important dispersers of the seeds of native alpine plant species (Clarke, 1970). 

Prior to human habitation, evidence of damage to moa pelvic bones indicate that 

kea utilised Moa as a food source in much the same way as some kea target 

sheep today. They may also have scavenged moa carcasses after Haast Eagle 

kills (Holdaway & Worthy, 1997). 

4.6.2 Toxic Foods 

Many foods that we would consume are toxic to other species and parrots are no 

exception. The following foods are toxic to parrots and must not be fed to kea: 

This is not a complete list: 

• Avocado 

• Chocolate 

• Onions 

• Mushrooms 

• Caffeine 

• Dried Beans 

• Rhubarb leaves 

• Cabbage, broccoli and other members of the brassica family 

Toxic browse items include but are not limited to: 







59 

• Other Solanum species including potato 

• Tutu (Cariaria Spp.) 

• Yew (Taxus baccata) 

• Hemlock (Conium maculatum) 

4.6.3 Diets and supplements 

Kea as opportunist omnivores may be offered a variety of plant and animal 

products such as they would have access to in the wild. The more varied the diet 

and presentation then the more likely that birds will be able to fulfill their daily 

nutritional requirements and natural behaviours. A varied diet will also ensure that 

kea remain healthy, do not become obese and are mentally stimulated. 

A mixture of browse species and choice of all food groups will provide for daily 

requirements. 

Food Types and amounts: 

For an example of a daily feeding regime and presentation, refer to Appendix 6. 

Foods must be of a type and diversity that increase daily motor activity and 

opportunity for display of natural behaviours (foraging, digging etc). 

Enclosure vegetation may also be seen as a food resource for kea and so may 

need replacing over the course of a year. Digging up of grasses and perennials to 

access the roots or grubs in the soil is normal foraging behaviour for kea and 

provision of grass in the enclosure will provide additional interest and activity for 

the birds. Small shrubs and large trees may also be utilised as food sources. The 

introduction of browse species on a 

daily basis can reduce the amount of 

damage to planted trees. 

Browse species of particular interest 

to kea include cabbage tree 

(Cordyline australis), coprosma 

species, puha (Sonchus oleraceus), 

and willow. 

Note: A list of browse species will be 

built on by holders over the next few 

years which may be accessed as 

part of the appendices. 

Amounts per bird: This will depend 

on size and presentation of food. 

Parrot food pyramid from avianenrichment.com 

However care must be taken to 

ensure that all food groups are given 

in appropriate proportions (i.e. foods at the bottom of the food pyramid should 

comprise the majority of feed and foods closer to the top in decreasing 

quantities). 


60 

Routine weighing of birds will ensure that weights are maintained within 

acceptable ranges for sex and age group (refer to 5.3.1 for weight ranges). Quick 

and easy weighting can be achieved during weekly training sessions. 

Proteins: Kea may be given whole 

uncooked beef or horse bones 

(preferably with the marrow inside the 

bones) to feed on. This will provide 

interest, ensure beak health as well as 

provide the opportunity to fulfill natural 

behaviours. 

Treats: May be used predominantly 

during training periods and should be 

given in small amounts only (e.g. 

cheese, cashew nuts). 

Supplements: 

Additional supplementation may be 

required for birds leading up to and 

during the breeding season, and for those birds that are immune compromised or 

need dietary supplements for health reasons. 

4.6.4 Presentation of food 

The daily allowance of food must be divided into multiple feeds over the course of 

the day, between multiple feeding sites. This will encourage birds to forage 

throughout their entire enclosure, thereby helping them maintain a higher level of 

fitness and mental wellbeing. 

Splitting up the food and feeding areas will also ensure subordinate birds are not 

restricted in their feeding (a dominant bird cannot monopolise a single feeding 

tray or hopper).It is recommended that there is at least one feeding site per bird 

and that visual barriers are available 

between feed sights. 

Food (ideally in the form of 

enrichment and browse), must be 

provided last thing in the afternoon 

to ensure that kea have interest in 

their environment during the highest 

activity times -- dusk and dawn. 

Presenting normal foods in unusual ways 

provides interest 

Photo credit: Friedman et al, 2003. 

For ideas on different food 

presentation methods, refer to 

Auckland Zoo’s Kea Enrichment 

manual (Friedman, Jenkinson & 

Kea feeding out of hanging cage, KCT 2009 

Whybrow, 2003) which can be downloaded from www.keaconservation.co.nz 


61 

4.6.5 Seasonal/breeding changes in feeding requirements 

It is recommended that during the peak breeding season (June - November) the 

frequency and amount of food (and particularly food high in calcium) offered to 

breeding pairs is increased. 

Food consumption by the female is likely to decline significantly during the week 

preceding egg laying, with a sudden resurgence of appetite observed once the 

female has laid an egg (Pullar, 1996). 

4.6.6 Food Hygiene 

Care must be taken particularly in warmer climates that food does not spoil. All 

fresh food (greens, fruit, and protein products) must be refrigerated prior to use 

(4° C). All grains and cereals must be stored in dr y conditions in separate storage 

bins which do not allow the introduction of pest species or build up of pathogens 

or fungus. 

All food preparation areas must be maintained to high levels of hygiene (refer 

section 4.5.1) with utensils cleaned and stored appropriately. 

___________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.6 – Feeding Standards 


4.6.2 Toxic foods 

Novel foods must be checked to ensure they are not toxic to kea. Foods that must 

not be fed to kea include*: 

• Avocado 

• Chocolate 

• Onions 

• Mushrooms 

• Caffeine 

• Dried Beans 

• Rhubarb leaves 

• Brassica’s 

*This is not a complete list 

All browse material must be checked to ensure no toxic plant species are present. 

Toxic plant species which must not be fed to kea include*: 






• Other Solanum species including potato 

4.6.3 Diets and supplements 

Quantity and types of food should be of an amount to allow for a complete and 

balanced diet and must include the following on a daily basis: 


62 

• Enough food that a small amount is left over after feeding. This will vary 

seasonally and individually and should be monitored and adjusted 

accordingly. 

• The following food groups should be represented daily in decreasing 

amounts: cereals and whole grains, fresh greens and vegetables, proteins 

(meat/bone), fresh fruits and seeds, treats (diary products). High energy 

foods such as nuts and cheese may also be used in limited quantities for 

training. 

• Browse items 

Routine weighing is to be undertaken as part of weekly training sessions and 

individual bird weights recorded to monitor food intake. 

4.6.4 Presentation of food 

• Food must be presented at least twice daily (in addition to browse) in two 

different forms to encourage active foraging throughout the enclosure (for 

examples of food presentation refer to Friedman et al., 2003). 

• Food in the form of enrichment items and/or browse must be provided at 

the end of each day to illicit foraging at high activity times (dusk and dawn) 

4.6.5 Seasonal/breeding changes in feeding requirements 

• Additional nutrients must be provided for breeding pairs particularly during 

egg production and chick rearing 

• Non breeding females must be provisioned with additional calcium 

supplements prior to and during egg laying 

4.6.6 Food hygiene 

• All foods must be stored appropriately to ensure they remain fresh and 

free of pests 

• All food preparation areas must be kept clean and hygienic 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice 4.6 – Feeding Standards 

Diets and presentation of foods should be as varied as possible. Food types 

should mimic as best as possible a natural diet and be provided more than twice 

daily with at least one feed and browse provided late in the day to provide the kea 

with resources and foraging opportunities at their highest activity time each 

evening. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

4.7 Reproduction 

Conservation organisations around the world recognise a need to hold a pool of 

viable individuals of a threatened species to ensure the survival of that species 

should a catastrophe occur in the wild. 

New Zealand, with its many at risk endemics and high number of introduced pest 

species has seen a high rate of extinctions (including species which are 


63 

functionally extinct in the wild) over the past 100 years. Species can go from 

being considered safe, to being on the brink of extinction very rapidly. One 

notable NZ example is the Black Robin (DoC, 2001). The tipping point is often not 

known until that point arrives at which time it is often too late. 

A marked increase in the risk of extinction over 100 years from 0.8% in the 

1850’s, to 32% in 2004, and a lack of confidence in population stability has been 

put forward by Elliot & Kemp (2004). Ensuring that the existing captive population 

is physically and behaviourally viable is considered sensible future-proofing in the 

event of a stochastic event negatively impacting the wild population. 

At present holders are only allowed to breed their kea if specifically authorised by 

Department of Conservation following the recommendation of the species' captive 

management coordinator (Pullar, 1996). Additionally there is no ‘breed to release 

programme’ for kea at present (unlike other native species including the closely 

related kaka) although this may occur in the future. 

The selection of breeding birds and numbers of offspring hatched to each must be 

carefully managed to ensure maximum genetic diversity is retained and that the 

numbers of captive birds are carefully managed. 

All kea holders will be notified of breeding recommendations (if any) by April each 

year. This will allow holders to make comments and prepare their facilities prior to 

the breeding season (June onwards). 

Male feeding female early in the breeding season 

Photo credit Alpinism and Ski Wanaka 


Kea are a long-lived species which are generally considered to pair for life in the 

wild. Monitoring of kea in the Nelson Lakes has found that although this is true in 

many cases (with pairs showing fidelity to each other and a nest site over a 6 year 

period) (Kemp, pers. comm. 2009) there have been instances where pairs have 

exchanged partners (KCT, 2009) or opportunistic matings have occurred. It is 

quite common to see pairs with transitory males visiting, potentially to take 

opportunities to mate with the female while the male is foraging (Kemp, pers. 

comm. 2009). It has been suggested in previous literature that males will take on 

more than one female during a breeding season (Jackson, 1993), however 

considering the resource intensive nature of the males role during the harsh 

winter months, this seems a less successful strategy for both males and females. 

Males provision the females prior to her laying the eggs and then for the time she 

sits on the eggs and chicks (up to 3 months). This occurs during the freezing 


64 

winter months of June – December 

(Fijn, 2003). If a male dies during the 

period before fledging, the chicks 

invariably perish. 

Wild kea generally nest in large 

underground chambers, often within 

beech forest. Nests have been found 

from sea level to 1600m and may be 

located under large rocks or fallen logs. 

They are usually situated close to a 

flight runway. Some nests found in the 

wild are large enough to allow a person 

to enter and turn around within the nest 

chamber area/s. The nest chamber/s is 

generally lined with shredded wood, 

moss, grasses and feathers. 

Wild kea chicks in a burrow filled 

with dry grasses. 

(Photo: Tui de Roy, 2009) 

Progeny should be removed from the breeding aviary well before the next 

breeding season. Conflict and injuries are likely to occur when juveniles interfere 

with the nest site and attempt to interact with the breeding pair. The adult male 

can become particularly aggressive to his male progeny. 

Kea nest being checked by Josh Kemp (DoC) 

2009 

Young birds can be transferred to a colony situation where they learn to socialise 

with a larger group of birds. Birds introduced into male-female groups will 

eventually select their own mates. However, natural pair selection is not always 

appropriate in a controlled breeding situation because the birds do not necessarily 

choose mates that will result in maximum retention of genetic diversity within the 

captive flock (Pullar, 1996) 

There have been no accounts to date of injury caused by kea to humans entering 

the enclosure during breeding season even in the case of reproductively active 

birds housed in public walkthrough aviaries. 


65 

4.7.2 Forming new breeding pairs (adapted from Fraser, 2004) 

When establishing a new pair, never introduce a new kea immediately into an 

existing enclosure. Kea can be very territorial, and will need time to get used to 

each other, otherwise aggression may occur which can result in death. 

Additionally all new kea must be quarantined to minimise possible disease 

transfer. Stress during transport can depress an animal’s immune system thereby 

increasing its susceptibility to any baseline conditions in local birds. Stress can 

also result in expression of an underlying disease lying dormant in a previously 

healthy individual. 

Pairing of birds at the beginning of the breeding season (June/July) may increase 

the likelihood of a positive outcome. 

Pairing of birds should always be supervised by a person who is experienced in 

kea behaviour and particularly those who have experience of the normal 

behaviour of the birds involved. Introductions should follow the same general 

protocol as stated in section 4.4.3. 

4.7.2 Nesting/breeding requirements 

At the beginning of the breeding season nesting material should be made 

available to pairs within the enclosure whether they are recommended to breed or 

not. Nesting/breeding pairs may become territorial during this time so disturbance 

of the nest box should be kept to a minimum. If other kea are housed in an 

enclosure with paired birds, behaviours should be monitored to ensure that overt 

territorial aggression does not occur between birds. 

In captivity, most pairs breed on the ground rather than using the traditional nest 

log or box. A semi-natural nest site can be constructed by placing a plywood box 

of approximately 1 metre square at ground level and then lining it with rocks 

inside and out. An access door should be included to allow for nest cleaning and 

observations. The birds can gain access to the nest area through a 200 mm 

diameter concrete pipe, or equivalent, of approximately 1.5 metres long (Pullar, 

1996). Nesting materials which may be provided for kea should include tussock, 

hay/straw, logs (for shredding), wood chips (untreated), fern fronds and moss. 

Although there is significant variation in successful nesting boxes, it is imperative 

that all natural nesting materials are dry, clean and free of mould spores (refer 

section 4.5.2 for information on aspergillosis). 

Food should be increased as appropriate during this period to ensure the female 

is not depleted of calcium etc (refer nutrition section). Egg/s should not be 

removed from non-breeding pairs without substituting with dummy egg/s. 

Females will lay a number of eggs (up to 7) over a period of a week. Birds have 

been observed eating their own eggs in captivity (KCT, 2009). It is not known if 

this occurs in the wild although there is evidence that they do eat the eggshells 

(Barrett, 2008). If eggs continue to be eaten, fertile eggs may be removed and 

placed in an incubator, while dummy eggs are secreted into the nest instead. 

Once the female has completed laying eggs and is sitting then the fertile eggs 

may be returned to complete incubation. 


66 

Incubation takes approximately 3- 4 weeks (23-28 days) (Woolcock, 2000; Fijn, 

2003) and during this time the female is provisioned by the male. Once the chicks 

have hatched out the male will continue to provision the female who will 

regurgitate the food to the chicks. The male will not directly feed the chicks until 

they venture outside the nest. 

4.7.3 Requirements and development of young 

Kea chicks are dependent on their parents for an extended period of time (two 

months from hatch to fledging and up to an additional 4 months thereafter). Kea 

chicks hatch after 23-28 days incubation (Woolcock, 2000; Fijn, 2003) at a mean 

mass of 18.0g (Woolcock, 2000) and thereafter develop rapidly (refer Fig 3) 

Fig. 5. Growth Chart for hand-raised kea chicks (Woolcock, 2000). 

Parent raised chicks tend to put on weight earlier but show a similar trend of 

weight gain (KCT, 2009). 

Although no special foods are required for chicks directly, additional food should 

be made available to the parents to feed to the chicks. Once the young begin to 

leave the nest, they will investigate the food provided to the group as a whole. 

4.7.4 Hand rearing Techniques 

Although hand rearing of chicks is not presently practiced in New Zealand, it has 

been successfully carried out at facilities overseas. For details on hand raising 

techniques and diets refer to Appendix 7. 

4.7.5 Methods of controlling breeding 

If no chicks are required from kea already paired, any eggs laid should be 

replaced by artificial eggs and the real eggs removed from the nest. Unless 


67 

directed to do so by the Captive Managment Coordinator, eggs should not be 

removed without an artificial egg replacing them as an empty nest will encourage 

the female to keep laying. Repeated egg laying may negatively impact on the 

health of the female by decreasing available calcium stores. If the female is still 

sitting on the artificial egg(s) after approximately 30 days the artificial egg(s) 

should be removed. 

Bachelor groups of kea may also be used as a method of controlling breeding, 

however until further research is carried out, holding of multiple females together 

will require standardised monitoring to be undertaken, due to increased risk of 

stress and aggression. 

The Captive Management Coordinator should be contacted to discuss how to 

dispose of kea eggs that are not earmarked for incubation as they may be 

required for research, advocacy or cultural purposes. 

4.7.6 Breeding recommendations 

Breeding may only be carried out by a facility once a breeding recommendation 

has been secured from the Captive Management Coordinator. 

Preferential breeding rights will be given to those holders who: 

• Show a commitment to holding kea in optimum conditions (enrichment, 

advocacy, health, enclosure design, training) AND, 

• Hold or have the ability to hold founder and F1 individuals, particularly 

those which are unrepresented in the population. 

___________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 4.7 – Reproduction 


4.7.2 Maintaining or forming new breeding pairs 

• Formation of new breeding pairs must be undertaken and monitored by 

competent, confident personnel following appropriate protocol 

• Records of protocol, observations and outcomes must be maintained during 

the introduction process 

4.7.3 Nesting/breeding requirements 

• Each year all pairs (whether recommended to breed or not) must be provided 

with appropriate nesting areas and dry, clean nesting materials to allow 

expression of natural behaviours 

• All pairs (whether recommended to breed or not) must be provided with 

additional nourishment to ensure health during the breeding period 

• Recommended breeding pairs must be provided with a nest area which is 

undisturbed by the public (particularly important in public access enclosures) 

to ensure aggression and stress does not result. 

4.7.4 Requirements of young 

Kea chicks must be parent raised (unless otherwise approved by the Captive 

Management Coordinator) 


68 

4.7.5 Methods of controlling breeding 

Reproduction must be controlled by one of the following methods (depending on 

social grouping): 

• Removal of eggs from non breeding pairs and replacement with artificial 

eggs 

• Maintenance of single sex groups (please note that holding of multiple 

females together will require standardised monitoring to be undertaken, due 

to increased risk of stress and aggression). 

4.7.6 Facilities recommended to breed 

Breeding must only be carried out by a facility who has obtained a breeding 

recommendation from the Captive Managment Coordinator. 

Preferential breeding opportunities will be given to those holders who: 

• Show a commitment to holding their kea in optimum standards AND, 

• Hold or have the ability to hold founder and F1 individuals, particularly 

those which are presently unrepresented in the captive population. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice Standard 4.7 – Reproduction 

Best Practice Standard 5.7– Reproduction 

4.7.2 Maintaining or forming new breeding pairs 

Behaviorally positive pairs should not be split to form new pairings unless 

necessary for the continued health of the captive population. 

_________________________________________________________________ 


69 

5.0 IDENTIFICATION 

5.1 Introduction 

Kea do not exhibit obvious sexual dimorphism although males are generally 

larger and heavier than females and have a longer upper mandible and skull. 

Variation between individuals is even more difficult to identify and external forms 

of visual identification are required to ensure correct identification of individuals in 

captivity. 

5.2 Individual Identification 

Reliable, safe and permanent individual identification of all kea involved in the 

captive management programme is essential for the maintenance of the 

programme. Individual identification is used to track parentage of new individuals 

and, to enable the identification of genetically appropriate pairings. It is also 

crucial for tracking information such as medical treatment and behavioural data 

on individual birds. 

Metal leg bands with individual identification numbers must be placed on all 

captive kea as per DOC banding requirements (refer to DOC banding protocol). 

Metal bands are available from the DOC Banding Office (phone +64 4 4713294; 

email bandingoffice@doc.govt.nz). 

Banding a wild juvenile kea. 

Photo credit: Florence Gaud (DOC) 

Common band sizes used for kea are LN bands (11mm internal diameter) or 27 

series bands on larger birds (Kemp, pers. comm., 2008). To minimise the 

potential of leg problems, only one metal band should be used per leg. 

Coloured bands (plastic or metal) may also be used to allow for easy visual 

distance identification. This will also decrease the need to catch up birds simply to 

identify individuals and will also minimise any error. 


70 

Trovan pit tags inserted under the skin are a non-visual method of identification 

which should be encouraged. These should only be used in addition to a visual 

identification method such as banding. 

5.3 Sexing Methods 

The two most common ways to sex kea are by morphological measurements and 

molecular techniques such as feather sexing. An additional method which should 

be used in conjunction with morphological sexing is behavioural sexing. As the 

sex of captive kea often determines where they are placed within the captive 

population, this information is required as soon as possible in a bird’s life, 

preferably before birds are transferred for the first time. 

Wild caught birds that are brought into captivity and are incorporated into the 

captive management programme (e.g. injured birds that cannot be released after 

treatment) must be sexed within 4 months using molecular techniques. Wild 

caught birds that have been injured and are being treated for release in captivity 

may be sexed by morphological and/or behavioural methods only and details 

recorded and sent to DoC. 

Chicks that hatch in captivity as part of the management programme must be 

sexed by both morphological/behavioural and 

molecular techniques. 

5.3.1 Morphological Sexing Method 

Morphological sexing is possible on all age 

groups with bill and skull length in most cases 

determining the gender (Elliott & Kemp, 2004) 

in combination with weights. Sexing can usually 

be achieved from 9 weeks by the size and 

shape of the beak (the upper mandible of the 

male is 12-14% longer than the female; Juniper 

and Parr, 1998 referenced in Woolcock, 2000). 

However, sexing by this method alone has 

been known to result in errors. Confirmation is 

either by laparoscopy (although this is invasive) 

or more commonly DNA feather sexing. 

Gender Weight Length Beak Skull 

length length 

Males 850 -1000g 46cm >45mm >65mm 

Females 750-950g

71 

female roles (i.e. females have not been seen to regurgitate to males in available 

literature, whereas known male-male pairings can show mutual regurgitation. The 

“female” of a male- male pairing generally shows no or minimal solicitation 

behaviour whereas females do). Both males and females may be active in nest 

building. A full proof confirmation of sex is presence of a female sitting on eggs. 

Although the absence of eggs does not necessary confirm that a female is not 

present, it should be viewed as suspect. 

At other times of the year, and on the whole, adult females are less gregarious 

than males and may be more cryptic. 

Observations over a relatively short period of time (several hours over a couple of 

days) may be carried out by volunteers/students and should provide a good 

indication of a bird’s behaviour and interactions between other con-specifics. 

5.3.3 DNA Feather Sexing 

The sex of kea may also be identified through the presence or absence of female 

specific DNA isolated from tissue extracted from the base of a sample of feathers. 

The method of collection is as follows: 

1. Pluck approximately six feathers from each bird (the chest is a good site from 

which to take the sample). 

2. To avoid potential contamination of the samples, avoid touching the shaft of 

the feather where it attaches to the bird’s body. Alternatively, gloves should 

be worn. 

3. Place the feathers in a paper envelope. 

4. Label the package with your name, institution name, date, and individual ID of 

the bird (band number or colour/transponder number). 

5. Store at room temperature. 

6. Send off the samples in an envelope with a covering letter or email to: 

Private Bag Palmerston North 

Attn: Ian Anderson 

Equine Blood Type & Research Unit (EBTU) 

Drysdale Drive 

Massey 

Phone: 06 356-9099 ext 7261, 7204 

Email: I.L.Andersib@massey.ac.nz 

Once the results are received, please inform the Captive Management 

Coordinator (see section 2.3) so that studbook information can be updated. 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 5 – Identification 


• All kea held in captivity must be individually identified by a metal band as 

stated by DOC banding protocol within three months of hatch, or within 

three months of being transferred into captivity (for wild caught birds) 

• Band numbers are to be sent to DOC banding office 

(bandingoffice@doc.govt.nz) 


72 

• All kea hatched in captivity must be sexed using molecular techniques 

(DNA feather sexing) within four months of hatching 

• All kea that are brought into the captive population from the wild, excluding 

birds held temporarily for medical treatment (i.e. held under an injured 

wildlife permit), must be sexed using molecular techniques (DNA feather 

sexing) within four months of their transfer into captivity 

• All other kea in captivity must be accurately sexed using morphological 

and behavioural methods 

• ID records and sexing records (including method used) are to be entered 

onto a relevant records programme (ARKS or other where applicable) and 

specimen reports 

_________________________________________________________________ 

Best Practice Standard 5 – Identification 

• In addition to DOC metal banding, all kea held in captivity should be 

individually identified with a coloured plastic band to allow for accurate 

distance identification 

• All kea in captivity should be DNA feather sexed to ensure accuracy of 

records 

• The use of Trovan pit tags should be adopted where possible. 

_________________________________________________________________ 


73 

6.0 RECORD KEEPING 


Record keeping is a crucial element of managing all species in captivity. Specific 

care should be taken to ensure that all records are accurate and up to date. 

6.1 Individual records 

General records of each kea must be maintained detailing individual identifiers 

(visual and non-visual), gender, birth date/death, transfer date/s and details, sire 

and dam etc. 

Daily records recorded in a daily diary should detail the following for each bird 

where applicable: Weekly weights, other training outcomes, behaviour 

(reproductive, changes in, abnormal behavioural expression etc), food 

consumption, general condition, veterinary treatments, any concerns etc. 

Animal records should be maintained electronically to make it easier to maintain a 

backup copy of all records and to facilitate their transfer to other holders and the 

captive coordinators. Ideally the software provided by the International Species 

Information System (ISIS) should be used. This is currently the Animal Records 

Keeping System (ARKS), but will soon become the Zoological Information 

Management System (ZIMS). 

An example of a manual animal inventory system is available to ZAA members 

from the members’ resources section of the ZAA website 

(www.zooaquarium.org.au) or from the captive management coordinator. 

6.2 End of breeding season reports 

Holders should inform the Captive Management Coordinator as soon as 

practicable about any deaths, hatches, plans to increase enclosure size etc. At 

the end of the breeding season a summary of information collected by the holder 

during the season is submitted to the Captive Management Coordinator in the 

form of an end of season report. A template for this report will be provided by the 

Captive Management Coordinator. 

_______________________________________________________________________ 

Minimum Standard 6 – Record Keeping 


An individual record must be maintained for every kea ever held at an institution. 

This record must include the following information: 

• �Individual identifiers (e.g. band numbers, transponder numbers) 

• �Sex (if known) 

• Sexing method (if known) 

• �Identity of Parents (if known) 


74 

• Origin (if wild caught or birth/transfer facility) 

• �Hatch date (if known) 

• Arrival date at your institution 

• Departure date from your institution (if applicable) 

• Death date (if applicable) 

• Cause of death (if applicable and known) 

• Weights 

• Notes on when faecal (or other) samples were taken and the results. 

• �Notes on health problems and treatments offered (if applicable) 

• �Important behavioural notes 

An end of season report must be submitted to the Captive Management 

Coordinator for kea by April 7th each year, detailing developments for the period 

April 1 – March 30. A template will be provided by the species coordinator for this 

purpose. 

Information required includes: 

• �Records of kea hatches, deaths and transfers at your institution. 

• Numbers of eggs produced by each breeding pair and the fate of those 

eggs. 

• Confirmation that the transfers, releases and breeding recommendations 

made in the previous year’s Annual Report and Recommendations (ARR) 

were achieved (or at least attempted) 

• �Information on planned holdings and requests for more (or less) birds 

All records sent to the Captive Management Coordinator and entered onto ZAA 

and ISIS databases (where appropriate). 

_______________________________________________________________________ 


75 

7.0 Acknowledgments 

I would like to extend special thanks to Stephanie Behrens of the Zoo and 

Aquarium Association (ZAA) for editing this document and providing information 

and expertise on captive population status. I would also like to thank Bruce 

McKinlay of Department of Conservation for providing professional feedback into 

the draft document. I would additionally like to thank both Stephanie and Bruce for 

their tireless and positive collaboration during the manuals lengthy and important 

review and endorsement process. 

I would also like to acknowledge the staff at captive management facilities 

throughout New Zealand who have provided information presented here and who 

continue to be supportive of research into the species, and the Department of 

Conservation who has been supportive of working through the change in 

standards during this process. I also wish to acknowledge all those persons who 

read and commented on the draft manual including the Captive Management 

Coordinator, Tony Pullar, as well as all DOC personnel and captive holders who 

submitted comments. 

Particular thanks go to Dr. Helen Schofield of Franklin Wildlife Sanctuary for 

information on diet and health in the species, Dr John Potter of Auckland Zoo 

NZCCM for editing of the health standards section and input during the review 

process and Dr. David Woolcock of Paradise Park Wildlife Sanctuary, Hayle for 

information on captive hand rearing of kea (including diets, and weight data). 

Finally I wish to thank my colleagues at the Kea Conservation Trust who have 

supported the development of this document throughout the past year. 


76 

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J. Kemp., P.A. van Klink, 2009. A preliminary assessment of the by-kill of kea 

(Nestor notabilis) during aerial 1080 operations for invasive mammal control. 

Department of Conservation. 

Kreger MD, Hutchins M, Fascione N. 1998. Context, Ethics and Environmental 

enrichment in Zoos and Aquariums. In Shepherdson, DJ, Mellon JD, Hutchins 

M.(Eds.), Second Nature. Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals. 

Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 59-82. 

Mallapur A, Waran N, Sinha A. 2005. Factors influencing the behaviour and 

welfare of captive lion-tailed macaques in Indian zoos. Applied Animal Science 

91: 3-4: p 337-353. 

Mason G J. 1990. Stereotypies: a critical review. Animal Behaviour 41: p 1015- 

1037. 

Meehan, C.L., Garner, J.P., Mench, J. A. 2004. Environmental enrichment and 

development of cage stereotypy in Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona 

amazonica). Dev Psycholbiol 44: p 209-218. 

Mench J.A. 1998. Environmental Enrichment and the Importance of Exploratory 

Behaviour. In Shepherdson DJ, Mellon JD, Hutchins M. (Eds.), Second Nature. 

Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals. Smithsonian Institution Press: p 

30-46. 

NHNZ, 2006. Native Birds of New Zealand. A 4 DVD Documentary Collection. 

NHNZ Ltd. 

Orr-Walker, T., Adams, N., Waran, N. 2005. Evaluation of captive kea (Nestor 

notabilis) management practices in New Zealand and their effect on behavioural 

repertoire. Unitec, New Zealand. 

Pryor, K. 1999. Don’t Shoot the Dog. Bantam Books, New York. 

Pullar T. 1996. Kea (Nestor notabilis) Captive Management Plan and Husbandry 

Manual. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 9. Wellington: 

Department of Conservation. 15 p. 

Reid, C. 2008. ExplorationAvoidance and an Anthropogenic Toxin (Lead Pb) in a 

Wild Parrot (Kea: Nestor notabilis). A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of 

Wellington 

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in 

Ecology and Biodiversity. Victoria University of Wellington. New Zealand. 

Robertson, C.J.R., Hyvonen, P., Fraser, M.J., Pickard, D.R. 2007. Atlas of bird 

distribution in New Zealand. The Ornithological Society of New Zealand. Inc., 

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Sandell M , Smith HG. 1997. Female aggression in the European starling during 

the breeding season. Animal Behaviour 53: 1: p 13-23. 

Schoenecker B, Heller KE, Freimanis T. 2000. Development of stereotypies 

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laboratory-bred offspring. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 4: p 349-357. 

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Norton, D.A. 2008. New Zealand Threat Classification Manual. Science & 

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WAZA. 2005. Building a Future for Wildlife - The World Zoo and Aquarium 

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Woolcock, D. 2000. Husbandry and management of kea (Nestor notabilis)at 

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80 

9.0 Appendices 

9.1 Appendix 1- Internal Audit Document 

9.2 Appendix 2 – Important Links 

9.3 Appendix 3 – List of Appropriate Enclosure Materials 

9.4 Appendix 4 – Massey University (Huia) Wildlife Submission Form 

9.5 Appendix 5 – Quarantine Protocol 

9.6 Appendix 6 – Example of diet and feeding regime – Franklin Zoo 

9.7 Appendix 7 – Hand raising Techniques and Dietary Requirements (Woolcock, 

2000) 


81 

9.1 Appendix 1- Internal Audit Document 

This audit document has been developed to provide kea holders with a practical means to assess their facility standards 

in regards kea housing and husbandry and to aid them in moving towards the new minimum standards. The audit 

document is also a tool for Department of Conservation to ensure these standards are met within realistic timeframes 

whilst taking into account individual facilities annual fiscal planning requirements (where applicable ). 

KEA (Nestor Notabilis) 6 MONTHLY INTERNAL AUDIT 

Audit Dates: end of March and end of September 

Audit Date __________________________ Auditor/s signature__ ________________________________________ 

Operators signature 

Actions 

Corrective action/s 

from previous audit. 

Corrective action required from 

previous audit 

Comp 

leted 

y/n/na 


Comments Correction action 

still required

82 

General 

Husbandry 

Manual/Captive 

Management Plan 

Evidence required Comp 

leted 

To sight: the following: 

• Current documents accessible to 

kea staff 

• Documents signed off by kea staff 

DOC permit Current DOC permit sighted 

DOC (external) audit DOC (external) audit sighted 

y/n/na 

4.1 Housing Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action 


Comments Corrective action 

and date completed

83 

/environment 

standards 

General Display All birds are on public display unless: 

• In temporary holding facilities (up 

to 1 year); 

• Undergoing veterinary treatment; 

• Undergoing quarantine; 

• Involved in permitted research 

• Proven to have breeding difficulties 

on display (evidence required to be 

documented) 

• Held by private holders prior to 

2009 

4.1.2 Enclosure All birds held in public access enclosures 

Type 

are seen to have the following: 

• Well signed public barriers; 

• Safe double gating system; 

• Twice daily checks (on top of 

feeds). 

4.1.3 Size 

Kea held in enclosures of the following 

size per number of birds (except for 

quarantine/medical reasons): 

1 kea - 108m (e.g. 6Wx6Lx3m H) 

(evidence to be sighted as to 

justification for single holding (to be 

documented)) 

2 kea - 180m³ (e.g. 10x6x3m) 

3 kea - 312m³ (e.g. 13x8x3m) 

4 kea - 528m³ (e.g. 16mx11mx3m) 

5 kea - 798m³ (e.g. 19mx14mx3m). 

6 kea - 1122m³ (e.g. 22mx17mx3m) 

(Each additional kea = 3m³) 

Enclosure height to be a minimum of 

3 metres. 


and date completed

84 

4.1.4 Materials for 

housing 

4.1.5 

Shelter/screening 

Enclosure materials to be sighted are 

non-toxic, durable and of a strength to 

prevent containment breach by kea and 

entry of large vertebrate species. 

The following number of shelters, screens 

and barriers are sighted: 

• 1x undercover shelter area (approx 

1m²) per bird; 

• 2x animal visual barriers per 

enclosure for each pair of birds; 

• 2x human visual barriers per 

enclosure for each pair of birds. 

4.1.6 Water Water is seen to be accessible at all times 

as follows: 

• A main water source 1m² x 200 

mm deep to allow bathing. 

• An additional water bowl must be 

provided at all times at another 

location in the enclosure (unless a 

large water source can be 

accessed without threat by 

subordinate birds). 

4.1.7 Furnishings , 

vegetation and 

substrates 

A minimum of 3 different types of each 

are sighted in the enclosure as follows: 

• Movable substrates (1 of which is 

soil). 

• Ground vegetation (1 of which is 

grass). 

• Trees/shrubs. 

• Furniture (inclusive of rotten logs 

and perches). 


85 

4.1.8 Multi species 

exhibit 

(multi species 

exhibits to be 

approved by DOC) 

4.1.9 Enclosure 

Siting 

The following is seen to be evident in any 

enclosure which has different species: 

• All species are able to access 

species specific areas. 

• Acute and/or chronic aggressive 

interactions are not evident 

between species. 

• All species are seen to be in good 

physical health and exhibiting 

normal behaviours. 

• If exotic ungulate species (e.g. 

Thar, chamois, sheep)are held 

with kea, appropriate signage is 

provided to ensure correct 

advocacy message to public. 

Enclosure is seen to be sited in such a 

way that enables the following: 

• Sunlight: access to full sunlight for 

a portion of each day. 

• Shade: accessible in multiple 

outdoor locations at all times. 

• Airflow: throughout external 

enclosure areas only. 

• Moisture: no obvious build up of 

pathogens, fungus and slime 

however environment should not 

be arid. 

• Ambient Air Temperature: variable 

throughout the enclosure with 

adequate cool areas available at 

all times. 

• Variety of gradients. 

4.1.10 Security Enclosure is seen to fulfill the following 

security factors: 

• Materials are of a strength and 

quality that ensures containment. 


86 

4.2 Behavioural 

Enrichment 

• Locks and latches attached to all 

doors accessing the enclosure. 

• No public access areas clearly 

visible. 

• Public standoff barriers to 

boundary fence. 

• External perimeter boundary fence 

is present (if required by MAF). 

Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action 

and date completed 


87 

4.2.2 Behavioural 

needs 

4.2.3 Behavioural 

Enrichment 

Programme 

The following basic behavioural needs are 

seen to be catered for in the keas 

environment: 

Large flight area: a minimum of 1/3 rd of 

the enclosure area with perches to 

encourage flight between areas. 

A variety of perches of varying 

composition, levels, angles and stability 

between flight areas. 

A variety of complex large enclosure 

furniture pieces (rotting log/s, stream, 

trampers hut, ponga logs, climbing 

apparatus, rock wall/pile) which 

encourage manipulation. 

A minimum of two new browse or small 

furniture items introduced into the 

enclosure per week (substrate, logs, 

straw, human objects (tent/swandri etc). 

A minimum of two feeds per day 

presented in different ways (ie scatter 

versus main feed spread out in enclosure 

trays, furniture holes etc) to encourage 

foraging over an extended period of time. 

Daily (unpredictable) enrichment 

programme to be sighted which includes: 

A minimum of 1 item from 3 different 

types of enrichment per day (ie nutritional, 

occupational, physical/sensory or 

nutritional, social and occupational etc) on 

a rotational basis. 

4.3 Training and Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action 


88 

Conditioning and date completed 

4.3.2 Methods Evidence that positive reward techniques 

used only (no food or social deprivation). 

State evidence. 

Training conducted at least twice weekly 

for 5 -10mins/bird (or 30mins for a group 

of birds which ever is less) unless 

adequate reasons sighted e.g. Breeding 

season, quarantine bird etc. 

4.3.3 Relevance Training to include basic management 

techniques including stationing, body 

presentation, weighing and crating. 

4.3.4 Staff 

All other behaviours sought are seen to 

be relevant to captive management, to aid 

in behavioural research or to send 

important advocacy messages rather than 

for pure public entertainment value. 

Minimum of 2 staff trained in training 

methods to ensure continued training 

when primary trainer away. 

Up to date training records sighted 


89 

4.4 Social 

Structure 

General 

4.4.2 Life Stages 

and Gender 

Requirements 

Evidence required 

Kea are not held singly except in the 

following circumstances: 

• Where birds have been held singly 

for the entirety of their lives and 

are proven to be unable to be 

integrated with other kea (cite 

evidence) 

• Undergoing medical treatment 


y/n/na Comments Corrective action 


• Females: are housed in 

male/female pairs or in mixed sex 

exhibits with equal male/female 

ratio or more males than females 

represented where possible. If 

females are held in single sex 

groups, and until such time that 

evidence shows welfare is not 

compromised, birds should be be 

placed by the authority of the 

CMC, in facilities with appropriate 

expertise and standardised 

monitoring in place to ensure 

undesirable levels of aggression 

and/or stereotypies do not occur. 

Records to this effect must be 

documented. 

Juveniles: housed together in mixed sex 

situation where possible until sexual 

maturity at 3-4 years. Juveniles may also 

be housed with other sub-adults or adults. 

Current non-reproductive pairs: current 


90 

4.4.3 Development 

of new social 

groupings 

4.5 Health Care 

Standards 

4.5.1 Environmental 

hygiene and 

cleaning 

4.5.2 Health 

problems 

4.5.3 Preventative 

measures 

pairs engaged in normal pair behaviours 

should not be separated unless a 

particular bird is required for important 

pairing at another facility (justification for 

this required and evidenced). 

If introductions are taking place the 

following should be sighted: 

• Kea introductions are seen to take 

place in appropriate area as per 

introduction protocol. 

• Personnel monitoring introductions 

are experienced in procedures 

(name of person to be recorded). 

• Daily records are up to date. 


The following basic hygiene protocol is 

observed: 

• Daily cleaning of bowls. 

• Daily removal of gross matter in 

enclosures. 

• Cleaning of water sources (if not 

daily state reasons why not). 

All staff are seen to be aware of what 

constitutes behaviour indicative of ill 

health in kea (evidence to be stated). 

y/n/na Comments Corrective action 


Records of ill birds are reported to DCC’s 

Wildlife Database 


The following information to be sighted in 

daily and veterinary records: 

• Daily distance observations 


91 

4.5.4 Treatments 

and veterinary care 

4.5.5 Dead 

specimens 

4.5.6 Quarantine 

procedures 

4.5.7 

Handling/physical 

restraint 

• Weights 

• Quarterly worming regime 

• Enclosure checks 

Additionally: 

• All staff are aware of procedure in 

the event of a sick kea. 

• Any staff who come into contact 

with wild parrots must follow 

proper hygiene protocol to prevent 

cross contamination. 

• Any staff who come in contact with 

pet parrots at home must follow 

proper hygiene protocol as above. 

• All birds to have access to vet 

(contact name and details to be 

sighted). 

Sight records of any dead birds (the 

following information to be included): 

• Specimens to be sent to Massey 

University for full post mortem. 

• PM report to be sent to CMC and 

DOC. 

• Full reporting system to include 

cause of death, and physical, 

environmental and behavioural 

factors leading up to death 

Sighting of appropriate facilities 

quarantine procedures. 

Procedures for handling and restraint 

understood by kea staff. 


92 

4.5.8 Transport Sighting of transport procedure 

documentation to include the following: 

• Appropriate transport containers 

available 

• Compliance with IATA container 

requirements where relevant 

• DOC transfer permit 

• Appropriate hygiene protocol during 

transfer 

4.6 Feeding 

Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action and 

Standards 

date completed 

4.6.2 Toxic foods The following information to be 

sighted: 

• List of toxic species listed 

and signed off by staff. 

• List accessible to staff in 

appropriate area. 

4.6.3 Diet The following information to be 

sighted: 

• Diet sheet/s available to 

staff. 

• Foods should include all 

food groups as per 

minimum standards. 

• All food groups are 

represented daily in 

decreasing amounts. 

• Browse provided daily. 

• Kea weights recorded to 

monitor food intake as per 

training standards. 


93 

4.6.4 Presentation of 

food 

4.6.5 Seasonal 

requirements 

4.6.6 Food hygiene 

4.7 Reproductive 

Standards 

4.7.2 Forming new 

breeding pairs 

4.7.3 Nesting/breeding 

requirements 

Records to be sighted showing 

the following: 

• A minimum of 2 feeds per 

day (not including 

browse) presented in at 

least 2 different ways. 

• Food enrichment and 

browse is provided during 

and at the end of the day. 

Written evidence of 

supplementation during colder 

months/reproductive season etc. 

• All foods are stored 

appropriately to ensure 

they remain fresh and 

free of pests. 

• All food preparation 

areas are kept clean and 

hygienic. 


• Formation to be as per 

species coordinators 

recommendations. 

• Introduction of pairs to be 

monitored and 

documented by trained 

staff. 

The following is seen to occur for 

both breeding and non-breeding 

groups: 

• All enclosures are seen to 

y/n/na Comments Corrective action and 



94 

4.7.4 Requirements of 

young 

4.7.5 Methods of 

controlling breeding 

4.7.6 Breeding 

recommendations 

have appropriate nesting 

areas and material 

(tunnels, nest box, straw 

etc) available to their kea. 

• All nesting material 

(straw) checked to 

exclude mould spores 

• Breeding seen to occur 

with recommended pairs 

only 

• Non–breeding pairs have 

any eggs produced 

replaced with dummy 

eggs. 

• Young are parent raised. 

• Hand-rearing to occur 

only under specification of 

species coordinator. 

• Kea held in single sex 

groups (male only unless 

under observation 

(records to be sighted)). 

• Non –breeding pairs to 

have eggs removed and 

replaced with dummy 

eggs. 

• Breeding pairs to have 

eggs surplus to breeding 

requirements removed 

and replaced with dummy 

eggs. 

Facilities breeding their kea must 

show the following information: 

• CMC current 


95 

recommendation to breed 

and numbers of offspring 

allowed. 

5.0 Identification Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action and 


5.2 Individual ID To sight the following: 

• All kea are individually 

identified by band 

combinations as per DOC 

requirements and records 

sent to DOC. 

• ID records are current 

and entered onto relevant 

programme where 

possible (e.g. ARKS). 

5.3 Sexing methods 

• All kea hatched in captivity or 

brought in from the wild have 

been DNA feather sexed 

within four months. 

• All other kea are accurately 

sexed using morphological 

and behavioural methods. 

• Accurate records are 

maintained and sexing 

method recorded. 

6.0 Record Keeping Evidence required y/n/na Comments Corrective action and 


6.1 Individual kea Individual kea records to be 

records 

sighted and include the following: 

• Individual identifiers (e.g. 


96 

6.2 End of year report 

(to be completed by 7 th 

April) to cover the year 

April 1 st – 30 th March of 

the previous year. 

band numbers) 

• �Sex (if known) 

• Sexing method (if known) 

• �ID of parents (if known) 

• Origin (wild caught or 

birth/transfer facility) 

• �Hatch date (if known) 

• Facility arrival date 

• Facility departure date (if 

applicable) 

• Death date (if applicable) 

• Cause of death (if 

applicable and known) 

• Weights 

• Notes on when faecal (or 

other) samples were 

taken and the results. 

• �Notes on health problems 

and treatments offered (if 

applicable). 

• �Important behavioural 

notes. 

The following information to be 

sighted and signed off: 

• Records of kea hatches, 

deaths and transfers at 

your institution. 

• Numbers of eggs 

produced by each 

breeding pair and the fate 

of those eggs. 

• Confirmation that the 

transfers, releases and 

breeding 

recommendations made 

in the previous year’s 


97 

Annual Report and 

Recommendations (ARR) 

were achieved (or at least 

attempted). 

• �Information on planned 

holdings and requests for 

more (or less) birds 

The following information, although not part of the husbandry manual as a separate section, is a requirement of the permit 

application and as such is included in the audit. 

Advocacy 

Standards 

Advocacy Strategy 

Public information 


Facility kea advocacy strategy to 

be sighted and understood by 

keeping staff. 

y/n/na Comments Corrective action and 


At least one form of signage 

must be clearly visible at the 

enclosure which may include 

the following information; 

• Taxonomy and bio-data 

• Natural habitat and range 

• Population estimates 

• Why are kea held in 

captivity? 

• What are the wild issues? 

• What can the public do to 

help the species? 

• Links to outside 

organisations for more 

information (KCT, DOC) 


98 

Contacts: 

DOC Captive Management Coordinator(CMC) – Tony Pullar (DOC appointed) - tpullar@es.co.nz 

Zoo Aquarium Association (ZAA) members - Stephanie Behrens (ZAA Member Kea Contact) - 

steph@zooaquarium.org.au 


99 

9.2 Appendix 2 – Important Links 

• Captive Management Coordinator (CMC) (DOC appointed) – Tony Pullar 

Email: tpullar@es.co.nz 

• Department of Conservation (DOC) – www.doc.govt.nz 

• Kea Conservation Trust (KCT) – www.keaconservation.co.nz 

Email: n.notabilis@xtra.co.nz 

• ZAA Member Species Contact – Steph Behrens 

Email: steph@zooaquarium.org.au 

• Conservation Management Group (CMaG:ARAZPA NZ) – www.cmag.nz.org 

• World Association of Zoos and Aquaria (WAZA - (WZSACS)) – www.waza.org 

• Massey University Wildlife Database - http://www.doc.govt.nz/wildlifehealth 

• ZAA – www.arazpa.org.au 


100 

9.3 Appendix 3 – List of Appropriate Enclosure Materials 

* This section to be added to by holders 

Framing: 

Mesh: 

• Stainless steel mesh (used in Orana Parks walk through aviary) - 1.6 mm gauge with 

approximately 11 mm aperture. Locker Group (NZ) Ltd call free 0800 285 837; 

http://www.lockernz.co.nz/index.asp. (Orana Park enclosure details provided by 

Tara). 


101 

9.4 Appendix 4 – Massey University (Huia) Wildlife Submission Form 


102 

9.5 Appendix 5 – Quarantine Protocol 

Export 

Timeframe: 14 days 

Holding: 

As isolated as possible from rest of resident animals without compromising the animals 

welfare. 

Testing/examination: 

• 2 faecal tests, one week apart 

• Where possible, weights at beginning and end of isolation. 

• Where required, a physical exam by a vet. 

Barrier techniques: 

• Servicing of isolated animal(s) prior to servicing of other animals within the same 

Order (Psittaciformes). 

• Signage at all entrances to isolation enclosure clearly stating the isolation status, 

procedures required and authorised personnel. 

Import 

Timeframe: 30 days 

Holding: 

Within designated isolation enclosure separated from non-isolated animals by solid 

barrier or at least 3 meters. 

Testing/examination: 

• 2 faecal tests, two weeks apart 

• Where possible, weights at beginning and end of isolation. 

• Where required, a physical exam by a vet and standard blood screen. 

Barrier techniques: 

• Servicing of isolated animal(s) after servicing of other resident animals within the 

same Order (Psittaciformes). 

• Signage at all entrances to isolation enclosure clearly stating the isolation status, 

procedures required and authorised personnel. 

• Use of dedicated equipment within isolation area. 

• Dedicated boots to be used within isolation area (work boots to be left outside 

isolation area) 

• Where required by veterinary personnel, use of mask, overalls and gloves. 


103 

9.6 Appendix 6 – Example of diet and feeding regime (Franklin Zoo) 

Kea 2 birds daily: 1 Apple, 1 pear, 1 carrot, 1 corn cob, 1 banana (vary presentation from 

cut in quarters or whole). Additional seasonal fruit and vegetables keep aware of too 

many calories and high sugar foods (Kiwifruit, tree tomatoes, tomatoes, passion fruit, 

oranges, mango, pineapple etc) If birds are overweight use low GI fruit and Vegetables. 

For example remove the banana from fruit offering. 

1 cup of seed mix each at main feed (mid morning) and a half a cup each at a scatter 

feed either first thing in the morning or late afternoon (when kea most active). 

2 or 3 pieces of silver beet, or bunches of spinach, half or whole cabbage or lettuce. 

Useful as enrichment and low calorie. 

Daily protein in addition to seeds vary between following either 

• 3 roasted in shells peanuts cooked each 

• Selection of other raw nuts in shells or shelled (hazel, almond, walnut, brazil) 

• Bones with marrow and a small amount of meat on them ( 1- 2 x a week) 

• 10 mealworms or wax moth larvae ( 5 each) in enrichment (e.g. hidden in cabbage or 

in toy, ball, coconut) 

Browse 

Daily Pouha, willow, poplar rotten logs from safe trees. 

Additional calories if birds low weight or in very cold weather: 

• Whole meal bread toasted or plain one piece each 

• Meaty bones (beef, mutton- not chicken or pork) 

• Additional raw nuts 

Do not feed avocadoes, chocolate, onions, mushrooms, caffeine, dried beans or 

pulses. 

Seed mix recipe 

Kea and Parrots = 5 parts dove mix 1 Part Sunflower seeds 

Dove mix = 1 part sorghum, 1 part wheat, 1 part poultry pellets (laying with calcium), 1 

part mixed millet, 5 parts kibbled maize) 

Our Timetable is scatter feed at 7am, main feed at 10am, enrichment at 3pm (with food) 

Browse in afternoon. 

Additional foods can also be supplemented in small quantities: 

• Porridge 

• Yogurt 

• Nectar 


104 

9.7 Appendix 7 - Hand raising techniques (Woolcock, 2000) 

Method 

Eggs should be maintained in forced air incubators at 37.2 degrees C with an initial 

humidity of 50% which is reduced in accordance with decrease of mass of the egg over 

time. The incubation period is usually 23-26 days and the mean mass at hatch is 18.0g 

(range 15.5-20.53g). Kea chicks grow quickly and only require a high temperature of 30- 

35 degrees C in a heated brooder for a short period of time. The chicks hatch with a 

white down but quickly develop a dense dark down. This insulating layer is undoubtedly 

an asset in the high altitude wild habitat but in the warmth of a typical parrot rearing unit 

if the temperature is too high at this stage of development (c10-25 days) the chick may 

die. 

When the chicks reach c25-30 days of age they are transferred to a box measuring 

120cm x 60cm x 60cm high which has a dull emitter infra red lamp suspended over one 

end allowing the highly mobile chicks to select the part of the box which best meets their 

temperature requirements. 

Hand rearing diet (Woolcock, 2000) 

The diet fed to chicks has been developed over a number of years (J. Heath). The high 

levels of animal protein or fat which are present in a typical hand rearing diet which 

probably result in high levels of Clostirdium bacteria are not suitable for kea chicks. The 

diet developed by Heath takes this into account and comprises 250g Nectar blend, 250g 

Budgie Protein Food, 150g Fruit salad (infant dessert), 120g vegetable hotpot (infant 

dinner), one level tsp Ace-High, one level tsp Nutorbal and 3 level tsps Avipro Paediatric. 

It is also possible to use EMP or CEDE eggfood or a similar parakeet rearing food with 

or instead of the Nectarblend and/or Budgei Protein Food becahse they all contain c. 

16% protein. The vegetable Hotpot (infant dinner) has a suitable protein content for this 

hand rearing diet but if other products are used in its place the protein should comprise 

at least 18% of the dry mix (4.7% wet mix) for most parrot chicks although this may be 

less important for kea. Wathever mix is provided it is important that vegetable rather than 

animal protein is used. To prepare the diet the Nectarblend, Budgie food, and infant 

foods are sieved and the residual coarse material is ground to a powder in a coffee 

grinder. The powder is sieved again and any carse material remaining is discarded. The 

powder and the Ace High, Nutrobal and Avipro Paediatric are mixed thoroughly and 

stored in a sealed plythene container at 4 degrees C. The feed is prepared by mixing 

about 2 parts powder with 4 parts warm water at 40 degrees C. The mixture is fed until 

the crop is 2/3rds to 3/4s full. The first few feeds after hatching the mixture must be 

extremely watery but after the first 2 days it can be slightly thicker. Any unused food 

should be discarded. When the chicks are c. 15-20 days old the initial mixture can be 

supplemented with 250g hulled sunflower seed and flower kernels, 125g sesame seed 

and 62.5g hulled pumpkin kernels and this mix may be offered until the chicks are 

weaned. Since 1996 Pretty bird 19/8 hand rearing formula has been fed to the chicks at 

7 days of age with no detrimental effects. However attempts to feed this diet from 

hatching have resulted in problems with crop clearing and the subsequent death of 

chicks. 


105 

Adult kea have been observed taking food in the nest box well before the chicks are 

ready to fledge and therefore hand reared chicks are offered seeds and fruit at 6-7 

weeks of age. 

Weaning 

Weaning is comparatively straightforward and can usually be accomplished in 14-21 

days if chicks have access to seeds and fruit. If they do not weaning can take up to 6 

weeks. Weaning has also been encouraged by maintaining the chick with an 

independent kea which can act as a teacher. Chicks are fully feathered at 9 weeks. 

Young kea will exhibit a begging response for up to 6 months after weaning when they 

see a familiar person. At the end of the season the young are introduced into a 

communal aviary with the adults.

(Nestor notabilis) Husbandry Manual - Kea Conservation Trust

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