Untitled - Gradina Botanica Iasi

CUPRINS 

IFRIM CAMELIA – Aspecte privind morfologia şi particularităţile germinaţiei seminţelor la 

câţiva taxoni ai genului Silene L. ......................................................................................... 5 

SEDCENCO MARIA, CIORCHINĂ NINA, CLAPA DOINA, FIRA ALEXANDRU – 

Conservarea speciei Bellevalia sarmatica (Georgi) Woronov prin metoda cultivării in 

vitro ...................................................................................................................................... 11 

CIORCHINĂ NINA, ONICA ELISAVETA, ROŞCA ION, DUMITRAŞ ADELINA, CLAPA 

DOINA, FIRA AL. –Biologia propagării speciei Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. ....... 17 

MARDARI CONSTANTIN, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN, DRAGHIA LUCIA, BÎRSAN CIPRIAN – 

Unele aspecte referitoare la cultivarea speciei cu valoare decorativă Aconitum degenii 

Gáyer .................................................................................................................................... 27 

LACZI ENIKŐ, APAHIDEAN ALEXANDRU SILVIU – Cercetări privind introducerea în 

cultură a unei specii legumicole puţin cunoscute, în zona Podişului Transilvaniei; 

posibilitatea cultivării verzei chinezeşti primăvara devreme în câmp .................................. 33 

ANDRO ANCA-RALUCA, BOZ IRINA, PĂDURARIU CLAUDIA, ATOFANI DOINA, COISIN 

MAGDA, ZAMFIRACHE MARIA-MAGDALENA – Cercetări biochimice şi fiziologice 

comparative la taxoni ai genului Mentha L. ............................................................................. 41 

ADUMITRESEI LIDIA, ZAMFIRACHE MARIA MAGDALENA, OLTEANU ZENOVIA, 

BOZ IRINA – Observaţii privind pigmenţii asimilatori foliari la trandafiri spontani şi 

cultivaţi ................................................................................................................................ 47 

BALAEŞ TIBERIUS, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN – Interrelaţii între sistemele micorizante şi 

organismele din sol .............................................................................................................. 55 

SHARDA W. KHADE – Caracteristici noi pentru morfotaxonomia speciilor de Gigaspora 

aparţinând ciupercilor micorizante arbusculare .................................................................... 71 

MANOLIU ALEXANDRU, IRIMIA ROMEO, MIRCEA CORNELIA, ŞPAC ADRIAN – 

Compoziţia de uleiuri volatile extrase din frunze de Abies alba Miller parazitate de 

Melampsorella caryophyllacearum (DC.) J. Schröt. ............................................................ 81 

ŞENILĂ MARIN, ŞENILĂ LĂCRIMIOARA, ROMAN CECILIA – Evaluarea parametrilor de 

performanţă pentru analiza elementelor în urme din plante perene utilizând tehnica ICP- 

OES ...................................................................................................................................... 87 

RADU MIHAI-IULIAN, ŞESAN TATIANA-EUGENIA – Contribuţii la studiul biodiversităţii 

macromicetelor din pădurea Bolintin Deal – Giurgiu, România .......................................... 95 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE – Galium ruthenicum Willd. în flora României ......................................... 103 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE – Variabilitatea speciei Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. .... 105 

IONIŢA OLGA – Genul Pilosella Hill. în flora Basarabiei ............................................................. 109 

CANTEMIR VALENTINA, NEGRU ANDREI, STEPHYRTSA ANA – Poziţia taxonomică şi 

distribuţia speciei Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz. (Ranunculaceae Juss.) în Basarabia ..... 117 

SÎRBU CULIŢĂ, OPREA ADRIAN, ELIÁŠ PAVOL jun., FERUS PETER – O nouă contribuţie 

la studiul florei adventive din România ................................................................................ 121 

PRASAD P. RAMA CHANDRA – Analiza ecologică a familiei Dipterocarpaceae în 

ecosistemele forestiere din Andaman, India ......................................................................... 135 

DEREVENKO TATIANA – Conservarea ex situ a speciei Saussurea porcii Degen. în Grădina 

Botanică a Universităţii Naţionale Y. Fedkovych ................................................................ 151

POONAM BISHT, PRATTI PRASAD, BHAGWATI PRASAD NAUTIYAL – Polygonatum 

verticillatum (Linn.) All. şi Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle: două specii din 

Asthaverga ameninţate în Garhwal Himalaya, India ............................................................ 159 

POP (BOANCĂ) PĂUNIŢA IULIANA, DUMITRAŞ ADELINA, SINGUREANU VALENTIN, 

CLAPA DOINA, MAZĂRE GEORGEL – Rolul ecologic şi estetic al florei spontane în 

dezvoltarea peisajelor sustenabile urbane ................................................................................. 169 

AABID RASOOL ZARGAR, MEHRAJ A. SHEIKH, MUNESH KUMAR – Încălzirea globală: 

implicaţii şi măsuri de adaptare preventive .......................................................................... 179 

Aniversalia ........................................................................................................................................ 191 

Recenzii ............................................................................................................................................ 193 

Ghid către autori ............................................................................................................................... 195

CONTENTS 

IFRIM CAMELIA – Aspects regarding seeds morfology and germination peculiarities at some 

taxa from Silene L. genera .................................................................................................... 5 

SEDCENCO MARIA, CIORCHINĂ NINA, CLAPA DOINA, FIRA ALEXANDRU – The 

conservation of species Bellevalia sarmatica (Georgi) Woronov by the vitroculture 

method .................................................................................................................................. 11 

CIORCHINĂ NINA, ONICA ELISAVETA, ROŞCA ION, DUMITRAŞ ADELINA, CLAPA 

DOINA, FIRA AL. – The biology of the propagation of species Schisandra chinensis 

(Turcz.) Baill. ....................................................................................................................... 17 

MARDARI CONSTANTIN, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN, DRAGHIA LUCIA, BÎRSAN CIPRIAN – 

Some aspects regarding the cultivation of species with decorative value Aconitum degenii 

Gáyer .................................................................................................................................... 27 

LACZI ENIKŐ, APAHIDEAN ALEXANDRU SILVIU – Research regarding the introduction of 

a least known vegetable species in culture, in transylvanian tableland area; The possibility 

of cultivating chinese cabbage in early spring in open field ................................................. 33 

ANDRO ANCA-RALUCA, BOZ IRINA, PĂDURARIU CLAUDIA, ATOFANI DOINA, COISIN 

MAGDA, ZAMFIRACHE MARIA-MAGDALENA – Comparative biochemical and 

physiological research on taxa of Mentha L. genus ................................................................... 41 

ADUMITRESEI LIDIA, ZAMFIRACHE MARIA MAGDALENA, OLTEANU ZENOVIA, 

BOZ IRINA – Observations on the foliar assimilating pigments content for wild and 

garden roses .......................................................................................................................... 47 

BALAEŞ TIBERIUS, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN – Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and 

soil organisms ...................................................................................................................... 55 

SHARDA W. KHADE – New characteristics for morphotaxonomy of Gigaspora species 

belonging to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ........................................................................... 71 

MANOLIU ALEXANDRU, IRIMIA ROMEO, MIRCEA CORNELIA, ŞPAC ADRIAN – 

Composition of the volatile oil extracted from Abies alba Miller leaves parasitized by 

Melampsorella caryophyllacearum (DC.) J. Schröt. ............................................................ 81 

ŞENILĂ MARIN, ŞENILĂ LĂCRIMIOARA, ROMAN CECILIA – Evaluation of performance 

parameters for trace elements analysis in perennial plants using ICP-OES technique ......... 87 

RADU MIHAI-IULIAN, ŞESAN TATIANA-EUGENIA – Contribution to the macromycetes 

biodiversity from Bolintin Deal forest – Giurgiu, Romania ................................................. 95 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE – Galium ruthenicum Willd. in flora of Romania ...................................... 103 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE – The variability of Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. ....... 105 

IONIŢA OLGA – Pilosella Hill genus in the Bessarabia`s flora ...................................................... 109 

CANTEMIR VALENTINA, NEGRU ANDREI, STEPHYRTSA ANA – Taxonomical position 

and distribution of Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz. (Ranunculaceae Juss.) species in the 

Bessarabia ............................................................................................................................ 117 

SÎRBU CULIŢĂ, OPREA ADRIAN, ELIÁŠ PAVOL jun., FERUS PETER – New contribution 

to the study of alien flora in Romania .................................................................................. 121 

PRASAD P. RAMA CHANDRA – Ecological analysis of Dipterocarpaceae of North Andaman 

forest, India ................................................................................................................................. 135 

DEREVENKO TATIANA – Ex situ conservation of Saussurea porcii Degen. in Y. Fedkovych 

National University Botanic Garden .................................................................................... 151

POONAM BISHT, PRATTI PRASAD, BHAGWATI PRASAD NAUTIYAL – Polygonatum 

verticillatum (Linn.) All. and Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle: two threatened 

vital healers from asthaverga nurtured by Garhwal Himalaya, India ................................... 159 

POP (BOANCĂ) PĂUNIŢA IULIANA, DUMITRAŞ ADELINA, SINGUREANU VALENTIN, 

CLAPA DOINA, MAZĂRE GEORGEL – Ecological and aesthetic role of spontaneous 

flora in urban sustainable landscapes development ................................................................... 169 

AABID RASOOL ZARGAR, MEHRAJ A. SHEIKH, MUNESH KUMAR – Global warming: 

implications and anticipatory adaptive measures ................................................................. 179 

Aniversalia ........................................................................................................................................ 191 

Book reviews .................................................................................................................................... 193 

Guide to authors ............................................................................................................................... 195

J. Plant Develop. 

18(2011): 5-10 

5 

IFRIM CAMELIA 

ASPECTS REGARDING SEEDS MORFOLOGY AND 

GERMINATION PECULIARITIES AT SOME TAXA FROM 

SILENE L. GENERA 

IFRIM CAMELIA 1 

Abstract: Genus Silene L. is represented in the Romanian flora by 37 taxa that have different uses or an 

endemic species status. Highlighting morphological features of the seeds using light microscope 

provides very useful information in clarifying some taxonomic issues, but also in setting up a useful 

database for germplasm preservation. Regarding the germination, of interest were germination 

percentage and germination speed, plantlets development, the occurrence of the first pair of leaves, 

etc. The monitoring this process shows that differences between taxa occur in the early stages of 

development. 

Key words: Silene, seeds morphology, germination 

Introduction 

Genus Silene L. is represented in Romanian flora by 37 herbaceous perennial 

species; some of them have of medicinal importance (eg. S. vulgaris (Moench) Garcke), 

others have decorative uses (eg. S. acaulis (L.) Jacq.), and S. dinarica Sprengel has the 

status of endemic species to southern Carpathians [CIOCÂRLAN, 2000]. Information on 

seed morphology in the description of the Romanian flora species is in some cases 

incomplete (S. viscosa) or missing altogether (S. latifolia subsp. alba, S. nutans subsp. 

dubia) [PRODAN, 1953]; for species such as S. latifolia, S. nutans, S. vulgaris more details 

are provided in the synthesis works [ДОБРОХОТОВ, 1961]. Thorough knowledge of 

structural features is very useful in clarifying taxonomic issues (especially for a botanical 

fragmentary material), in preparation for seed storage in germplasm banks or to identify 

seeds found in archaeological sites [BAŞLI & al. 2009, GÜNER & al. 2009]. 

The study of seed germination provides information on germination rate and speed 

which is useful for cultivating medicinal and decorative taxa or for monitoring invasive 

plant [BLAIR, 2004]. Differences in plantlet morphology arose interest from a theoretical 

point of view [CSAPODY, 1968; ВАСИЉЧЕНКО, 1965], but they also have practical use 

in agriculture [CIOCÂRLAN, 1975]. 

Material and methods 

The material used in this paper consists of the seeds from seven taxa of the genus 

Silene, collected in 2009. The spontaneous taxa come from different locations in Romania, 

as follows: Făgăraş Mountains, Sibiu County (Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq. subsp. acaulis, 

Silene dinarica Sprengel); Iaşi, Iaşi County (Silene latifolia Poir. subsp. alba (Miller) 

Greuter & Burdet, Silene viscosa (L.) Pers., Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke subsp. 

1 

“Anastasie Fătu” Botanic Garden, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Dumbrava Roşie, no. 7-9, Iaşi – 

Romania, e-mail: camicris@yahoo.com

ASPECTS REGARDING SEEDS MORFOLOGY AND GERMINATION PECULIARITIES AT SOME … 

vulgaris); Rarău Mountains, Suceava County (Silene nutans L. subsp. dubia (Herbich) 

Zapal); Broşteni, Suceava County (Silene nutans L. subsp. nutans). 

For germination study 100 seeds were selected from each taxon and were placed in 

Petri dishes on filter paper moistened with water and maintained under controlled 

conditions (21 °C) in the climate chamber in the dark for 35 days (May 27, 2011 - June 29, 

2011). All stages of germination were observed, the cracking of the seedcoat, the 

emergence of root, the cotyledons, and the first three pairs of leaves. Relevant images 

observed with binocular magnifier were photographed using Canon A540 camera. 

The study was conducted in the Laboratory of micropropagation and germplasm 

preservation of the Botanical Garden, University “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi. 

Results and discussions 

Most of the seeds of species of the genus Silene are of reniform type, but 

observation of macro-and micromorphology characteristics of the testa show differences 

from one taxon to another. Seed features description was made by well established 

parameters used in the literature [FAWZI & al. 2010]. Macromorphological issues pursued 

were: shape, color, lateral surface and dorsal surface of the seed. Micromorphological 

features of the testa cells in a frontal view were the outline and shape of the anticline and 

lateral walls (Fig. 2 A-G). A summary of the light microscope observations is shown in 

Tab. 1. 

Taxa 

Silene acaulis 

(L.) Jacq. 

subsp. acaulis 

Silene latifolia 

Poir. subsp. 

alba (Miller) 

Greuter & 

Burdet 

Silene dinarica 

Sprengel 

Silene nutans 

L. subsp. dubia 

(Herbich) Zapal 

Silene nutans 

L. subsp. 

nutans 

Silene viscosa 

(L.) Pers. 

Silene vulgaris 

(Moench) 

Garcke subsp. 

vulgaris 

Tab. 1. Macro- and micromorphological features for 7 taxa of genus Silene 

Seed 

shape 

Seed 

colour 

Lateral 

surface 

Dorsal 

surface 

reniform brown concave convex 

6 

Testa cell 

outline 

elongated 

polygonal 

Anticlinali 

walls 

reniform brown convex convex polygonal V-undulated 

reniform brown flat convex 

elongated 

polygonal 

Periclinal walls 

S-undulated flat, smooth 

convex, with 

tubercle in the 

central area 

S-undulated convex 

reniform brown flat convex polygonal V-undulated 

reniform brown flat convex polygonal V-undulated 

reniform brown flat 

reniform 

-circular 

brown 

flatconcav 

flatconvex 

flatconvex 

polygonal V-undulated 

polygonal V-undulated 

convex, with 


central area 

convex, with 


central area 

convex, with 


central area 

convex, with 


central area

A B C 

IFRIM CAMELIA 

D E F 

G 

Fig. 1. Seed macromorphology for 7 taxa of genus Silene. 

A – S. acaulis, B – S. latifolia subsp. alba, C – S. dinarica, 

D – S. nutans subsp. dubia, E – S. nutans subsp. nutans, 

F – S. viscosa, G – S. vulgaris 

Observation of the general appearance of the seeds highlights the species Silene 

acaulis for which the impression of smoothness is due to the fact that the grooves next to 

the anticline wall are shallow and lacking the tubercles on the anticline walls of the testa 

cells. The arrangement of cells on the surface of the testa shows an ordering in concentric 

and parallel rows for S. acaulis, S. dinarica, S. nutans subsp. dubia, S. nutans subsp. nutans 

and S. vulgaris (Fig. 1 A, C, D, E, G), concentric, but not parallel in S. latifolia subsp. alba 

(Fig. 1 B) and unordered in S. viscosa (Fig. 1 G). 

Testa cell are approximately the same size across the seed’s surface for S. latifolia 

subsp. alba and S. viscosa, while for the other taxa it changes from outside towards the 

hilum by tangential elongation. The hilum is embedded in S. acaulis and S. dinarica, while 

for the remaining taxa hilum is prominent. 

The structure of the seed’s testa is of practical “strategic” relevance being closely 

related to the functions it must fulfil: protection, dissemination and water absorption. The 

detailed morphological study highlights the theoretical importance of the seeds, as their 

characteristics can serve as diagnosis tools for taxonomic problems. 

7


A 

A B B 

D E 

F 

G Fig. 2. Seed micromorphology for 7 taxa of genus Silene. 

A – S. acaulis, B – S. dinarica, C – S. latifolia subsp. alba, 

D – S. nutans subsp. dubia, E – S. nutans subsp. nutans, 

F – S. viscosa, G – S. vulgaris 

Ongoing monitoring of the germinating seeds shows differences in the germination 

rate and speed of the seeds [INDREA, 2007]. Since the seeds were collected during 2009, a 

low germination rate was expected, but the results show that it varied widely, from 82% in 

Silene vulgaris, to 52% for S. acaulis and 8% for S. nutans subsp dubia. Germination speed 

showed very large variations, being high (5 days) in S. vulgaris and S. acaulis, but reduced 

(10 days) in S. nutans subsp. dubia (Fig. 3). 

The occurrence of the first pair of leaves was observed after 18 days in S. acaulis 

and S. latifolia subsp. alba, but only after 25 days in S. nutans subsp. dubia. The daily 

observations of the evolution process of germination showed a uniform germination in S. 

viscosa and uneven for S. acaulis. This latter taxon had individuals at very different stages 

of germination towards the end of the experiment (Fig. 4). 

Comparison of morphological characteristics of the first pair of leaves reveals 

notable differences from one taxon to another. Thus, the leaf shape is linear-lanceolate in S. 

8 

E 

C

IFRIM CAMELIA 

acaulis, ovate la S. latifolia subsp. alba and S. vulgaris, obovate in S. viscosa; the tip of the 

leaf is acuminate in S. acaulis and rounded in most taxa. The most significant differences 

concern the distribution, number, shape and size of trichomes (Fig. 5) on the leaf surface. 

Number of germinated seeds 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Graphical representation of the speed of germination 

31.05.2011 

01.06.2011 

02.06.2011 

03.06.2011 

04.06.2011 

05.06.2011 

06.06.2011 

07.06.2011 

08.06.2011 

09.06.2011 

10.06.2011 

Date of germination 

Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq. 

subsp. acaulis 

Silene latifolia Poir. subsp. 

alba (Miller) greuter & Burdet 

Silene dinarica Sprengel 

Silene nutans L. subsp. 

dubia (Herbich) Zapal 

Silene nutans L. subsp. 

nutans 

Silene viscosa (L.) Pers. 

Silene vulgaris (Moench) 

Garcke subsp. vulgaris 

Fig. 3. Graphical representation of the speed of germination for seven taxa of genus Silene 

A B 

C D 

Fig. 4. Silene acaulis, June 29, different stages of germination. A – root appearance, B – cotyledons 

appearance, C – appearance of first pair of leaves, D – plantlet with three pairs of leaves 

9


E 

F 

Fig. 5. Morphological characteristics of the first pair of leaves for: 

E – Silene acaulis, F – S. latifolia subsp. alba, G – S. viscosa, H – S. vulgaris 

Conclusions 

Macro- and micromorphological study of the seeds of 7 taxa of the genus Silene may 

provide diagnostic characteristics information useful in solving taxonomy problems. 

The evolution of germination process varies from one taxa to another and observed 

features can be used for obtaining biological material for medicinal, ornamental or 

ecological restoration use. 

Morphology of seedlings (especially the leaves) highlights the differences between taxa 

from the early stages of development, which is useful in the case of invasive plants or weeds. 

References 

1. BLAIR A. C. & WOLFE L. M. 2004. The evolution of an invasive plant: An experimental study with Silene 

latifolia. Ecology, 85(11): 3035-3042. 

2. BAŞLI G. A., GYULAI G., TÓTH Z., GÜNER A., SZABÓ Z., MURENYETZ L., YASHINA S. G., 

STAKHOV V. I., HESZKY L. & GUBIN S. V. 2009. Light and scanning electron microscopic analysis of 

Silene stenophylla seeds excavated from Pleistocene-Age (Kolyma). Anadolu Univ. J. Sci. Technol., 10(1): 

161-167. 

3. CIOCÂRLAN V. 2000. Flora ilustrată a României, Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta. Bucureşti: Edit. Ceres, 1138 pp. 

4. CIOCÂRLAN V., CHIRILĂ C. & BADEA I. 1975. Determinator de buruieni. Bucureşti: Edit. Ceres, 147 pp. 

5. CSAPODY V. 1968. Keimlings-bestimmungsbuch der Dikotyledonen. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest. 

6. ДОБРОХОТОВ В. Н. 1961. Семена сорных растений. Издат. Сельхозиздат, Москва. 

7. FAWZI N. M., FAWZI A. M. & MOHAMED A. A. 2010. Seed morphological studies on some species of Silene 

L. (Caryophyllaceae). Int. J. Bot., 6(3): 287-292. 

8. GÜNER A., GYULAI G., TÓTH Z., BAŞLI G. A., SZABÓ Z., GYULAI F., BITTSÁNSZKY A., WATERS L. 

JR & HESZKY L. 2009. Grape (Vitis vinifera) seeds from antiquity and the Middle Ages excavated in 

Hungary-LM and SEM analysis. Anadolu Univ. J. Sci. Technol., 10(1): 205-213. 

9. INDREA D. (coord.). 2007. Cultura legumelor. Bucureşti: Edit. Ceres, 607 pp. 

10. PRODAN I. 1953. Caryophylaceae. În Flora R.P.R., vol. II. Bucureşti: Edit. Acad. R.P.R. 

11. ВАСИЉЧЕНКО И. Т. 1965. Определитељ всходов сорњх растений. Издат. Колос, Ленинград. 

10 

G 

H


18(2011): 11-15 

SEDCENCO MARIA, CIORCHINĂ NINA, CLAPA DOINA, FIRA ALEXANDRU 

THE CONSERVATION OF SPECIES BELLEVALIA SARMATICA 

(GEORGI) WORONOV BY THE VITROCULTURE METHOD 

SEDCENCO MARIA 1 , CIORCHINĂ NINA 1 , CLAPA DOINA 2 , FIRA ALEXANDRU 2 

Abstract: In vitro bulbification is a method by which bulb formation is stimulated and speeded up in the species 

that are propagated by bulbs and which need, in the conditions of a classicel culture, a longer period 

for the formation of flower-bearing bulbs. In this article, the results of research is presented, 

regarding the conservation, multiplication and maintenance of this vulnerable species included in the 

Red Book of the Republic of Moldova. This study was carried out in order to re-introduce this 

species into its native habitats. Optimal media were elaborated for the initiation, multiplication, 

rhyzogenesis and the maintenance of this species in in vitro conditions. 

Keywords: conservation, in vitro, multiplication, auxins, cytokinins 

Introduction 

One of the present problems of contemporary botany is the elaboration of 

strategies for the conservation of the diversity of plant species that are in danger of 

extinction. 

The most successful strategy for long-term protection of biodiversity is the 

protection and conservation of the phytocenoses and the populations of the spontaneous 

flora – in situ maintenance. But many rare species have reached a certain limit and in situ 

conservation alone does not solve the problems of protection against the more and more 

frequent anthropogenic factors. In such circumstances the most successful method for the 

prevention of the extinction of the species is the maintenance and multiplication of the 

respective taxon in artificial conditions that are similar to the natural conditions. 

The introduction of the rare and endangered species into culture ensures 

conservation, facilitates the study of their biology and development, their ecology, methods 

for propagation and, at the same time, ensures the obtention, conservation and cultivation of 

planting material and seeds. These methods are of elementary importance for the 

repatriation (reintroduction) of these species into their natural ecological niches. The 

conservation of intact plant populations and phytocenoses and genetic biodiversity of the 

species in botanical gardens offers a multitude of means for the increase of the number of 

taxa. 

The main and stringent problem related to the conservation of some species is the 

elaboration of the strategy that should stop the diminishing of the populations of the 

endangered taxons. More and more scientists have the opinion that the biotechnological 

methods are extremely efficient for the improvement of the situation, as compared to the 

traditional methods of regeneration. Many rare species from the spontaneous flora of the 

1 

The Botanical Garden (Institute) of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chişinău – Republic of Moldova, 

e-mail: m.s.84@mail.ru 

2 

The Fruit Research Station Cluj, Cluj-Napoca – Romania 

11

THE CONSERVATION OF SPECIES BELLEVALIA SARMATICA (GEORGI) WORONOV BY ... 

Republic of Moldova are continuously diminishing because of human activities that lead to 

the destruction of plant populations and the expansion of invasive species. Bellevalia 

sarmatica (Georgi) Woronov is a bulbous decorative species from the steppe included into 

the Red Book of the R. of Moldova, protected by the State [NEGRU, 2002]. Until recently, 

the steppe areas occupied 2/3 of the entire territory of Moldova. Presently, the natural 

steppe populations are maintained as some small territories as areas protected by the State 

[TELEUŢĂ, 2002]. 

The use of in vitro cultures is in itself a conservation method, representing a viable 

and efficient alternative for the protection and maintenance of the genetic fund of rare and 

endangered species. In bulbous species the increased concentrations of sucrose lead to the 

more rapid growth of the explants, such reducing the time necessary for the obtention of 

bulbs and the period until the flowering phase [TAKUO & KOJI, 2004]. 

The aim of the present study was the testing of the reaction in in vitro culture of 

the explants prelevated from a mature Bellevalia sarmatica plant in order to initiate tissue 

cultures for the medium-term conservation of this species and the induction of the 

regeneration process for the obtention of viable plants. 


The material used for in vitro culture consisted of flower-bearing bulb explants 

taken from mature Bellevalia sarmatica plants that were collected in the Budjac 

Reservation in June 2010. 

One of the main conditions for successful microcloning is the sterilization of the 

explant [CAVALLINI & al. 1987]. The explants prelevated from the donor material (bulb, 

bulb fragments) were washed under running tap water for 15 minutes. The pre-sterilization 

was carried aut in a solution of KMnO4 (0.05%) + Tween-20 for 10 minutes. Sterilization 

was done with diacid (0.01%) solution for 6-7 minutes, followed by 3 rinses with sterile 

distilled water. After the disinfection of plant material, the explants were inoculated on the 

culture media, in large or small flasks depending on the size of the prelevated fragments, so 

as the newly formed bulbs should have enough space for development. 

For the study of the reactivity of this species in in vitro culture, several variants of 

culture media were tested, all of them with the macro- and microelements according to the 

MS [MURASHIGE & SCOOG, 1962] formula, presented in Tab. 1. 

The introduction into in vitro culture was done in nutritive media with various 

concentrations of plant hormones. For the initiation of in vitro cultures, media with low 

concentrations of auxins and cytokinins were tested (variants B-1, B-2, B-3). For rapid bulb 

development and root formation two variants of media were tested (B-6, B-9). As carbon 

source, sucrose was used. All the culture media were gelled with 6 g/l agar. The pH of the 

media was adjusted to 5.8 before autoclavation. 


The first evident observations were done after 4 weeks, when it was found that a 

large number of explants generated small protuberances, similar to 0.5 mm bulbils. 

The testing of the three variants of media for culture initiation (Tab. 1) 

evidentiated the fact that the optimal medium for this phase was the one that contained MS 

(1962) macro- and microelements as basal medium and 1.0 mg/l–6-benzylamilopurine 

12


(BAP) and 0.25 mg/l - α-naphtylacetic acid (NAA) and 30 g/l sucrose (B-1). After 6 weeks 

of culture, 10-12 bulbs/explant were obtained, with a diameter of about 3.0 mm (Fig. 1, a). 

On the B-2 medium, with a lower BAP concentration (0.5 mg/l) feweer bulbs fewer bulbs 

were formed (7-9 bulbs/explant). Regeneration also took place on the medium with Kinetin 

(B-3), but in a lower percentage (4-6 bulbils/explant). The first de novo regenerated bulbils 

on this medium were noticed after 8 weeks in culture. This fact demonstrates that the 

presence of BAP leads to a better growth of isolated tissues and better organogenesis as 

compared to the variants with Kinetin [VOINOV & al. 2009] 

The bulbs obtained were transferred onto culture media with higher concentrations 

of plant hormones and sucrose. On the media with increased concentration of sucrose a 

more rapid growth of bulbils was observed and there the bulbs had the largest diameters, of 

14-17 mm. After two weeks of culture on B-6, B-9 media the bulbs formed roots and 

leaves. Between the two variants of media, B-6 and B-9 there were no significant 

differences regarding growth and organogenesis, so that for this stage the B-6 medium with 

60 g/l sucrose can be recommended (Fig. 1, b). 

The bulbs that were regenerated in vitro were acclimated ex vitro and successfully 

transferred to ex vitro conditions. Acclimatization was carried aut in conditions of 

controlled climate regarding humidity and temperature, in peat and perlite mixture, for 14 

days. The survival rate was of 100% and plant growth and development continued. 

The results obtained in this species are promising, so the method of vitrocultures 

will be extended for other important and endangered taxons from the spontaneous flora, 

which is constantly diminishing and necessitates protection. 

Conclusions 

On the basis of our research we can conclude that: 

For the sterilization of plant material (bulbs) for the initiation of in vitro culture of 

species Bellevalia sarmatica (Georgi) Woronow it is recommended to use disinfection with 

KMnO4 (0.05%) + Tween-20 for 10 minutes and diacid (0.01%) solution for 6-7 minutes. 

On the basal MS medium supplemented with BАP and NAA at the concentrations 

of 1.0 mg/l and respectively 0.25 mg/l the best results were obtained regarding the 

efficiency of microcloning and morphogenic potential. 

The optimal medium for rhyzogenesis and rapid growth was MS basal medium 

supplemented with BАP (1.0 mg/l), NAA (1.0 mg/l) and sucrose at the concentration of 60 g/l. 

For the acclimation of bulbs the optimal conditions were found and the time for 

flower-bearing bulb formation was reduced with 1-2 years. 

The protocol for micropropagation and medium-term maintenance in in vitro culture 

can be successfully used for the conservation of the endangered species Bellevalia sarmatica 

(Georgi) Woronow. Applying this method ensures the possibility of obtaining homogenous 

planting material in large amounts in a short period of time and in limited space. 

Acknowledgements 

This work was supported by ANCS Romania, project number 425/2010, Bilateral 

Cooperations. 

13

THE CONSERVATION OF SPECIES BELLEVALIA SARMATICA (GEORGI) WORONOV BY ... 

References 

1. NEGRU A., ŞABANOV G. & al. 2002. Plantele rare din flora spontana a Republicii Moldova. CE USM, 

Chişinău. 

2. TELEUŢĂ A. 2002. Strategia Naţională şi planul de acţiune în domeniul conservării diversităţii biologice, 

Republica Moldova Chişinău. 

3. TAKUO F. & KOJI N. 2004. Rapid Production of Lilium auratum Bulbs from Zygotic Embryos. Asia Pacific 

Journal of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 12: 39-42. 

4. Н. А. ВОЙНОВ, Т. Г. ВОЛОВА и др. 2009. Современные проблемы и методы биотехнологии. 

Красноярск ИПК СФУ, Стр. 415 pp. 

5. CAVALLINI A., LUPI M. C., CREMONINI R. & BENNICI A. 1987. In vitro culture of Bellevalia romana 

(L.) Rchb. Protoplasma: 66-70. 

6. MURASHIGE T. & SCOOG. F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue 

culture. Physiol. Plant, 15: 473-497. 

14


Tab. 1. The composition of the nutritive media for the microclonal propagation of species 

Bellevalia sarmatica 

Media for culture 

initiation 

Media for rapid 

development 

Variants Basal medium Supplementary additives 

B-1 МS-100% 

B-2 МS-100% 

B-3 МS-100% 

B-6 МS-100% 

B-9 МS-100% 

15 

1.0 mg/l BAP 

0.25mg/l NAA 

30 g/l sucrose 

0.5 mg/l BAP 

0.25 mg/l NAA 


0.5 mg/l kinetin 

0.25 mg/l IAA 


1.0 mg/l BAP 

1.0 mg/l NAA 


1.0 mg/l BAP 

1.0 mg/l NAA 


Fig. 1. The in vitro culture of species Bellevalia sarmatica on B-1 medium (a) and B-6 medium (b)


18(2011): 17-26 

17 

CIORCHINĂ NINA & al. 

THE BIOLOGY OF THE PROPAGATION OF SPECIES 

SCHISANDRA CHINENSIS (TURCZ.) BAILL. 

CIORCHINĂ NINA 1 , ONICA ELISAVETA 1 , ROŞCA ION 1 , DUMITRAŞ ADELINA 2 , 

CLAPA DOINA 3 , FIRA ALEXANDRU 3 

Abstract: The paper presents aspects regarding the possibilities for the propagation of species Schisandra 

chinensis (Turz.) Baill, as well as its reaction in the pedo-climatic conditions of the Republic of 

Moldova. Situated in the Lianarium of the Botanical Garden (Institute) AŞM since 1975, Schisandra 

chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. grows, develops and fructifies abundantly every year. It is propagated 

vegetatively and generatively with some difficulty. In the case of generative propagation, in order to 

obtain a high germination percentage, the seeds are stratified in three phases, at different 

temperatures and are sown in spring. Germination percentages of 80-90% were obtained. Schisandra 

chinensis is also propagated by greenwood cuttings, semi-hardwood or hardwood cuttings, by 

layering or by division. The best results were obtained by using semi-hardwood and hardwood 

cuttings taken in summer, in June-July, from younger plants. The potential for in vitro propagation of 

this species was also tested. The explants consisting of apical meristems inoculated on MS medium + 

0.5 mg/l BAP evolved the best. 

Key words: propagation, cutting, climber, medicinal plant, Schisandraceae 

Introduction 

The pedoclimatic conditions of the Republic of Moldova are relatively favourable 

for non-traditional fruit shrubs which, as they easily adapt to the environment they can be 

successfully introduced into culture. Also, on the market in the republic of Moldova there is 

an increasing interest for the introduction into culture of some new plant species from the 

spontaneous flora. One of these species is the Magnolia vine – Schisandra chinensis (Turz.) 

Baill., a perennial climber from Family Schisandraceae. 

Utilization. This species is utilized as an ornamental and medicinal plant. As an 

ornamental plant it is a decorative climber used for decorating balconies, terraces and 

buildings. 

The majority of vegetative and generative organs contain many biologically active 

substances, but the most important one is schizandrine and its derivatives. In the leaves and 

fruits there are, in a higher amount, the vitamins C and B (580 mg/%), catequins, organic 

acids, ketones (18%); tannic substances; sugars (15%). The seeds contain 33% oils. The 

fruits, leaves, bark and seeds are used. The infusion obtained from leaves, shoots and fruits 

is used for stimulating the vitality of the body as a whole, for stimulating the activity of the 

heart, for calming the nervous system. The extract, decoction, tincture prepared from fruits 

and seeds is used for treating tuberculosis, bronchytic asthma, gastritis, hepatitis, kidneys, 

dysenteria in children and other diseases that cause the weakening of the organism. The 

juice, the fresh fruits as well as the tincture from the leaves, fruits and shoots is used as an 

1 The Botanical Garden (Institute) AŞM, Chişinău – Republic of Moldova, e-mail: ninaciorchina@mail.ru 

2 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca – România 

3 Fruit Research Station Cluj, Cluj-Napoca – România

THE BIOLOGY OF THE PROPAGATION OF SPECIES SCHISANDRA CHINENSIS (TURCZ.) BAILL. 

immunomodulator of the body, for increasing intellectual as well as physical working 

capacity, for eyesight and for strengthening the body. The tea from leaves and shoots has a 

pleasant flavour similar to that of lemon and it has a slightly sour taste. 

The essential oils extracted from this plant are used for decreasing the glucide content of 

the blood. The use of Schisandra chinensis fruits in small amounts is recommended for 

people that suffer from insomnia, who have psychical problems or high arterial blood 

pressure and dysfunctions of heart activity. 

The fruits are also used in the cosmetic industry and food industry (confectionery, 

marmelades, chocolates), in the production of soap and detergents. 

Spread. The Magnolia vine can be found mostly in mixed forests in the Far East, 

mostly on the river banks in China, Japan, Sachalin Islands, and in the Republic of 

Moldova in Soroca, Chişinău. It is cultured by some amateurs and it can be found in 

several botanical gardens worldwide. 

Ecological requirements. It withstands low temperatures and shaded places. It 

grows fast. It can be cultured on sandy soils. On soils rich in humus it develops better. It 

does not withstand acidic, dense, compact soils. 

Morpho-biological peculiarities. Schisandra chinensis is a climber that can reach 

heights of 14-15 m and 1.5-2 cm in thickness. The roots are branched, situated close to soil 

surface. The shoots, the roots and the fruits are smelling. The stem of this climber is dark 

brown in colour and can reach 2 cm in thickness and winds around the trellis in clockwise 

direction. The leaves are altern, ovate, 5-10 cm in length, the petiole is reddish. The flowers 

are white, aromatic, they have a pinkish nuance towards the end of flowering. The fruits are 

of an intense red colour, juicy, sour, spherical, 5-10 mm in length, usually with one seed. 

The buds are mixed, oval in shape, a little lengthened and pointed. Flowering and fruiting 

takes place on the annual shoots (Fig.1). 

Propagation. The Magnolia vine is propagated vegetatively and generatively with 

great difficulty. It is propagated by cuttings, layering, division and by seeds [GLUKHOV & 

al. 2000; KHROMOVA, 1980; TITLYANOV, 1969]. The seeds are sown quickly in the 

autumn after harvest or in spring after stratification. 

There are few scientific papers regarding the micropropagation of Schisandra 

sinesnsis. Micropropagation has been done by using nodal explants [STANIENĖ & 

STANYS, 2007], cotiledonary nodes from seeds germinated in vitro [HONG & al. 2004], 

somatic embryogenesis starting from zygotic embryos [CHEN & al. 2010, SMÍŠKOVÁ & 

al. 2005] and embryogenesis starting from unopened flower buds [YANG & al. 2011]. 


The plant material used in the experiments was in the Lianarium of the Botanical 

Garden (Institute) AŞM, where Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. grows, develops and 

fruits abundantly every year, after its introduction into the collections in 1975 and also from 

the experimental field of the Laboratory of Embriology and Biotechnology. 

Experiments were carried out regarding the possibility for the propagation of this 

species by seeds, by cuttings and by micropropagation. 

Observations were done regarding the growth and development of the species in 

the conditions of the Republic of Moldova as well as experiments regarding the 

possibilities for the propagation of this species. 

18

19 


For propagation by seeds, before sowing the seeds were stratified in 3 phases: the 

first phase for 30 days at t = 18-20 °C, then 30 days at t = 3-5 °C and the third phase, for 

two months at t = 8 - 10 °C. 

For vegetative propagation the collecting and making of cuttings was carried out in 

summer, at the end of June and a the beginning of July when the shoots of the mother plant 

start to lignify. Lignified as well as semi-hardwood cuttings were made using well 

sharpened instruments, and the time for harvesting the shoots was in the morning. The 

cuttings had 12-15 cm in length, with 2-3 nodes. 

For propagation by hardwood cuttings the cuttings were made in February and 

March before the beginning of the vegetation period. The cuttings were kept in sand and 

sawdust until the danger of frost at ground level passed and then they were planted into 

cold frames. 

The cuttings were subjected to treatment with a weak (pink in colour) solution of 

KMnO4 and with growth regulators, with IBA at 0.005% for a period of 16 hours or with 

IAA at 0.01% for a period of 5 hours [HROMOVA, 1980]. They were planted into cold 

frames into two substrates: sand or sand + peat in a ratio of 1:1 and minimum 24% artificial 

mist. After one year the cuttings were planted into containers or in the open field. 

Having in view that by generative propagation some qualities specific to the 

mother plant appear or disappear and vegetative propagation presents some difficulty, the 

initiation of in vitro cultures was tested for this species. 

The plant material consisted in various explant types: apical meristems, lateral 

meristems of the 2 nd , 3 rd , 4 th , 5 th and 6 th degree, fragments of juvenile leaves, shoot 

fragments from the apical part, shoot fragments with lateral meristem, Fragments of young 

leaves with veins, ovules, ovary with a fragment from the stem, stem fragment with the 

apical meristem. For culture initiation nine experimental variants were tested, with MS 

(1962) basal medium and various concentrations of plant hormones (Tab. 1). 

The operations were carried out according to the standard laboratory procedures. 


. 

The research and observations carried out in a period of several years in various 

ecological conditions show that Schisandra chinensis develops differently according to the 

zone. It was found that Schisandra prefers rich, humid, loose soil and zones of shadow. In 

the sunny places in the Republic of moldova growth is inhibited. It does not withstand 

drought and high air temperatures in the period of vegetation. It is resistant to frost. It 

withstands temperatures even as low as -45 o C. In the drought-stricken years, irrigation and 

soil loosening is necessary. Fertilization or the addition of chernozem to the roots of the 

plants is recommended. Growth per decade is about 20 cm. 

The root system is superficial and can reach to depths of 25 cm. The young shoots 

are greenish-grey and, as they mature, they become reddish-brown. The plant is 

monoecious, the flowers are monosexuate. In the conditions of the Republic of Moldova it 

flowers in May-June. Since the beginning of bud development until their sprouting there is 

a period of 11-17 days. The flowering period is of 15-19 days. The fruits fully mature in 

14-21 days. The flowers that have strong flavour are small, up to 1.5 cm, grouped 3-5 at the 

axils of the leaves, on flexible, thin peduncles 1-4 cm in length. The flowers are white, with 

pink nuances and they develop on the annual shoots. The flower formula is ♂*P3+3+3A∞[4],


or ♀♂ *P Co 6-9 A(3-7) G 30-40 [5] . The Magnolia vine sets fruit starting from the age of 4-5 

years. 

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. is characterized by rapid shoot growth in 

june-July and towards the end of August growth diminishes. Its leaves fall down right 

from the beginning of September. In the meteorological conditions of the Republic of 

Moldova the species has a period of profound dormancy, which confers resistance to low 

temperatures during winter and and to late frosts in spring. In late spring the plant enters 

the vegetation period, which has a duration of 175-190 days depending upon the 

meteorological conditions of the year (sum of temperatures and amount of precipitations). 

Another factor that favourizes the development of this species is the presence of phreatic 

water at shallow depths. 

Propagation by seeds. 1000 seeds weigh 25 g. Seed stratification in the three 

phases at different temperatures ensures a germination percentage of 80-90%. The plants 

obtained in this way have well developed roots and will set fruit at the age of 4-5 years 

(Fig. 2). 2-3 year old seedlings need protection during winter. But in Schisandra chinensis 

(Turcz.) Baill. as well as in other fruit shrubs obtained by generative propagation some 

specific qualities of the mother plant may appear or disappear. 

In order to keep the characteristics and qualities of the cultivar, vegetative 

propagation by cuttings is recommended (Fig. 3). The advantage of propagation by cuttings 

is that the cuttings are selected from healthy, vigorous and productive plants and plant 

material with the same characteristics is obtained. 

The rooting capacity of the cuttings also depends on the biological features of each 

species, soil conditions and the special interventions for stimulating the cuttings. Such, in 

the process of root formation, some hormones like auxin stimulate growth, which can also 

be achieved artificially by treating the cuttings with stimulating substances, for example 

heteroauxin. The success of the culture of cuttings depends upon the amount of nutritive 

substances that they contain and the conditions offereed to them when planting – a well 

prepared, loosened, fertile, well aerated soil and sufficient humidity. 

The roots of the cuttings result from the root rudiments, which are groups of 

meristematic cells localized in the contact point of the medullary rays with the cambium. 

The root rudiments are formed long the axis of the shoot, with higher densities at the base 

of the shoot, close to the axillary buds. 

As a result of the cut made by making the cutting from the harvested shoot, a 

primary parenchimatic tissue named callus is formed, which has the role of cicatrizing the 

wound and which, later, forms a cambium with adventitious buds from which the roots 

develop. Until the formation of roots, the cuttings consumes the nutritive substances from 

its own reserves. 

The cuttings are made from the sunny part of the plant, from the lower and midle 

part of the vine. The leaf lamina is shortened with 1/3-1/2 in order to decrease transpiration. 

A higher percentage (with 10-12%, as compared to the untreated ones) of rooting was 

obtained in the cuttings treated for 24 hours with 0.01% heteroauxin and stuck into the 

substrate to a depth of 2-3 cm. In the first 3-4 weeks the cuttings should be watered 2-3 

times a day, and then once a day, then 1-2 times a week. The rooting percentage of the 

cuttings was of 40-50%. It was found that the rooting percentage of the cuttings taken from 

young plants was of 57-60 %, whereas from older plants 45-50%. 

Propagation by hardwood cuttings (winter cuttings) in cold frames needs a well 

processed substrate, loosened to the depth of 40 cm, with rich aeration and humidity. The 

20

21 


cuttings were harvested in February and March before the beginning of the vegetation 

period. The cuttings were kept in sand and sawdust until the danger of frost at ground level 

passed, then they were planted in cold frames. During the insertion of the cuttings into the 

substrate, the cutting has to adhere well to the particles of the substrate and for this purpose 

the substrate has to be well prepared and loosened so as to prevent the bruising and 

wounding of the cutting. 

Burying the cuttings into the substrate is done vertically, with the buds upwards 

and at 1-2 cm below substrate level, so as to prevent the drying out of the tips of the 

cuttings. Harvesting the shoots for making the cuttings is done from special cultures of 

mother plants. One year old shoots are harvested, from which the cuttings are made with a 

well-sharpened knife. The cuttings should be straight, well formed, they should have at 

least 2 buds, without mechanical lesions. The length of the cuttings was of minimum 15-20 

cm and the thickness 8-20 mm at the upper end. For making the cuttings, the upper part of 

the shoots, which is not sufficiently lignified, should not be used. The cuts should be 

smooth, perpendicular on the axis of the shoot, without cracks and bark exfoliations. The 

cut at the upper end should be at 1-2 cm above the bud. 

After being cut, the cuttings should be put into KMnO4 solution and then 

immediately fixed into sand in vertical or slightly bent position, leaving the upper end at 1 

cm above the sand, placed into the greenhouse or cold frame, where humid air should be 

provided to them, as well as the free access of oxygen to their basal end and an optimal 

regime of heat and light. These conditions can be ensured by the correct construction of the 

cold frame, by inserting the cuttings at 0.5-1.0 cm into the sand, by moderate and gradual 

watering of the sand and by providing a constant temperature of 20-26 °C. 

For constructing the cold frame, one should take care that between the surface of 

the sand and the window of the cold frame there should be 12-15 cm of space. Before 

inserting the cuttings the sand should be watered abundantly with boiling water and with 

KMnO4 solution. The cuttings should be put at distances of 6-10 cm between the rows and 

4-5 cm in the row. Immediately after inserting the cuttings, fine spraying is applied and the 

frame is covered completely. 

The cold frames should be shaded in such a way that only diffuse light should 

enter (sparsely knitted mats or staves are used, which should cover 1/3 of the surface of the 

frame). The cuttings should be sprayed 3-5 times in the sunny days and 1-2 times in the 

cloudy days and in the evening the weeds and the blackened cuttings should be pulled out. 

After rooting, the frames should be opened gradually, so that the plantlets get 

accustomed to the outer environment and then kept open permanently and watering should 

be done until October. The cuttings which have grown good roots until October should be 

taken out and transferred into the nursery or into containers and they should be watered and 

shaded during warm days. If they do not have well developed roots in October, the cuttings 

should be kept in the cold frame, covered with sawdust, until spring. 

The root system of the cuttings is relatively poorly developed and one should keep 

in mind that the roots reach to a depth of just 15-20 cm under ground level. 

The length of the first-order root system in the plants obtained from semihardwood 

cuttings reach to 2-5 cm in length from summer till next spring. 

In the conditions of the Botanical Gardens, propagation by softwood cuttings did 

not give good results, only 1% of the softwood cuttings rooted. In the case of propagation 

by root cuttings, the resulting plants are poorly developed.


In vitro propagation. In Tab. 1 the nine variants of nutritive media are presented, 

all of them with 100% MS as basal medium [MURASHIGE & SKOOG, 1962]. 

In Tab. 2 are presented the results of testing various explants under the influence 

of auxins and cytokinins present in the nutritive media. The explants consisting of apical 

meristems had the best reaction on the variants MS -100% with 0.5 mg/l BAP, resulting 

44.40% viable plantlets and MS-100% + 0.5 mg/l BAP, 0.1 mg/l NAA, resulting 36.30% 

viable plantlets (Fig. 4). 

The following explant types also reacted positively: shoot fragment from the 

apical part, shoot fragment with apical meristem. The reaction of all the explant types on 

the nine variants of media is presented in Tab. 2. 

Conclusions 

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. is a species that has adapted to the 

pedoclimatic conditions in the republic of Moldova. 

It can be propagated generatively or vegetatively. 

In the case of propagation by seed it is recommended to stratify the seeds in three 

phases: I - for 30 days at t = 18-20 °C, II- 30 days at t = 3-5 °C and III- 60 days at t = 8- 

10°C and then the seeds should be sown, such ensuring 80-90% germination. 

As a result of the process of propagation by hardwood and semi-hardwood 

cuttings, uniform genetic material is obtained, healthy, vigorous plantlets that posess the 

features and qualities of the mother plant. The rooting of the cuttings depends on several 

factors: the quality of the cuttings and of the substrate, The conditions for the growth and 

development of the mother plants, respecting the optimal timeframes for propagation by 

cuttings and correctly applying the technology of propagation by cuttings, the density of 

the cuttings in the cold frame etc. For obtaining a higher rooting percentage of Schisandra 

chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. It is necessary to select the shoots from young plants, which were 

also obtained by vegetative propagation, in the 20 th of June-10 th of July, which coincides 

with the end of flowering and the beginning of fruit set. 

The optimal substrate for the vegetative propagation of Schisandra chinensis 

(Turcz.) Baill. is made up of sand + peat 1:1. 

Among the rhyzogenesis stimulators used for rooting the semi-hardwood 

Schizandara chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. cuttings, it was established that the stimulators IBA 

and IAA-0,01% plus sucrose at 10 g/l concentration stimulate rooting. 

The plants obtained from cuttings as well as the ones obtained from seeds are very 

sensitive to low temperatures in the spring in the first years, hence the plants must be 

protected by leaves. 

Among the 10 types of explants tested for in vitro culture initiation in Schisandra 

chinensis (Turcz.) Baill, the apical meristems reacted the best, especially on the variant 

with MS medium + 0.5mg/l BAP (44.44% viable plantlets obtained). The explants 

consisting of shoot fragments from the apical part and shoot fragments with apical 

meristem also had positive reaction. 

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. can be recommended in the range of species 

used for setting up green areas, as it is a robust climber, with decorative value during the 

whole year and also used as a medicinal plant with multiple active and stimulating 

substances, with a wide range of applicability. 

22

23 


Acknowledgements. This work was supported by ANCS Romania, project 

number 425/2010 Bilateral Cooperations. 

References 

1. CHEN A. H., YANG J. L., NIU Y. D., YANG C. P., LIU G. F., YU C. Y. & LI C. H. 2010. High-frequency 

somatic embryogenesis from germinated zygotic embryos of Schisandra chinensis and evaluation of 

the effects of medium strength, sucrose, GA3, and BA on somatic embryo development. Plant Cell Tiss 

Organ Cult., 102: 357–364, doi 10.1007/s11240-010-9740-6. 

2. GLUKHOV A. Z., KOSTYRKO D. R. & KRAVCHENKO N. M. 2000. Non-traditional ornamental plants 

in anthropogenically transformed environment, NASU, Donetsk Bot. Sad, Donetsk. C. 128. 

3. HONG M. H., KIM O. T., PARK I. I. & HWANG B. 2004. Micropropagation of Schizandra chinensis 

Baillon using glucose from cotyledonary nodes. Journal of Plant Biology, 47(3): 270-274. 

4. MURASHIGE T. & SKOOG F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue 

culture. Physiol. Plant, 15: 473-497. 

5. SMÍŠKOVÁ A., VLAŠÍNOVÁ H. & HAVEL L. 2005. Somatic embryogenesis from zygotic embryos of 

Schisandra chinensis. Biologia Plantarum, 49(3): 451-454. 

6. STANIENĖ G. & STANYS V. 2007. Micropropagation of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill, Sodininkyste 

ir Darzininkyste, ISSN: 0236-4212, 26(3): 282-288. 

7. TITLYANOV A. A. 1969. Actinidia and Magnolia vine. Vladivostok.175 pp. 

8. KHROMOVA T. V. 1980. Guidelines for the reproduction of introduced woody plants by cuttings. M. 45S. 

9. YANG J. L., NIU Y. D., YANG C. P., LIU G. F. & LI C. H. 2011. Induction of somatic embryogenesis from 

female flower buds of elite Schisandra chinensis. Plant Cell Tiss Organ Cult, 106: 391–399. doi 

10.1007/s11240-011-9935-5.


a b 

Fig. 1. Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. a) The flowering phase; b) The fruiting phase 

Fig. 2. Propagation by seeds 

24 

Fig. 3. Propagation by cuttings

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

16,67 15,38 

10 

0 

36,36 

25 

5,6 

7,14 


15,38 

B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 

Fig. 4. The reaction of the apical meristems on the nine variants of media (%) 

44,44 

Tab. 1. The composition of the nutritive media for the microclonal propagation of species 

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. 

Variants Basal medium Supplementary additives 

B-1 МS-100% 

B-2 МS-100% 

B-3 МS-100% 

B-4 МS-100% 

B-5 МS-100% 

B-6 МS-100% 

B-7 МS-100% 

B-8 МS-100% 

Kin - 0.5 mg/l 

NAA- 0.1mg 

Kin -1.0 mg/l 

IAA – 0.5 mg/l 

Kin – 0.5 mg/l 


Kin – 2.0 mg/l 

IAA– 0.5 mg/l 

BAP – 0.5 mg/l 

NAA -0.1 mg/l 


GA³ – 0.5 mg/l 





B-9 МS-100% BAP – 0.5 mg/l


Tab. 2. The initiation and in vitro reaction of various types of explants in Schisandra chinensis 

Lateral 

Explant 

meristems 

Apical 

of the 2 

meristem 

Medium 

nd , 

3 rd , and 4 th 

Lateral 

meristems 

of the 5 

degree 

th 

and 6 th 

Shoot 

Ovary Stem 

Shoot 

Fragments 

Fragments 

fragments 

with a fragment 

fragments 

of young 

of juvenile 

with 

Ovules fragment with the 

from the 

leaves with 

leaves 

lateral 

from the apical 

apical part 

veins 

degree 

meristem 

stem meristem 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 

B-1 + ~ ~ ~ 

B-2 + ~ ~ ~ + + + ~ 

B-3 + ~ ~ ~ - + ~ 

B-4 - - - + + 

B-5 + ~ ~ + + ~ + 

B-6 + 

B-7 + ~ + + ~ ~ 

B-8 + ~ ~ + + ~ + + + 

B-9 + ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 

+ progress; - necroses; ~ without changes 

26


18(2011): 27-32 

MARDARI CONSTANTIN, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN, DRAGHIA LUCIA, BÎRSAN CIPRIAN 

SOME ASPECTS REGARDING THE CULTIVATION OF SPECIES 

WITH DECORATIVE VALUE ACONITUM DEGENII Gáyer 

MARDARI CONSTANTIN 1 , TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN 2 , DRAGHIA LUCIA 3 , 

BÎRSAN CIPRIAN 1 

Abstract: Ex situ conservation is the most important way through a Botanic Garden contributes to biodiversity 

conservation. One of the multiple directions of ex situ conservation is the diversification of the 

collections with spontaneous cormophytes presenting decorative value. Aconitum degenii Gáyer is 

an herbaceous, perennial and toxic species with the areal in Alps and Carpathian Mountains, 

sporadically met at forest’s margins. This species has been studied in 2009-2011 period in order to 

observe its behavior in the environmental conditions characteristic to the Botanic Garden of Iasi. To 

accomplish this aim seeds, rhizomes and individuals have been collected from the wild and 

introduced in experimental fields. Comparisons between flowering periods, qualitative (color of the 

flowers) and quantitative (number of the flowers, leaves and ramifications, plants height, rhizomes 

length) decorative characters of both cultivated and spontaneous individuals have been realized. It 

was observed that Aconitum degenii Gáyer individuals are keeping (almost the same quantitative 

characteristics) and even improve (longer flowering period) their decorative characteristics without 

being deteriorated or diminished. From the morpho – anatomical perspective none significant 

differences have been observed. 

Key words: decorative species, conventional cultivation 

Introduction 

The Aconitum genus includes approximately 300 species distributed mainly in the 

Northern Hemisphere [LUO & al. 2005]. In Romania, there were identified 10 species with 

5 atypical subspecies [CIOCÂRLAN, 2000] and it seems that the richest areas in Aconitum 

species are represented by the Northern half of the Oriental Carpathians and the Eastern 

part of the Southern Carpathians; in the Apuseni Mountains, Aconitum species appears less 

frequently [MIHOK & al. 2005]. These are herbaceous perennial plants, mainly cultivated 

for their tubers, used in medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes. Various active constituents 

produced from the roots of various species of Aconitum are used to cure a wide range if 

diseases [NIDHI & al. 2010]. Some species are also cultivated in ornamental purposes. 

Aconitum degenii Gáyer (syn. Aconitum paniculatum Lam. nom. illeg.) is a species 

presenting a cylindrical, branched rhizome and tall stems (60-150 cm). The leaves are 

alternately arranged, palmate divided and the flowers are blue-purple colored, with long 

pedicels and arranged in wide, thinned and richly branched inflorescences. It grows at the 

mountain forests edges. It is an herbaceous, perennial species (hemicryptophyte), with areal 

in Alps and Carpathians Mountains. It prefers full light, cool mountain areas, relative 

humid, neutral and rich in nitrogen soils (L6T2C4U6R7N7) [ELLENBERG, 1992]. It can be 

found in 6430 – Hydrophilous tall-herb fringe communities of plains and of the montane to 

1 “Anastasie Fătu” Botanic Garden, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Dumbrava Roşie, no. 7-9, Iaşi – 

Romania, e-mail: mardariconstantin@yahoo.com 

2 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Carol I, no. 20A, 700505, Iaşi – Romania 

3 “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” University, M. Sadoveanu, no. 3, 700490, Iaşi – Romania 

27

SOME ASPECTS REGARDING THE CULTIVATION OF SPECIES WITH DECORATIVE VALUE … 

alpine levels habitat type [GAFTA & MOUNTFORD, 2008], growing on fertile soils 

(Betulo – Adenostyletea) [CHIFU & al. 2006]. It is a diplo-polyploid species, spread 

sporadically in Romania (beech – fir vegetation levels) [CIOCÂRLAN, 2000]. 

The species is known and used for medicinal purposes since antiquity. It is a toxic 

species that can be grown either alone or in groups in parks and gardens, being decorative 

by flowers. 


In order to set up the experimental fields and to favor the growth, flowering and 

fructification of Aconitum degenii individuals, a flat, sunny and protected from strong 

currents of air land located between the greenhouses of the Botanical Garden of Iasi has 

been chosen. Soil preparation was done in the preceding autumn of planting and consisted 

of weed removal and destruction of their roots [CIREAŞĂ, 1993]. Before planting, in the 

spring, the land was worked with a cultivator. Fertilizers were not applied in advance. 

Multiplication has been realized by seeds (Fig. 1) presenting good germination, 

about 80%, of which seedlings are produced (autumn sowing in pots, in November, because 

seeds lose germination capacity) and rhizomes (vegetative). Seedlings were obtained in 

pots using a mixture of earth, organic natural fertilizer, neutral peat and sand (1 : 2 : 1 : 1). 

The planting was done in spring, at the end of April. The plants were subjected to the 

process of mud and planted at 70 cm between rows and 50 cm distance from each other. 

The vegetative propagation by rhizomes has been tried. To do this, only the young and 

healthy rhizomes were used. Rhizomes were planted with the buds facing up, at the same 

distance intervals as the seedlings. The seeds collection has been realized after the fruit 

maturation (the second half of September). The harvesting of rhizomes has been made both 

during flowering period (June-August) and after the flowering period (September). Only 

young rhizomes have been collected. Waterings were applied each day (the first month 

after planting) to maintain soil moisture continuously. Weeds removal had a very important 

role because weeds absorbed the moisture and food of Aconitum plants and, in the early 

stages of development overshadowed the seedlings, with negative effects on their 

development. In culture conditions, Aconitum degenii plants grow well, vigorous, but do 

not tolerate the presence of weeds. 


Natural populations from Eastern Carpathians (Stânişoarei, Ceahlău, Bistriţei, 

Călimani and Nemira Mountains) of Aconitum degenii have been studied in areas with 

altitudes varying between 750 and 900m, characterized by a relative cold climate (2-4 ºC 

yearly average), abundant precipitations (750-1000 mm/m 2 /year), increased relative 

humidity of atmosphere (≈ 80-85%) and neutral-weak acid soils (pH 6-7). From the natural 

habitats (Vaccinio – Piceetea forests edges) seeds and individuals have been collected in 

order to cultivate them in the Botanic Garden from Iasi (characterized by a temperate 

continental climate with annual precipitations average of approximate 518 mm, annual 

temperatures average by 9,6 °C, relative humidity of the atmosphere ≈ 70% and neutral 

soils – pH ≈ 7). 

The seeds have initiated the germination process after 3 weeks. The cultivated plants 

produced flowers and viable seed in the first year of growth. Cultivated plants, grown from 

seeds and tubers in Botanic Garden from Iasi, generally produced one to two daughter tubers 

28


by the end of the growing season. The transplanted seedlings collected from the wild and 

grown at low altitude presented a decrease of the plants characteristics (Fig. 3). 

a 

Fig. 1. a) Seeds of Aconitum degenii – germination capacity determination 

b) seed – detail 

In culture conditions the Aconitum degenii individuals present cylindrical, 

branched rhizomes, with an average length of 8.21 cm, less with approximate 2 cm on 

average comparing with the specimens studied in natural habitats. Individuals average 

height is 77.28 cm, lower than the height of the individuals from spontaneous flora (average 

86.46 cm). 

The leaves of Aconitum degenii are palmate divided (Fig. 2b), are alternately 

arranged and are less in the cultivated plants comparing to the specimens studied in natural 

habitats (an average of 19.83 leaves on a stem compared to 27.9) which is correlated with 

height decrease under culture conditions (Tab. 1). 

The flowers are numerous and are arranged in branched rich inflorescences 

(average 12.32 branches / plant). The flowers (Fig. 2a) are light blue - purple (size, color 

and intensity are kept) and presents long pedicels. Regarding the flowering period it was 

observed that the most of the cultivated individuals bloom at the same time as in natural 

habitats (July - September). 

a b 

Fig. 2. The main ornamental characteristics of Aconitum degenii Gáyer 

a – flowers 

b – leaf 

29 

b


Tab. 1. Comparison of the morphometric characteristics of Aconitum degenii in natural habitats and culture conditions 

MORPHOMETRIC 

CHARACTERS 

(2009-2011) 

Plant height: 77,28 

cm. 

Rhizomes length: 

8,21 cm. 

Leaves number/plant: 

19,83. 

Ramifications 

number: 12,32. 

Flowers 

number/plant: 35,55. 

TRANSPLANTATION 

PLACE / ECOLOGIC 

CONDITIONS 

Iaşi Botanical Garden 

Altitude: 150 m. 

pH soil: ≈ 7. 

Annual precipitations 

average: 518 mm. 

Annual temperatures 

average: 9,6 °C. 

Relative humidity of the 

atmosphere: ≈ 70%. 

NATURAL 

HABITATS 

AVERAGE 

Plant height: 86,46 

cm. 

Rhizomes length: 

10,12 cm. 

Leaves number/plant: 

27,9. 

Ramifications 

number: 12,375. 

Flowers 

number/plant: 30,25. 

MORPHOMETRIC 

CHARACTERS 

COENOTIC 

AMBIANCE 

POPULATION ECOLOGIC 

CONDITIONS 

Plant height: 90,1 cm. 

Rhizomes length: ≈ 10,3 cm. 

Ramifications number: 10,6. 

Leaves number/plant: 26,4. 

Flowers number/plant: 38,6. 

Leucanthemo 

waldsteinii-Piceetum: 

Leucanthemum 

waldsteinii, Picea abies, 

Hypericum maculatum, 

Digitalis grandiflora, 

Veronica urticifolia etc. 


pH soil: ≈ 6,5. 




average: 4 °C. 



























Stânişoarei 

Mountains 


Rhizomes length: 9,6 cm. 




Hieracio transsilvanici- 

Piceetum: Picea abies, 

Luzula luzuloides, 

Brachypodium 

sylvaticum, Sanicula 

europaea, Epipactis 

helleborine etc. 

Bistriţei 

Mountains 







Piceetum: Picea abies, 

Oxalis acetosella, Lilium 

martagon, Streptopus 

amplexifolius, 

Dryopteris filix-mas etc. 

Călimani 

Mountains 




Ramifications number: 14. 



Abietetum: Abies alba, 

Picea abies, Lonicera 

xylosteum, Viola 

reicenbachiana, 

Geranium robertianum 

etc. 

Nemira 

Mountains 

30

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 


Plants height (cm) Rhizomes length 

(cm) 

Stems 

ramifications 

In the ecological conditions of the Botanic Garden of Iasi the plants have developed 

well both in partially shaded areas and full sunned areas as long as the soil was kept moist. The 

vegetation period of the Aconitum degenii individuals is about 160 days per year. The growth 

and the development of the plants in the first year of culture is slower but in the next years (the 

second and third) is more intense. 

This species does not raise special issues of growth in the ecological conditions from 

Iaşi. It can be easy replicated by seedlings (from seeds) and rhizomes. Also, there have been not 

recorded any diseases or other pests during those three years of cultivation. 

The Aconitum degenii inflorescences can be used as cut flowers (with caution because 

the species is toxic) or they can add a blue color to a shaded garden. These plants grow well in 

damp, rich soils and the beautiful blue or blooms is very attractive from the early to late 

summer in the garden. To determine the plant to form another round of flowers in the late 

summer or early autumn, the first inflorescences must be cut in order to not allow the plant to 

make seeds. Also, the flowers of Aconitum degenii resist a relative long time as cut flowers 

(about 10 days) during which the flowers continue to open. 

The species could be planted under trees, in near wild gardens, among shrubs and in 

borders. It can fill vacant spaces in the garden when the earlier flowering plants have past. The 

Aconitum degenii individuals should be planted in masses (spots with numerous individuals). 

All species of Aconitum are very toxic (they contain aconitine, other alkaloids etc.), and, 

31 

Leaves 

number/plant 

Flow ers 

number/plant 

Natural habitats 

Culture conditions 

Fig. 3. Comparison between of some morphometric characters of Aconitum degenii 

individuals in natural habitats and under culture conditions


consequently, they should never be planted in or too close to the vegetable gardens or the 

playing places of the children. 

Conclusions 

In the studied species (Aconitum degenii) the main decorative element is the flower. 

Secondly, the plant height, the number of stem’s branches, the size, the shape and the 

arrangement of leaves and number of flowers (or inflorescences) are other characters that 

justifies the introduction of this species in culture. 

Comparisons between the flowering periods, between a series of qualitative characters 

(such as flower color) and quantitative (number of flowers, leaves and stems branches, plant 

height, length of rhizomes) both in individuals obtained in culture or from the natural habitats 

showed that, under culture conditions, plants remains (approximately the same quantitative 

characters) and even improve (a longer period of flowering) decorative characters without to be 

deteriorated or diminished. 

We consider that Aconitum degenii is well suited to the purpose of introducing in the 

culture because it proves to be adapted quite well (even acclimatized, because they produced 

flowers and fruits) in the environmental conditions from the Botanical Garden of Iaşi. 


The paper has been realized with the financial support provided by the Romanain 

Ministry of Education and Research via PNCDI project 52174/2008 “The refinement of the 

biodiversity of spontaneous flora from Romania in order to enrich the range of ornamental 

plants” – BIODIVDECOR. 

References 

1. CHIFU T., MÂNZU C. & ZAMFIRESCU O. 2006. Flora & Vegetaţia Moldovei (România). Iaşi: Edit. 

Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2, 698 pp. 

2. CIOCÂRLAN V. 2000. Flora ilustrată a României. Bucureşti: Edit. Ceres, 1138 pp. 

3. CIREAŞĂ E. 1993. Floricultură specială. Universitatea Agronomică „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi, 355 pp. 

4. ELLENBERG H. 1992. Indicator values of vascular plants in Central Europe. Scripta Geobotanica. 18: 78. 

5. GAFTA D. & MOUNTFORD O. (eds.). 2008. Manual de interpretare a habitatelor Natura 2000 din România. 

Cluj-Napoca: Edit. Risoprint, 101 pp. 

6. LUO Y., ZHANG F. & YANG Q. 2005. Phylogeny of Aconitum subgenus Aconitum (Ranunculaceae) inferred 

from ITS sequences. Plant Syst. Evol., 252: 11-25. 

7. MIHOK C., ANTAL D. S. & CSEDÖ C. 2005. The repartition of Aconitum species throughout the Romanian 

Carpathians. Gyepgazdálkodási Közlemények, 3: 26-28. 

8. NIDHI S., VIKAS S., BARKHA K., DOBRIYAL A. K. & VIKASH S. J. 2010. Advancement in Research on 

Aconitum sp. (Ranunculaceae) under Different Area: A Review. Biotechnology, 9: 411-427. 

32


18(2011): 33-40 

LACZI ENIKŐ, APAHIDEAN ALEXANDRU SILVIU 

RESEARCH REGARDING THE INTRODUCTION OF A LEAST 

KNOWN VEGETABLE SPECIES IN CULTURE, 

IN TRANSYLVANIAN TABLELAND AREA; 

THE POSSIBILITY OF CULTIVATING CHINESE CABBAGE IN 

EARLY SPRING IN OPEN FIELD 

LACZI ENIKŐ 1 , APAHIDEAN ALEXANDRU SILVIU 1 

Abstract: The research concerning the possibility of cultivating Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris var. 

pekinensis) took place in the spring of 2011, in the experimental field which belongs to the 

Vegetable Growing Department from the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary 

Medicine from Cluj-Napoca. A collection of varieties and hybrids belonging to this species was 

established, within which a variety (Granat) and four hybrids (Michihli, Kingdom 80, Nepa F1 and 

Vitimo F1) were used. 

During the vegetation period measurements were made regarding the growing and the development 

of these plants in Transylvanian Tableland specific conditions. The processing of data recorded at 

harvest shows that the obtained yield varied between 41.00 and 63.15 t/ha, the Vitimo F1 hybrid 

reaching the highest yield. 

The obtained yields are satisfying, considering that the culture was an ecological one, no chemical 

products such as fertilisers or substances for prevention and control of pests and diseases were used. 

Keywords: Chinese cabbage, organic culture, Chinese cabbage varieties 

Introduction 

Chinese cabbage, Brassica campestris var. pekinensis (syn. Brassica rapa var. 

pekinensis) is a less known vegetable in our country and it is cultivated mostly by amateur 

gardeners. Unfortunately, in this moment, it isn’t defined a well-established culture 

technology in our specialty literature. 

The development of this species in China was parallel with the European cabbages in 

Europe. Both belong to the same genus, Brassica, both evolved by cultivation from wild 

ancestors, both have been important foods since the remote past, and both now exist in 

numerous varieties which can be bought almost all year round [DAVIDSON & TOM, 2006]. 

Chinese cabbage has a short vegetation period, and it belongs to that group of 

plants which are the fastest growing of all leafy vegetables, in good conditions heads can be 

cut ten weeks after sowing; loose-headed types two to three weeks sooner, while seedlings 

four to five weeks after sowing. 

The headed types of Chinese cabbage form a barrel-shaped, rounded or tall 

cylindrical head of closely folded leaves, usually creamy to light green in color, with a 

crinkled texture, prominent white veining and white midribs broadening out at the base 

[LARCOM, 2003]. 

1 University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Horticulture, 3-5 Mănăştur Street, 

400372, Cluj-Napoca – România, e-mail: eniko.laczi@yahoo.com 

33

RESEARCH REGARDING THE INTRODUCTION OF A LEAST KNOWN VEGETABLE SPECIES … 

Material and method 

The research took place in the experimental field belonging to the Vegetable 

Growing Department of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj- 

Napoca, in the spring of 2011. 

The main purpose of this experiment was the establishment of a culture technology, 

which allows the cultivation of this new species in the Transylvanian Tableland specific 

conditions. There were tested five varieties of Chinese cabbage in early spring ecological 

cultures. 

To achieve the objectives of this experiment a collection of varieties was 

organized, which involved the following varieties: 

• Michihli 

• Kingdom 80 

• Granat 

• Nepa F1 

• Vitimo F1 

Each variety was placed into three repetitions. 

The seeding started in 25 th February, the seeds being sown, one by one, in small 

nutrient pots and were transplanted in bigger pots in stage of 3-4 true leaves, in 26 th of 

March. Planting was realized in 4 th of April, in the experimental field. 

During the vegetation period there weren’t made any treatments or fertilizations. 

Harvest was realized in 1 st of June at Granat variety and Nepa F1 and Michihli hybrids, and 

in 10 th of June at Kingdom 80 and Vitimo F1 hybrids. 

During growing season observations were made regarding plants growth and 

development (these were made at planting, at one month after planting and at harvesting), 

and on obtained production to. 


Plants height evolution from planting to harvest. At planting, the highest 

seedlings (15.33 cm) were those from Granat variety, while at harvest those from Nepa 

hybrid, with an average height of 52.50 cm. 

It can be observed that at four of the five variants the plants height is increasing 

constantly, but at the last one, represented by Vitimo hybrid, plants average height is 

decreasing in the last few weeks of the vegetation period, from 31.37 cm to 29.33. This fact 

can be explained by the head formation, where every leaf has a very important role. 

At the remaining variants the height increasing, from planting to a month after 

planting, varied between 7.83 cm (at Kingdom 80 hybrid) and 26.83 cm (at Michihli 

hybrid), while until harvest the average height has grown with 3.17 cm (at Kingdom 80 

hybrid) and 16.17 cm (at Nepa F1 hybrid) (Fig. 1). 

Plants diameter evolution from planting to harvest. The seedlings diameter 

varied between 13.33 cm (at Vitimo hybrid) and 19.00 cm (at Kingdom 80 hybrid), while at 

harvest the measured diameters had values between 47.33 cm (at Vitimo hybrid) and 66.50 

cm (at Nepa hybrid). 

Unlike the plants height, their diameter was increasing constantly at all variants 

from planting to harvest. So, in one month from planting the plants diameter increasing 

34


varied between 24.67 cm (at hybrid Michihli) and 33.33 cm (at Kingdom 80 hybrid), while 

until harvest the increasing had much lower values, varying between 1.17 cm (at Kingdom 

80 hybrid) and 17.83 cm (at Nepa hybrid) (Fig. 2). 

Leaf number evolution from planting to harvest. In Fig. 3 it can be observed 

that the highest number of leaves was registered at Kingdom 80 hybrid, not only in seedling 

stage (when it had an average of 7.67 leaves), but at the measurements made at one month 

after planting (with 19.83 leaves) and at harvest to (when plants were formed in average 

from 35.67 leaves). This hybrid was closely followed by Vitimo F1, which had an average 

of 34.67 leaves. 

The lowest increasing of leaves number from planting to harvest was registered at 

Michihli hybrid, which formed only 14.50 leaves in the vegetation period. 

Correlation between total number of leaves and total weight. The correlation 

coefficient between total number of leaves and total weight had a value of 0.73, which is 

lower than the value of p (5%)=0,88, for the five cases studied, so between these characters 

there is no statistically supported correlation (Fig. 4). 

Cabbage head development at maturity. Data from Table 1 shows that the 

longest heads (with an average length of 46.83 cm) and largest diameter (with an average 

diameter of 41.00 cm) were registered at Michihli hybrid. The highest weight of plants 

(0.73 kg) was noticed at Vitimo hybrid, while the plants belonging to Kingdom 80 hybrid 

had the highest number of leaves. 

Comparison between total plant and head weight. Total head weight varied 

between 0.56 and 0.88 kg, while the head weight between 0.47 and 0.73 kg. The lowest 

difference between the two characters was registered at Michihli hybrid (a difference of 

only 80 g), and the highest one at hybrid Vitimo, where the heads were easiest with 150 g 

than the plants (Fig. 5). 

Correlation between total and head weight. Fig. 6 presents the correlation 

between total and head weight, the coefficient of correlation between this two characters, 

being 0.97, which is higher than the theoretically value for p (1%) = 0.96, for the five 

studied cases, so between total and head weight exists a distinct significant positive 

correlation. 

Leaf layout. The leaf layout is a very important characteristic of Chinese cabbage, 

because the leaves from rosette are in most cases removed, and only the cabbage head is 

used. The rosettes were formed, in average, from 5.67 leaves (at Michihli hybrid) and 8.17 

leaves (at Kingdom 80 hybrid), while the number of leaves from the heads varied between 

14.83 leaves, at Granat variety and 27.50 leaves at Kingdom 80 hybrid, followed closely by 

Vitimo hybrid, with 27.17 leaves (Fig. 7). 

Results regarding the bolting percentage. The measurements made at one month 

after planting shows that at Michihli hybrid, the bolting percentage was 8.33%, at Granat 

and Nepa was 12.5%, while at the last two hybrids (Kingdom 80 and Vitimo) no plants had 

been bolted until this moment, the average bolting percentage being 6.67%. 

Until harvest, the average bolting percentage increased, reaching the value of 

18.33%, the lowest bolting percentage (8.33%) was registered at Vitimo hybrid, while the 

highest (29.17%) at Granat variety (Fig. 8). 

The influence of variety upon the yield of Chinese cabbage. The data from 

Table 2 shows that the yields varied between 41.00 and 63.15 t/ha. The lowest yield was 

registered when Granat variety was used, while the highest one was observed when Vitimo 

hybrid was cultivated. If Granat variety was took as control variant, a distinct significant 

35


difference was observed at Kingdom 80 hybrid, which has a yield of 49.07 t/ha, with 

14.80% more than at Granat variety. In addition to this difference two more very significant 

differences were observed at Nepa and Vitimo hybrids, where the yields were higher than at 

the witness variant with 28.48% and 54.02%, their yields being 52.67 and 63.15 t/ha. 

If the average yield of the five varieties was considered the control variant, there 

was registered a distinct significant difference at Granat variety, where the yield was lower 

with 8.66 t/ha than the average one. Beside this, a significant negative difference was 

registered at Michihli hybrid (with a lower yield of 7.26 t/ha), and a very significant 

positive one, at Vitimo hybrid, which had an increased yield with 13.49 t/ha compared with 

the control variant. 

Conclusions 

The highest plants with largest diameter, at harvest, were those from Nepa hybrid, 

which had an average height of 52.50 cm and an average diameter of 66.50 cm. 

The plants belonging to Kingdom 80 hybrid, had the highest number of leaves, 

35.67, which were followed closely by the plants from Vitimo hybrid, with 34.67 leaves. 

Even if between total leaf number and total weight there was no statistically 

supported relationship, between head and total weight exists a distinct significant positive 

correlation. 

The bolting percentage had an average value of 18.33%, at harvest, with a 

minimum number of bolted plants at Vitimo hybrid. 

The yields varied between 41.00 t/ha (at Granat hybrid) and 63.15 t/ha (at 

Vitimo hybrid). 

The most suitable hybrid, for cultivation in Transylvanian Tableland area is 

Vitimo F1 (due to its high production and low bolting percentage), followed by Nepa F1 

(due to its high yield and good plant development). 

In conclusion it can be said that Chinese cabbage can be cultivated in 

Transylvanian Tableland area, even in early spring ecological cultures, in open field, 

without using special measures, adding fertilizers or making treatments with synthetic 

products. 

References 

1. DAVIDSON A. & TOM J. 2006. The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 175 pp. 

2. LARCOM J. 2003. The Organic Salad Garden. Frances Lincoln Limited, London, 31-33 pp. 

36

No. 

Variant 

Variety / 

Hybrid 


Tab. 1. Cabbage head development at maturity 

Cabbage head 

Lenght 

(cm) 

Diameter 

37 

(cm) 

Weight 

(kg) 

Number of 

leaves 

1 Michihli 46,83 41,00 0,48 16,17 

2 Kingdom 80 35,00 34,50 0,59 27,50 

3 Granat 44,33 27,50 0,47 14,83 

4 Nepa F1 42,00 38,67 0,66 19,83 

5 Vitimo F1 28,67 37,17 0,73 27,17 

Variant 

Hybrid 

Average 39,37 35,77 0,59 21,10 

Tab. 2. The influence of variety upon the yield of Chinese cabbage 

Average 

yield 

(t/ha) 

Relative 

yield 

(%) 

Difference 

(t/ha) 

Significance 

Relative 

yield 

(%) 

Difference 

(t/ha) 

Significance 

Granat 41.00 100,0 0,00 Mt. 82.56 -8.66 oo 

Kingdom 

80 

49,07 114.80 8.07 ** 94.78 -0.59 - 

Michihli 42.40 103.41 1.40 - 85.38 -7.26 o 

Nepa F1 52,67 128.48 11.67 *** 106.06 3.01 - 

Vitimo F1 63.15 154.02 22.15 *** 127.16 13.49 *** 

Average 49.66 - - - 100,0 0,00 Mt. 

LSD (p 5%) 6,09 

LSD (p 1%) 8.05 

LSD (p 0,1%) 11.25


60,00 

50,00 

40,00 

30,00 

Plants height (cm) 

20,00 

10,00 

0,00 

FIGURE CAPTIONS 

At planting 15,00 13,67 15,33 13,33 11,00 

One month after planting 41,83 21,50 38,67 36,33 31,17 

At harvest 46,50 24,67 47,83 52,50 29,33 

80,00 

60,00 

40,00 

Plants diameter (cm) 

20,00 

0,00 

Michihli Kingdom 80 Granat Nepa F1 Vitimo F1 

38 

Variant 

Fig. 1. Plants height evolution from planting to harvest 


At planting 18,33 19,00 15,00 15,33 13,33 

One month after planting 43,00 51,67 43,50 48,67 42,83 

At harvest 55,83 52,83 55,17 66,50 47,33 

Variant 

Fig. 2. Plants diameter evolution from planting to harvest

40,00 

35,00 

30,00 

25,00 

20,00 

Number of leaves 15,00 

Total leaf number 

10,00 

5,00 

0,00 



At planting 7,33 7,67 6,33 6,67 7,00 

One mont after planting 16,83 19,83 15,67 14,00 16,50 

At harvest 21,83 35,67 21,67 25,83 34,67 

40,00 

30,00 

39 

Variant 

20,00 

10,00 

0,00 

y = 40,407x - 0,392 

r = 0,73 

0,50 0,55 0,60 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 

Weight (kg) 

1,00 

0,80 

0,60 

0,40 

0,20 

0,00 

Fig. 3. Leaf number evolution from planting to harvest 

Total weigth (kg) 

Total leaf number 

Fig. 4. Correlation between total number of leaves and total weight 

n=5, p(5%)=0.88, p(1%)=0.96 


Total 0,56 0,70 0,62 0,75 0,88 

Head 0,48 0,59 0,47 0,66 0,73 

Variant 

Fig. 5. Comparison between total plant and head weight


Number of leaves 

Bolting percentage (%) 

Head weight (kg) 

40,00 

30,00 

20,00 

10,00 

0,00 

0,80 

0,70 

0,60 

0,50 

0,40 

0,30 

0,20 

0,10 

40 

y = 0,8909x - 0,0392 

r = 0,97 

0,00 

0,50 0,55 0,60 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 

Total weight (kg) 

Head weight 


Rosette 5,67 8,17 6,83 6,00 7,50 

Head 16,17 27,50 14,83 19,83 27,17 

Total 21,83 35,67 21,67 25,83 34,67 

35,00 

30,00 

25,00 

20,00 

15,00 

10,00 

5,00 

0,00 

20,83 

8,33 

Fig. 6. Correlation between total and head weight 

n=5, p(5%)=0.88, p(1%)=0.96 

12,50 

0,00 

29,17 

12,50 

Variant 

Fig. 7. Leaf layout 

Michihli Kingdom 80 Granat Nepa F1 Vitimo F1 Average 

Variant 

20,83 

12,50 

One month after planting At harvest 

Fig. 8. Bolting percentage 

8,33 

0,00 

18,33 

6,67


18(2011): 41-45 

41 

ANDRO ANCA-RALUCA & al. 

COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL 

RESEARCH ON TAXA OF MENTHA L. GENUS 

ANDRO ANCA-RALUCA 1 , BOZ IRINA 1 , PĂDURARIU CLAUDIA 1 , 

ATOFANI DOINA 1 , COISIN MAGDA 1 , ZAMFIRACHE MARIA-MAGDALENA 1 

Abstract: The Mentha L. genus has many aromatic and medicinal taxa with a large area in our country. These 

taxa prefer flooded, swampy areas and wetlands, but they can also grow in moderate dry areas. 

Biochemical characteristics were obtained for 7 taxa from Mentha L. genus, wild or cultivated 

plants. The studies concerning the assimilative pigments, the hydric content, and the dry matter were 

determined for each vegetation stage. We used the gravimetric method for the hydric content and dry 

matter and the spectrophotometric method for estimation of the assimilative pigments. The results of 

the experiments are not the same for each taxon because of different harvesting periods and the 

ecological conditions of each taxon area. 

Key words: Mentha, assimilative pigments, dry matter, water 

Introduction 

Mentha genus includes herbaceous plants, perennial, aromatic, with a pungent 

odor characteristic, due to the volatile oil they contain. The Genus Mentha L. has a complex 

taxonomy, which makes it difficult to identify the species because of its phenotypic 

plasticity, genetic variability and because most species are able to produce hybrids by 

crossing. For example, the delimitation of the species Mentha spicata L. is problematic due 

to hybridization and doubling the number of chromosomes, especially when introgressive 

hybridization appears between some species in certain areas [HARLEY, 1972]. 

Due to their properties, these plants are used in pharmaceutical cosmetic and 

food industries. Photosynthetic pigments are known for their physiological role of 

protection against physical agents, such as blue and ultraviolet radiation, but also against 

biological agents [HOPKINS, 1985]. 

Water provides an environment for vital biochemical reactions. In metabolic 

processes it makes the enzyme activity and is involved in both biosynthesis and anabolic 

processes to catabolic processes of degradation [TOMA & JITĂREANU, 2000]. 

Materials and methods 

The material used in this paper is represented by seven taxa of the genus Mentha, 

cultivated or from spontaneous vegetation, collected in three phenophases: vegetative, 

flowering and senescence, during the vegetation period of 2010. The culticated taxa are: 

Mentha spicata L., Mentha piperita var. black Mitcham. and Mentha x piperita var. 

columna L. The spontaneous taxa were collected from the following locations: Caraorman, 

1 Department of Plant Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, 20A Carol I Boulevard, 

700505, Iaşi – Romania, tel. 40(0)232201072, e-mail: anca_andro@yahoo.com

COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON TAXA OF MENTHA L… 

Tulcea County (Mentha aquatica L. and Mentha pulegium L.), Negreşti and Cioatele, 

Vaslui County (Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds.). 

For determination of foliar assimilatory pigments we used the spectrophotometric 

method and for determining the content water and dry matter the gravimetric method was 

used [BOLDOR & al. 1983]. 

Research has been conducted in the Laboratory of Plant Physiology of the Faculty 

of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi. 


The research conducted on the biosynthesis and accumulation of assimilatory 

pigments in the studied taxa, reveals the following results (Tab. 1): 

Tab. 1. Assimilatory pigment content in species of the genus Mentha during vegetative 

stage in 2010 

Taxon 

Vegetative 

stage 

Chlorophyll a 

(mg/g 

fresh matter) 

Chlorophyll b 

(mg/g 

fresh matter) 

Carotenoidic 

pigments 

(mg/g 

fresh matter) 

Chlorophyll a 

/ Chlorophyll 

b 

Mentha 

Vegetative 1.130 0.404 0.0003 2.797 

longifolia (L.) 

Huds. 

(Negreşti) 

Flowering 

Senescence 

1.353 

1.012 

0.451 

0.283 

0.0004 

0.0003 

3.000 

3.575 

Mentha 

Vegetative 0.961 0.311 0.0002 3.090 

longifolia (L.) 

Huds. 

(Cioatele) 

Flowering 

Senescence 

0.909 

1.252 

0.339 

0.360 

0.0002 

0.0003 

2.681 

3.477 

Mentha 

aquatica 

L.(Caraorman) 

Vegetative 0.455 0.198 0.0001 2.297 

Mentha 

pulegium L. 

(Caraorman) 

Mentha x 

piperita var. 

columna 

L.(Vaslui) 

Mentha 

piperita var. 

black 

Mitcham. 

(Piatra Neamţ) 

Mentha spicata 

L. 


Flowering 0.495 0.178 0.0001 2.780 

Senescence 0.641 0.315 0.0002 2.034 

Vegetative 0.779 0.237 0.0001 3.286 

Flowering 0.905 0.365 0.0002 2.479 

Senescence 1.127 0.401 0.0003 2.810 

Vegetative 1.841 0.590 0.0005 3.120 

Flowering 1.532 0.450 0.0004 3.404 

Senescence 1.340 0.452 0.0004 2.964 

Vegetative 1.510 0.558 0.0004 2.706 

Flowering 2.081 0.739 0.0001 2.815 

Senescence 1.898 0.675 0.0002 2.811 

Vegetative 1.101 0.387 0.0003 2.844 

Flowering 2.294 0.755 0.0006 3.038 

Senescence 2.178 0.643 0.0003 3.387 

42

43 


On the taxa taken into study one may note an upward trend of assimilatory 

pigments in plant during the growing season. From the quantitative point of view there are 

significant differences throughout the growing season: the content of assimilatory pigments 

in cultivated taxa (M. x piperita var. columna, M. x piperita var. black, M. spicata is 

obviously higher than that of spontaneous taxa (M. longifolia, M. aquatica, M. pulegium). 

These taxa were collected in the same phenophase, so the process of photosynthesis is 

greater in the leaves of cultivated taxa, compared with those collected from spontaneous 

taxa. 

It was recorded a significant quantitative increase of chlorophyll a from the 

vegetative phenophase to senescence in the case of M. aquatica and M. pulegium taxa. At 

three of the taxa studied (M. longifolia, (Negreşti), M. x piperita var. black, M. spicata the 

maximum amount of chlorophyll a was recorded at flowering and at the other two (M. 

longifolia (Cioatele), M. x piperita var. columna the maximum amount of chlorophyll a 

was recorded in vegetative phenophase. 

In the case of chlorophyll b was found a similar dynamic, the values recorded 

being obvious lower. The variations recorded for chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b change 

the relationship between the two fractions of chlorophyll, the highest value being reached 

during the flowering period of the plant (3.404 mg/g fresh matter) at the M. x piperita var. 

columna taxon. 

In all three vegetative phenophases is observed that the ratio of chlorophyll a and 

chlorophyll b varies from 2.034 to 3.404; the lowest value was registered at senescence, 

while the lowest value was reached in the flowering phenophase. We see therefore that the 

ratio of 3/1 expressed in specialty literature for many species is not recorded constantly 

throughout the period analyzed [BURZO & al. 1999; TOMA & JITĂREANU, 2000; 

ZAMFIRACHE, 2005]. 

Carotenoid pigments are found in small quantities, 0.0001 to 0.0006 mg/g fresh 

matter, compared with chlorophylls a and b. The maximum value, 0.0006 mg/g fresh matter 

for carotenoid pigments was recorded during the flowering period for M. spicata taxon. 

The intensity of photosynthesis varies throughout the year. With the increase in 

leaf size the number of chloroplasts and the amount of chlorophyll also increases, the 

photosynthesis process becoming more intense [BĂDULESCU, 2009]. If we analyze the 

foliar tissue indicators at the studied taxa, it appears that the process of photosynthesis 

records significant increases throughout the growing season in proportion to the chlorophyll 

content. The intensity of this process stays constant thereafter. 

Tab. 2. Dry foliar matter and water content at species of the genus Mentha L. during the 

growing season in 2010 

Taxon Vegetative stage S.U. (g%) H2O (g%) 

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Vegetative 27.21 72.79 

(Negreşti) 

Flowering 28.36 71.64 

Senescence 32.81 67.19 

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Vegetative 29.87 70.13 

(Cioatele) 



Mentha aquatica L. 

Vegetative 19.35 80.85 

(Caraorman) 


Senescence 27.75 72.25

COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON TAXA OF MENTHA L… 

Mentha pulegium L. 


(Caraorman) 



Mentha x piperita 


var. columna L. 


(Vaslui) Senescence 23.28 76.72 

Mentha x piperita 


var. black Mitcham. 


(Piatra Neamţ) Senescence 31.78 68.22 

Mentha spicata L. 





Water content: from research conducted at the studied taxa we noticed that in the 

vegetation period it was recorded the highest water content, which decreased gradually 

towards fructification (Tab. 2). The highest value was registered in the vegetative 

phenophase - 84.25 g% in M. spicata species, and the lowest value of 60.89 g% was 

obtained from the species M. longifolia collected from Cioatele area, Vaslui County; we 

consider this water content to be sufficient for the physiological processes in normal 

parameters at the plants investigated. The observed values for water content of taxa 

analyzed, range from 70.13 to 84.25 g% for vegetative phenophase 69.89 to 78.32 g% for 

flowering and from 60.89 to 76.72 g% senescence. 

Dry matter accumulates during the development of the plant, its highest value 

occurring in senescence 39.11 g% of the species M. longifolia collected from the area 

Cioatele. The values obtained in the vegetative phenophase range from 15.73 to 29.87 g% 

at flowering from 21.68 to 29.35 and from 23.28 to 39.11 g% at senescence. 

At the studied taxa a similar trend is observed concerning the water content and 

dry foliar matter throughout the whole vegetation season; as an exception we report the 

situation of M. longifolia taxon collected from the area Cioatele, which has the lowest 

content of dry foliar matter at flowering phenophase (28.02 g%). 

Therefore it is observed a quantitative increase in dry matter content throughout 

the vegetation period inversely proportional to the decrease of water content. This was also 

observed by other authors as ZAMFIRACHE & al. (1997, 2005), BURZO & al. (1999), 

STRATU (2002) etc., at many other species. All these results indicate that the investigated 

plants have a higher metabolic rhythm in the phenophase of vegetation, and afterwards it 

decreases gradually towards fruition. 

Conclusions 

The taxa taken into account, according to the foliar investigated indicators, show 

that the intensity of photosynthesis varies throughout the whole vegetation season, this 

process increasing proportionally with the quantity of assimilative pigments. 

The content of foliar water and dry matter of the analyzed taxa suggests that the 

physiological processes take place at an alert pace during phenophase and decrease 

progressively towards senescence. 

44

45 



This article was made possible with financial support within the 

POSDRU/88/1.5/S/47646 project, co-funded from the Social European Fund, via Human 

Resources Development Operational Programme 2007-2013 and by program “Developing 

the innovation capacity and improving the impact of research through post-doctoral 

programmes” POSDRU/89/1.5/S/4994. 

References 

1. BĂDULESCU L. 2009. Botanică şi fiziologia plantelor. Bucureşti: Edit. Elisa Varos: 127-149. 

2. BOLDOR O., RAIANU O. & TRIFU M. 1983. Fiziologia plantelor, (lucrări practice). Bucureşti: Edit. 

Didactică şi Pedagogică: 145-160. 

3. BURZO I., TOMA S., CRĂCIUN C., VOICAN V., DOBRESCU A. & DELIAN E. 1999. Fiziologia 

plantelor de cultură, Vol. 1. Chişinău: Edit. „Întreprinderea Editorial - Poligrafică Ştiinţa”, 48-78, 199- 

234, 378-429. 

4. HARLEY R. M. 1972. Mentha. În Flora Europaea, Vol. III, Edit. Cambridge University Press: 183 – 186. 

5. HOPKINS W. G. 1985. Introduction to plant physiology. John Wiley and sons. Inc; New York – Chichester – 

Brisbane – Toronto – Singapore. 

6. STRATU A. 2002. Cercetări fiziologice şi biochimice la specii din familia Umbeliferae (Apiaceae). Teză de 

doctorat. Universitatea “Al. I. Cuza” din Iaşi: 41-61, 190-289. 

7. TOMA L. D. & JITĂREANU C. D.,2000. Fiziologia plantelor. Iaşi: Edit. Ion Ionescu de la Brad: 15-44. 

8. ZAMFIRACHE M.-M., BOGHIU A. & AIFTIMIE A. 1997. Aspecte ale regimului hidric la specii de origine 

mediteraneană cultivate în scop ornamental în condiţii protejate, Lucr. Şt. Univ. St. Agr. Med. Vet. ”Ion 

Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi, ser. Horticultură, 40: 326-328. 

9. ZAMFIRACHE M.-M. 2005. Fiziologie vegetală, 1, Iaşi: Edit. Azimuth: 72-89.


18(2011): 47-54 

47 

ADUMITRESEI LIDIA & al. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOLIAR ASSIMILATING PIGMENTS 

CONTENT FOR WILD AND GARDEN ROSES 

ADUMITRESEI LIDIA 1 , ZAMFIRACHE MARIA MAGDALENA 2 , 

OLTEANU ZENOVIA 2 , BOZ IRINA 2 

Abstract: The study of foliar assimilating pigments (chlorophyll a and b, carotenoid pigments) during the 

ontogenetic development for the wild and the cultivar species of roses indicate from interesting 

aspects on the ratio chlorophyll a and b, which is more than a unit in the case of species and in most 

cases, less than a unit for the cultivars. The ratio chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, reaches 

thousands in the case of species and units (tenths) for cultivars. 

We mention here that the cultivars are the result of multiple and introgressive hybridizations 

conducted for hundreds of years [ADUMITRESEI & STĂNESCU, 2009; KRÜSMAN, 1986]. 

Key words: wild and cultivated roses, chlorophyll, carotenoids from the leaf 

Introduction 

The Rosa genus represents, through the spontaneous species spread in the holarctic 

region, a botanical entity of wide scientific, fundamental and applied interest; despite all 

this, information about the fundamental research on its biology is still scarce [BURZO & al. 

2005; JITĂREANU, 2007; SIHNA, 2004; ZAMFIRACHE, 2005, 2006]. 

As far as its behaviour towards sunlight is concerned, the speciality literature 

mentions that the species of the Rosa genus are mostly heliosciophyte having a transition 

character between the sun and the shade species [KRÜSSMAN, 1986]. 

From a physiological point of view, for the representatives of the Rosa genus the 

more intensely studied under a functional aspect are the two distinct photo systems and less 

other characteristics of photo assimilating pigments [TAIZ, 2002]. 


The study of assimilating pigments content from 9 spontaneous species of the 

Rosa genus, 5 aboriginal ones (R. canina L., R. gallica L., R. glauca Pourr., R. 

pimpinellifolia L., R. rubiginosa L.) and 4 alochtonous ones (R. damascena Mill., R. 

multibracteata Hemsl. et Wills., R. multiflora Thunb. and R. rugosa Thunb.) was conducted 

during vegetation period, observing chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments content at 

vegetative status, blooming fructification and fruit ripening. In order to emphasize the same 

compounds 8 types of garden roses (‘Cocktail’, ‘Laminuette’, ‘Luchian’, ‘M-me A. 

Meilland’, ‘Perla d’Alcanada’, ‘Président Briand’, ‘Pristine’ and ‘Rose Gaujard’) were 

observed. 

1 “Anastasie Fătu” Botanic Garden, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Dumbrava Roşie, no. 7-9, 700487, 

Iaşi – Romania, e-mail: lidia.adumitresei@yahoo.com 

2 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Bd. Carol I, no. 11, 700 506, Iaşi – Romania

OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOLIAR ASSIMILATING PIGMENTS CONTENT FOR WILD AND… 

The fresh material of foliar assimilating pigments determinations was done in the 

Vegetal Physiology Laboratory of the Biology Faculty, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University 

of Iaşi by spectrophotometric method. 


In the case of species, during the vegetative stage, there can be observed a higher 

chlorophyll a content compared to chlorophyll b, of a ratio ranging around the value of 3/1 

in all the cases. 

Slightly higher values of chlorophyll were registered for the species R. damascena 

(1.897 mg), R. glauca (1.576 mg) and R. pimpinellifolia (1.448 mg), with a minimum value 

for the R. multibracteata (1.016 mg) species (Fig. 1). 

High values of chlorophyll b are present in the species R. damascena (0.617 mg), 

followed by R. glauca (0.538 mg) and R. canina (0.516 mg), while the lowest quantities are 

to be found in R. rubiginosa (0.319 mg) and R. multibracteata (0.306 mg). 

The minimum values of the chlorophyll a : chlorophyll b ratio are observed in R. 

pimpinellifolia (2.998/1), R. glauca (2.929/1), while R. rubiginosa and R. multibracteata 

have ratios that are superior to the values 3.3/1. 

mg/100 g 

2 

1.8 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0 

R. canina 

R. gallica 

R. glauca 

R. pimpinellifolia 

R. rubiginosa 

Fig. 1. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated species of Rosa, 

vegetative stage 

Carotenoid pigments have comparable values for all the taxons, varying between 

0.0004 mg (R. multibracteata and R. gallica) and 0.0006 mg (R. damascena). 

48 

R. damascena 

R. multibracteata 

R. multiflora 

R. rugosa 

Clorofila Chlorophyll a a Clorofila Chlorophyll b b Pigmenţi Carotenoid carotenoidici pigments

49 


One must notice that the relatively high content of chrolophyll pigments in the R. 

glauca species, which are macroscopically shielded by antocianic pigments, giving it the 

colour naming the species. 

The carotenoid pigments content is extermely low in all the species, and the ratio 

of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments varies between 3305/1 in the case of the 

R. multibracteata species and 4266 for the R. canina species. 

It is possible, that the usual role of protective screen of the carotenoid pigments 

may be taken over by the antocianic pigments present in large quantities in the leaves as 

well as in the young Rosa shoots 

The already mentioned observations for the vegetative development fenophase are 

generally true for the blooming fenophase, with the sole observation that there is a 

decreasing tendency of the chlorophyll content (a and b) for the majority of species, except 

for R. pimpinellifolia, where chlorophyll a content (2.215 mg compared to 1.448 mg in the 

previous stage), as well as chlorophyll b (0.772 mg compared to 0.483 mg) is going up, 

while for the exotic species R. multibtracteata and R. multiflora there is only a significant 

increase in chlorophyll a content (2.361 mg compared to 1.016 mg and 2.083 mg 

respectively, compared to 1.328 mg). 

In this fenophase, the ratio of these two types of chlorophyll slightly modifies its 

values, slightly superior to the 4/1 level in R. gallica among all the other aboriginal species 

and R. damascena among the alochtonous species. Most the species have a ratio between 3 

and 4/1. R. rubiginosa clearly distinguishes itself with a 1/0.141 ratio of chlorophyll a and b, 

where we can also notice on the one side a reduction in the total content of assimilating 

pigments (0.525 mg compared to 1.396 mg in the previous stage). On the other side, there is 

also a reverse in the ratio of the two types of chlorophyll in favour of chlorophyll b (Fig. 2). 

mg/100 g 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

R. canina 

R. gallica 

R. glauca 


R. rubiginosa 

R. damascena 


R. multiflora 

Clorofila Chlorophyll a a Clorofila Chlorophyll b b Pigmenţi Carotenoid carotenoidici pigments 

Fig. 2. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated species of Rosa at the 

blooming fenophase stage


We must mention that during this fenophase the volatile substances content in the 

R. rubiginosa leaf is at its peak. 

At the start of the fructification one can notice an increase in the assimilating 

pigments content for the majority of the species combined with a decrease of the clorophyll 

a and b ratio under the 3/1 value. The value remains superior to this level only for R. canina 

(3.043/1). The content of carotenoid pigments slightly increases, reaching values between 

0.0006 and 0.0007 mg for the species R. pimpinellifolia, R. rubiginosa, R. glauca and R. 

rugosa (Fig. 3). 

mg/100 g 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

R. canina 

R. glauca 


Fig. 3. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated species of Rosa at the start of 

the fructification stage 

The ratio of assimilating and carotenoid pigments also displays extremely high 

values ranging from 3873/1 for R. rubiginosa and 6913/1 for R. canina. 

At the ripening of the fruits we notice a decrease in the content of assimilating 

pigments, with a ratio of assimilating pigments varying between 1.612/1 for R. 

multibracteata and 2.820/1 for R. rubiginosa. The ratio of assimilating pigments and 

carotenoid ones register high values between 3644/1 for R. gallica and 4411/1 for R. 

multibracteata (Fig. 4). 

The analysis of foliar assimilating pigments for cultivars at vegetative and 

generative stage (blooming) reveals a series of significant differences compared to the 

spontaneous species. 

First of all, there is a much higher chlorophyll b content than chlorophyll a at the 

majority of the taxons, at both harvestings. Secondly, the cultivars display larger quantities 

of carotenoid pigments compared to other species. 

50 

R. rubiginosa 


R. rugosa 

Clorofila Chlorophyll a a Clorofila Chlorophyll b b Pigmenţi Carotenoid carotenoidici pigments

51 


The chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b ratio, as well as the one for assimilating and 

carotenoid pigments presents itself as having totally different limits. 

mg/100 g 

1.8 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

0.2 

0 

R. canina 

R. gallica 

R. glauca 


R. rubiginosa 



R. rugosa 

Fig. 4. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated species of Rosa 

at the ripening stage 

For the cultivars at vegetative stage there is a low content in chlorophyll a 

varying between 0.048 mg for the cultivar ‘Cocktail’ and ‘M-me A. Meilland’ as well as 

‘President Briand’ (0.076 mg), with values closer to 0.1 mg for cultivars ‘Laminuette’, 

‘Rose Gaujard’ and ‘Pristine’, raising over 0.2 and 0.3 mg respectively for cultivars ‘Perla 

d’Alcanada’ (0.202 mg) and ‘Luchian’ (0.0308 mg). As far the chlorophyll b content is 

concerned, small quantities in absolute values (in these cases lower than in chlorophyll a) 

can be observed in the cultivars ‘Perla d’Alcanada’ (cu 0.016 mg), ‘Rose Gaujard’ (0.054 

mg) and ‘Luchian’ (0.225 mg). The other cultivars contain between 1.265 mg in the case of 

the cultivar ‘M-me A. Meilland’ and 1.691 mg in the case of cultivar ‘Pristine’ (Fig. 5). 

The chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b ratio diplays less than a unit values in the case 

of most cultivars, ranging from 0.038/1 for the cultivars ‘M-me A. Meilland’ and ‘Cocktail’ 

and 0.071/1 for the cultivars ‘Laminuette’ and ‘Pristine’. Ratios over the unit can be seen in 

the cultivars ‘Luchian’ (1.369/1), ‘Rose Gaujard’ (2/1) and a much higher value for ‘Perla 

d’Alcanada’ (12.625/1).


mg/100 g 

1.800 

1.600 

1.400 

1.200 

1.000 

0.800 

0.600 

0.400 

0.200 

0.000 

Cocktail 

Laminuette 

Luchian 

M-me A. Meilland 

Perla d'Alcanada 

52 

Président Briand 

Pristine 

Rose Gaujard 


Fig. 5. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated species of Rosa at the 

vegetative stage 

The ratio of assimilating and carotenoid pigments comes in the case of cultivars 

close to the values mentioned by classic physiology, varying between (0.866/1) for the 

‘Rose Gaujard’ cultivar and 10.836/1 for the ‘Président Briand’ cultivar, while the other 

cultivars are aiming at one of these two poles: ‘Luchian’ (2.098/1) and ‘Perla d’Alcanada’ 

(2.247/1) and between 8 and 9/1 respectively, in the case of the cultivars ‘Pristine’, ‘M-me 

A. Meilland’, ‘Laminuette’ and ‘Cocktail’. 

At the blooming fenophase there is, first of all, a high clorophyll b content, which 

varies between 1.297 mg for the ’Perla d’Alcanada’ cultivar and 2.264 mg for the ‘Rose 

Gaujard’ cultivar. 

Secondly, there is a low chlorophyll a content in all the examined cultivars, 

between the limits: 0.050 mg for ‘Perla d’Alcanada’, 0.075 mg for the ‘Pristine’ cultivar 

and 0.272 mg for the ‘Cocktail’ cultivar. 

Finally, there is a remarkable carotenoid pigments content, which in most cases 

overpasses the chlorophyll a content with two exceptions, the ‘Cocktail’ (with 0.272 mg 

chlorophyll a compared to 1.1 mg of carotenoid pigments) and ‘Rose Gaujard’ cultivars 

(chlorophyll a 0.216 mg, and carotenoid pigments 0,196 mg), but even in these cases the 

differences are small [TĂMAŞ & NEAMŢU, 1986]. 

As a consequence, the chlorophyll a and b ratio is places less than a unit with 

extremely low values (between 0.039 for the ‘Perla d’Alcanada’ cultivar and 0.198 for the 

‘Cocktail’ cultivar). 

As it in vegetative stage, the ratio of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments has 

values close to those mentioned in classic physiology textbooks (between 9.258 for the

53 


‘Cocktail’ and ‘Laminuette’ cultivars and 12.713 mg for the ‘M-me A. Meilland’ cultivar) 

(Fig. 6). 

mg/100 g 

2.500 

2.000 

1.500 

1.000 

0.500 

0.000 

Cocktail 

Laminuette 

Luchian 

M-me A. Meilland 

Perla d'Alcanada 

Président Briand 

Pristine 

Rose Gaujard 


Fig. 6. The assimilating pigments content variation for the investigated cultivars of Rosa at the 

blooming fenophase stage 

The higher content of chlorophyll b compared to chlorophyll a is, according to 

concepts of the classic physiology, something particular of the shade plants, but the roses 

planted vegetated really well in full sunlight. It is possible that the cultivated roses need a 

much consistent protection screen since they bloomed better there than in the shade 

[ARGATU, 1989; WAGNER, 1978; KRÜSSMAN, 1986]. 

According to the modern physiology concepts the chlorophyll and carotenoid 

pigments selectively absorb the radiations of light. Chlorophyll a presents a maximum 

absorption of the radiations with a wavelength of 700 and 435 nm respectively. Chlorophyll 

b has a maximum absorption of the radiations with the wavelength of 644 and 453 nm 

respectively, while the carotenoid pigments have a maximum absorption of the radiations 

within the wavelengths 400-480 nm. With this reality as a starting point, one may observe 

that the current roses cultivars have a more intense absorption of blue radiation 

[JITĂREANU, 2007 according to AUDERIRK & AUDERIRK, 1993]. 

Conclusions 

In the case of spontaneous species chlorophyll a is predominant, the chlorophyll a 

and b ratio varying between 1.6-4/1, similar to the one described by classic physiology as 

being specific to plants that love sunlight. 

For the hybrid origin cultivars, chlorophyll b is predominant with an a/b ratio 

varying between 0.37-2/1, which would suggest that, according to classic physiology, these 

cultivars love shade. However, the field observations contradict it. According to the modern 

physiology concepts [JITĂREANU, 2007 according to AUDERIRK & AUDERIRK, 1993]


the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments selectively absorb the light radiations. This is how 

the garden roses display a more intense absorbtion of blue radiations. 

The carotenoid pigments content is extremely low for spontaneous species (under 

ppm per mg/100 g fresh material), while for the cultivars it ranges within normal limits, 

with the values of 0.1-0.2 mg/100 g per fresh material. 

Most probably, together with the carotenoid pigments acting as protectors of the 

chlorophylls, there are other anthocyanic pigments present in large quantities in species and 

cultivars as well in all of the ontogenesis stages. 

References 

1. ADUMITRESEI L., STĂNESCU I. 2009. Theoretical considerations upon the origin and nomenclature of 

the present rose cultivars. J. Plant Develop., 16: 103-109. 

2. ARGATU C. 1989. Cercetări privind comportarea unor soiuri de trandafiri în condiţiile de la Vidra. Analele 

ICLF Vidra, XIV: 257-268. 

3. BOLDOR O., RAIANU O., TRIFU M. 1983. Fiziologia plantelor – lucrări practice. Bucureşti: Edit. 

Didactică şi Pedagogică, 290 pp. 

4. BURZO I., AMĂRIUŢEI A., VÂSCĂ Z. D. 2005. Fiziologia plantelor de cultură. Vol. VI. Fiziologia 

plantelor floricole. Bucureşti: Edit. Elisavaros, 293 pp. 

5. JITĂREANU C. D. 2007. Fiziologia plantelor. Iaşi: Edit. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, 500 pp. 

6. KRÜSSMANN G. 1986. Rosen, Rosen, Rosen: unser Wissen über die Rose. (2.Aufl.). Paul Parey Verlag, 

Berlin und Hamburg, 448 pp. 

7. MURARIU A. 2007. Fiziologie vegetală. Iaşi: Edit. Universităţii “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, II: 292 pp. 

8. SINHA R. K. 2004. Modern plant physiology. Alpha Science International Ltd., UK: 256-275. 

9. TAIZ L., ZEIGER E. 2002. Plant physiology (4 th ed.). Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers Sunderland, 

Massachusetts, 620 pp. 

10. TAIZ L., ZEIGER E. 2006. Plant physiology (4 th ed.). Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers Sunderland, 

Massachusetts, 623 pp. 

11. TĂMAŞ V., NEAMŢU G. 1986. Pigmenţi carotenoidici şi metaboliţi. I, 245 pp. 

12. WAGNER Ş. 1978. Comportarea în câmp a unor soiuri de trandafir în condiţiile de la Cluj-Napoca. Analele 

ICLF Vidra. IV: 211-219. 

13. ZAMFIRACHE M-M. 2005. Fiziologie vegetală. Iaşi: Edit. Azimuth, I: 195 pp. 

14. ZAMFIRACHE M-M., TOMA C., BURZO I., ADUMITRESEI L., TOMA I., OLTEANU Z., MIHĂESCU 

D., TĂNĂSESCU V., APETREI R. I., SURDU Ş. 2006. Morphological, anatomical, biochemical and 

physiological researches upon taxa of Rosa genus cultivated in Iaşi Botanical Garden (note II). The 4 th 

Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of South-East European Countries: 291-297. 

54


18(2011): 55-69 

55 

BALAEŞ TIBERIUS, TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN 

INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE MYCORRHIZAL SYSTEMS 

AND SOIL ORGANISMS 

BALAEŞ TIBERIUS 1 , TĂNASE CĂTĂLIN 1 

Abstract: The mycorrhizae are largely spread in natural ecosystems, and the proportion of plants that realise 

mycorrhizas is overwhelming, this relation involving advantages for both partners. The presence or 

absence of mycorrhizae, the rate and intensity of mycorrhiza formation are aspects with ecological 

importance, but also present importance in modern agriculture. The research results published on 

international literature which views the principal relations between mycorrhizae and soil microbiota, 

the way in which these relations affect the intensity of mycorrhizae formation and also the efficiency 

of mycorrhizae under the influence of soil organisms are synthesized and commented in this paper. 

The relations between mycorrhizae and different categories of bacteria, protozoa or microfungi, as 

well the influence of invertebrates through interactions of them with microorganisms are also being 

analyzed. 

Key words: mycorrhizae, interrelations, rhizosphere 

Introduction 

The presence of mycorrhizae makes possible the coexistence of symbiotic 

organisms in hostile environment or in places where the competition is very strong. In this 

way, the mycorrhizal partners present advantages and benefits that allow them to develop 

or reproduce in underoptimal conditions or to become competitive, being able to survive. 

These are natural constant mutualistic associations between the roots of plants and soil 

fungi. The purpose of these relations is to obtain anorganic nutrients by the plants and 

organic nutrients by the fungi in an easily and efficiently way. Fungal species that form 

mycorrhizae are taking up to 25% from photosynthesis products of plants and they can 

contribute with P and N up to 80% of plant necessary [MEYER & al. 2010]. 

Mycorrhizae are morphological and physiological different, and the interactions 

between mycorrhizal species are also different. The mycorrhizae types and the distribution of 

them in terrestrial bioms are being influenced by the climatic factors, soil composition and 

participant species, as well by the composition of soil organisms communities. The influence 

of mycorrhizae over the distribution in ecosystems of plant species is major, playing an active 

role in qualitatively and quantitatively modelling the ecosystems structure. In nature, the 

mycorrhizal species establish extremely complex relations with soil organisms, the formation 

of mycorrhizae often leads to qualitative and quantitative modifications of soil biota, the 

process being reciprocal, so soil organisms may play a decisive role on the way and intensity 

of mycorrhiza formation. As plants are a valuable source of nutrients for many categories of 

1 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iaşi, Bd. Carol I, no. 11, 700 506, Iaşi – Romania 

e-mail: tiberius_balaes@yahoo.com, tanase@uaic.ro

INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN THE MYCORRHIZAL SYSTEMS AND SOIL ORGANISMS 

soil organisms, they represent the centre of different types of interrelations, competition or 

cooperation, in order to gain access to these nutrients. 

The fungal symbiont occupies a special position in these relations, its presence in 

rhizosphere leading to profound modifications of microrhizosphere community structure. 

According to the effects of soil microorganisms on mycorrhiza formation and functioning, 

they can be beneficial, neutral or they can negatively affect the functionality of 

mycorrhizae. 

There is a possibility of using some microorganisms that can significantly reduce 

negative effects of the pathogens or microorganisms that directly or indirectly stimulate 

plants growth and development (through stimulation of mycorrhiza formation). In order to 

use it, it is necessary to elucidate the complex mechanisms established between mycorrhizal 

species and other categories of microorganisms on a hand, and on the other hand to 

elaborate the efficient schemes and methods of utilisation such beneficial microorganisms 

in agriculture, forestry, ecological reconstruction etc. 

The researches of Roumanian specialists concerning mycorrhizae were initiated half 

century ago [ŞESAN & al. 2010]. These researches approached the symbiosis in general and 

mechanisms determinated by mycorrhizae (ALDEA, ZARNEA, ZAMFIRACHE, TOMA, 

MAXIMILIAN, CARASAN etc.). Some authors (CHIRA, IORDACHE, NEAGOE etc.) 

were highlighting particular aspects of ecto- or endomycorrhizae. ALDEA, CHIRA, 

BRĂILOIU etc. had studied the mycorrhizal impact to the economical important plants. 

The concerns of researchers regarding the interactions between mycorrhizal 

species and soil microorganisms had generally targeted the plants protection and the 

reduction of frequency and severity of the phytopathogens attack [IACOMI & al. 2010]. It 

has been discovered that some microorganisms are frequently associated with mycorrhizae, 

their action being positive in relation with fungal symbiont, protecting the plant against the 

pathogens. In the last decades, the interest concerning elucidation of the mechanisms 

involved in establishing the complex interactions of the mycorrhizosphere and their role in 

protecting and stimulating plant development had increased. 

The mycorrhizal systems – clarification 

The mycorrhizae are symbiotic association, during which specific fungi are 

colonizing plants rootlets. In this type of relation, pathogenity and lesion of root structures 

are normally missing and the fungal invasion is blocked by the plant. Mycorrhizal plants 

are better developed than non-mycorrhizal plants. In this relation, plants are providing 

organic compounds for the fungal symbiont, and receive, in exchange, anorganic nutrients 

absorbed by hyphae. Due to the small size of hyphae, the absorptive surface and the 

explored volume of soil are very large, and the formation of root hairs is no longer 

necessary. Thus, the functions of mycelium become complementary to the root function. 

The mycorrhization represents a common phenomenon in ecosystems and it is 

characteristic for very different taxa, from the bryophytes to angiosperm. It is estimated that 

over 90% of terrestrial plants realise vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae [ENE & al. 2010], 

adding to them the plants that realise other types of mycorrhizae. A few groups of vascular 

plants do not realise mycorrhizae at all, these usually living in wet habitats. The fungal 

invasion is limited by the plant, being located to the cortex level, in intercellular position (at 

ectomycorrhizae) and with intracellular ramification (at endomycorrhizae). 

The hyphae are not colonizing tannins or calcium oxalate containing cells neither 

the organs apices. In the case of endomycorrhizae, arbusculs, vesicles and even hyphae are 

frequently lysed, their content being spilled in the cells of the host [ZAMFIRACHE & 

56


TOMA, 2000]. Some mycorrhizal species are considered common and spread in different 

habitats, and other species considered rare are forming mycorrhizae only with some host 

plants [FODOR & al. 2010]. 

Interspecific signals in the mycorrhizal systems 

The functions of the root can be influenced by mycorrhizae, in response to the 

rhizosphere action and soil fertility. These factors control the root architecture, reducing the 

ramification level and growing the dependency of plant for the symbiotic fungi 

[ZAMFIRACHE & TOMA, 2000]. 

The mycosymbiont becomes associated to the plant root and avoids the defence 

mechanisms. These processes are being initiated by the exchange of specific signals 

between both partners. The signalling is a process remarkably complex, involving different 

molecular mechanisms. In the early stages of the mycorrhiza formation, H2O2 plays a 

signalling role, and in a similar manner, the efflux of Cl 

57 

- and K + and the influx of Ca 2+ and 

extracellular alkalization [HEBE & al. 1999]. The higher concentrations of 

monosaccharides at the root-soil interface are leading to the activation of some 

physiological modifications in the fungal metabolism which play a signalling role. On the 

other hand, the presence of nitrogen compounds with fungal origins induces some 

modifications in the radicular metabolism [HAMPP & al. 1999]. The degradation rate of 

the organic compound with N is controlled by the plants through the C resources given to 

fungi for extracellular enzymes synthesis [TALBOT & TRESEDER, 2009]. 

After these preparatory mechanisms of metabolic activation, is following a 

specific recognition phase mediated by phytohormones secreted by both the plants and the 

fungi, the process being bidirectional. Transport inhibitors of auxine and the compounds 

that release ethylene are activating the root ramification, a process that can be stopped by 

the ethylene synthesis inhibitors. In the mycorrhizal formation processes morphological 

modifications of root cells are interfering, modifications which are controlled through gene 

activity regulation by fungal or plant phytohormones (auxines, ethylene, abscisic acid). The 

root exudates secreted during fungal inoculation, induce defense mechanisms against the 

pathogens [DUCHESNE, 1989]. 

REQUENA & al. (2007) proved that some flavonoidic compounds from the root 

exudates are increasing the spores germination and the hyphal growth and development. 

Also, during the formation of the mycorrhiza, the fungi are influencing the expression of 

genes involved in phenylpropanoids, flavonoids and isoflavonoids radicular metabolism. 

The rutin induces hyphal growth, and hypaphorine, an auxine analogous indolic 

compound, inhibits the root hairs elongation [NEHLS & al. 1998]. 

In the infective phase, proteosynthesis modifications take place, at least 50% from 

the both symbiotic partners proteins being synthesised in concentrations that differ from the 

concentration in which they are synthesised in a separate development of symbionts 

[DUCHESNE, 1989]. Some polyamines produced by fungal mycelium, have roles in the 

plants germination processes [NEHLS, 1998]. 

The hyphal adhesion is influenced by some hyphal wall compounds, as 

hydrophobines, cysteine-reached proteins, α-tubulin and actin [TIMONEN & al. 1996]. 

During the penetration of the root by the hyphae, low defensive responses are 

activated in plant organism, such as peroxidases production and proteins phosphorylation 

modifications. During a root infection made by a pathogenic fungal species, the plant 

reaction is strong and invariable, by contrary, the root infection made by a mycorrhizal


species is permitted by the plant. In physiological stress conditions, the production of such 

compounds increases, the fungal or plant metabolism being modified by them, with the 

purpose to adapt to the new conditions. The indol acetic acid of fungal origins controls the 

root morphological changes [GAY & al. 1994]. 

The types of mycorrhizae 

The morphology of mycorrhizae can deeply vary along with the type of relations 

between plant-host and the fungal species and with the environmental condition. The 

endomycorrhizae do not have a varied external morphology, but the ectomycorrhizae have 

different colours, shapes, sizes, which are characteristic to the participating species. A 

particular type is represented by peritrophic mycorrhizae, this being a stable relation 

between partners, in which the fungi develop around the root and form a mycelial network 

without having a direct contact with them. 

The ectomycorrhizae are symbiotic associations in which the fungal mycelium 

develops in strong contact with the roots, forming a mantle that covers the apice of the root. 

They are characteristic for many trees. There has been proposed different ectomycorrhizae 

classification systems based on morphological characteristics: colour (yellow, orange, red, 

brown, violet, black etc.) sizes, ramification types (non-ramificated, dichotomic branched, 

coralloids etc.) the sizes and shapes of rhizomorphs etc. A recent proposed criteria is based 

on the exploring type of substrate by the extramatrical mycelium, this having ecological 

importance [AGERER, 2001]. 

The ectoendomycorrhizae represent intermediate forms between ectomycorrhizae 

and endomycorrhizae, some authors placing them in the latter group. 

The endomycorrhizae are formed on the young rootlets, presenting only 

intercellular hyphae, which have well developed haustoria in root cortical cells. The 

haustoria can be twisted or divided, being named arbuscules. In some cases, mycelial 

hyphae can get through the entire organism of a plant. 

There are different categories of endotrophic mycorrhizae, some of them being 

characteristic for specific groups of plant: monotropoid mycorrhizae are present at 

Monotropa hypopitis, ericoid mycorrhizae found at species from Ericaceae and 

Epacridaceae, arbutoid mycorrhizae characteristic for species from Pyrolaceae and some 

species from Ericaceae, orchidean mycorrhizae present at Orchidaceae species. The 

vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae are being formed by the most of the plants, the involved 

fungal species having a siphonal structure. 

The influence of the mycorrhizae on soil organisms 

The modification process of soil properties and of soil microbiota is bidirectional, 

based on “first to come” rule. The inhibition mechanisms are represented by the 

competition for the C and energy sources, and also by the production of antibiotics or other 

inhibitory compounds. If the mycorrhizal species do not find in the environment, in preinfective 

phases, beneficial microorganisms, the chances of survival and colonizing a host 

decrease. 

According to ALBERTSEN & al. (2006), associated bacteria play an important 

role in vesicular-arbuscular fungi development in the organic matter. The process is 

bidirectional, because the teluric microorganisms respond to the mycorrhizal species 

extramatrical mycelium growth. 

58


According to RAIESI & GHOLLARATA (2006), the glomaline released by this 

fungi has negative effects on microbial respiration, this leading to the decrease of organic 

matter degradation rate from soil. 

By secreting mixtures of selective substances, plants will create selective conditions 

for developing the rhizosphere organisms. The plants are exudating a variety of chemical 

compounds and anorganic ions, mucilages, also antimicrobial compounds with role in 

defending the host. Also, the mycorrhizal species mycelium releases some exudates that 

contain organic compounds that stimulate the development of a hyphospheric microbiota, but 

in a lower quantity than that produced by the plants [ANDRADE & al. 1997]. 

In this manner, the host plant and its symbiotic partner mycelium are “selecting” 

bacteria that are beneficial for their relation [TARKKA & al. 2009]. 

After this selections, microbial communities will be dominated by some bacterial 

groups [HRŠELOVÁ & al. 1999; WELSH & al. 2010]. These bacteria stimulate the 

mycorrhizae development, but are also complementary to the functions of mycorrhizae, as 

nutrients absorption and biological control of the host plant [FREY-KLETT & al. 2007; 

cited by TARKKA & al. 2009]. The bacterial diversity in hyphosphere seems to be lower 

compared to the free soil [GRYNDLER & al. 2000], the gram negative bacteria prevailing 

[VOSÁTKA, 1996; cited by BAREA & al. 2002]. 

However, BIANCIOTTO & BONFANTE (2002) observed that there is a big 

specific diversity in the rhizosphere of mycorrhizal plants compared to the rhizosphere of 

non-mycorrhizal plants. The mycosphere participates to P recycling process from organic 

or anorganic compounds [BAREA & al. 2002]. The mycorrhizal associated 

microorganisms modify, also, the composition of mycorrhizosphere microbiota. In this 

way, Streptomyces AcH505, which colonizes the mycelium of ectomycorrhizal species 

Amanita muscaria, produces auxofuran, an antibiotic that modifies hyphospheric 

microbiota [RIEDLINGER & al. 2006, cited by HARTMANN & al. 2009]. 

The Bulkholderia cepacia species is frequently present as free in 

mycorrhizosphere, but it has not been isolated from free soil or from the non-mycorrhizal 

plants rhizosphere. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and the soil microbiota 

Between soil microbiota, the mycorrhizal species and plants are establishing 

extremely complex relations, with positive effects [AZCÓN-AGUILAR & BAREA, 1985] 

or negative effects [LARSEN & al. 2009] over the mycorrhization rate and over these 

processes efficiency. The root exudates are a valuable nutritive resource for rhizospheric 

microorganisms, qualitative and quantitative properties of these root exudates are 

influencing those interrelations established between organisms from this level. 

Many soil microorganisms can be considered as being neutral, because they do not 

bring a benefit nor a loss for the plant host or the mycorrhizal species. However, these 

organisms influence the soil activity and properties, contributing to organic matter 

mineralization or can be involved in different physico-chemical processes. Although these 

organisms do not directly interact with the plants, the processes in which they are involved 

might have influence over the plant development. The rhizospheric bacteria are bacteria 

already present in the soil and, as a result of the soil conditions modification (roots 

development) they find favourable niches to abundantly develop. The rhizospheric 

microorganisms can have different activities: pathogenic activity, plant protection, 

antibiotics productions etc. 

59


Many categories of rhizospheric bacteria have the capacity of stimulating the plant 

development beyond the presence of the mycorrhizal species. For these species, it was used 

the acronym PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) by LINDERMAN [1992, 

cited by AZCÓN-AGUILAR & BAREA, 1997], including both free and nodulating 

nitrogen fixing bacteria, soil phosphate solubilising bacteria, as well the bacteria that 

produce plant growth stimulators or pathogens inhibitors. But when they are both present, 

the mycorrhizal species and PGPR present complementary functions. 

The mechanisms by which some microorganisms can inhibit mycorrhizal 

development are diverse: they can compete for nutrients [MIRANSARI, 2009] both with 

mycorrhizal species in preinfective phase, sometimes even in postinfective phase, and with 

favourable microorganisms. On the other hand, non-favourable microorganisms can 

directly inhibit the fungi by releasing the antifungal toxins, or indirectly by releasing the 

phytotoxines, bactericidal or bacteriostatic substances and by modifying the soil properties 

(pH modification or ratio between different substances in the soil) or they can be 

pathogenic for fungi and for plants. Other microorganisms are attached to the fungal spores 

or to the hyphae surfaces [MIRANSARI, 2011], using them as vectors for colonizing the 

root plants (BIANCIOTTO & al. 2000; cited by BAREA & al. 2002]. 

Bulkholderia, Ralstonia and Pandora are endobacteria of some vesiculararbuscular 

fungi. It has been discovered that these bacteria are constantly present at 

Gigasporaceae [RUIZ-LOZANO & BONFANTE, 2001; BIANCIOTTO & BONFANTE, 

2002] and that fungal species without endosymbiont develop abnormally. 

Although there have been made many studies regarding the composition of 

microbial community from rhizosphere, up to 90% of rhizospheric microorganisms remain 

unstudied [GOODMAN & al. 1998; cited by BUÉE & al. 2009], as a result of the 

unrecovery on artificial media. By means of modern techniques, recently developed, this 

number has been reduced. 

FULTHORPE & al. [2008; cited by BUÉE & al. 2009] have analyzed soil 

samples, by sequencing some nucleic acid molecules, soil samples that have been collected 

from different biogeographical regions, proving that there are other dominant taxonomical 

groups of bacteria than previously proposed (through isolation on artificial media). The 

bacterial communities from rhizosphere fluctuate with root growth, and by that, the densest 

communities will be found in root hairs regions [BUÉE & al. 2009]. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and the nodulating nitrogen 

fixing bacteria 

Many studies have been focused over the double inoculation of plant with 

mycorrhizal species and nodulating nitrogen fixing bacteria [AZCÓN-AGUILAR & 

BAREA, 1997; SIVIERO & al. 2008; GUTIÉRREZ-MICELI & al. 2008; BAREA & al. 

2002], because of its applicability in agriculture. These bacteria colonize the roots of some 

nodules forming plants, and at their level, in different biochemical processes, nitrogenous is 

synthesized in compounds available by plants using molecular nitrogen. For the plants, this 

colonization is beneficial, but this involves the reduction of saccharides available for fungi, 

the effect being the reduction of mycorrhization rate. Nevertheless, a good development of 

the plants implies an increase of the exudation rate by root plants which lead to a better 

fungal development. This hypothesis was confirmed by double inoculation, with 

mycorrhizal species and Rhizobium strains [TOBAR & al. 1996; SIVIERO & al. 2008], the 

authors reported an increase of mycorrhizal units number. TIAN & al. (2003) found a better 

60


development of Robinia pseudacacia plantlets by triple inoculation: with endomycorrhizal 

species, ectomycorrhizal species and Rhizobium strains, compared to the double inoculation 

or simple inoculation. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and free nitrogen fixing 

bacteria 

The free nitrogen fixing bacteria have positive effects on plants development. One 

might say that their activity could negatively influence mycorrhiza formation by increasing 

nitrogenous compounds available for plants meaning the reduction of plant dependency for 

mycorrhizae, but experimental results obtained by GUTIÉRREZ-MICELI & al. (2008) 

infirmed this assumption, being noticed positive effects on the mycorrhization rate. The coinoculation 

of Azospirillum and Glomus mosseae made the two species act synergistically, 

offering nutrients to plants, nutrients which contain same quantity of N and P as by 

administration of artificial fertilizers. Some strains of Azospirillum and Paenibacillus have 

stimulated the vesicular-arbuscular mycelium growth and the mycorrhiza formation 

[BAREA & al. 2002; BIACIOTTO & BONFANTE, 2002]. However, contradictory results 

obtained by ZUBEK and colabs. (2009) proved that these processes depend on involved 

organisms genome. 

The Burkholderia species are bacteria capable of fixing molecular nitrogen, often 

isolated from mycorrhizosphere. These bacteria are able to stimulate plant growth and 

contribute to mineral resources bioavailability [KOELE & al. 2009]. The mycorrhizal 

species and some bacteria cooperate in soil transformation. These mechanisms imply the 

roots presence which improve nutrient content in rhizospheric microhabitat and sustain the 

bacterial inoculum stability [SIVIERO & al. 2008]. 

The mycorrhizal species increase the surviving rate of these bacteria in 

rhizosphere, thus Azotobacter paspali develops better in Paspalum notatum rhizosphere 

when plants are mycorrhizated [BAREA & al. 1983]. Similarly, nitrogen fixing bacteria 

isolated from Drossera villosa rhizosphere stimulated the rice roots and stalks growth when 

they were co-inoculated with Glomus claroideum [GUTIÉRREZ-MICELI & al. 2008]. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and the mycorrhiza 

promoting bacteria 

Some of bacteria can directly stimulate the mycorrhiza formation by releasing 

some stimulatory compounds as auxines, gibberellines and citokinins, substances that 

influence the root morphology and physiology and contribute to the qualitative and 

quantitative modification of the root exudates, with direct effects on fungi. These bacteria 

also produce vitamins and organic acids that stimulate spores germination. Helper bacteria 

produce hypaphorine type phenolic compounds that increase fungal agressivity 

[GARBAYE, 1994, cited by DUPONNOIS & PLENCHETTE, 2003]. However, the effect 

depends on the inoculum size, if the dose is suboptimal there are not any beneficial effects, 

if the dose exceeds the optimal values there are negatively effects, possible due to antibiosis 

effect or resources consumption [FREY-KLETT & al. 1999]. Some fungal species colonize 

the roots only in extreme habitats by reason of microorganisms competition lack [BOWEN 

& THEODORU, 1978]. 

Some authors [VIVAS & al. 2003; MARULANDA & al. 2006] reported positive 

effects of Bacillus thuringiensis inoculation over the mycorrhizal species extra- and 

61


interradicular development, increasing the mycorrhizal intensity and the extramatrical 

mycelium growing rate. For these bacteria it is used the acronym: MHB – mycorrhizal 

helper bacteria. Similarly, co-inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense or Bacillus 

amyloliquefaciens [OANCEA & al. 2010] as well as coinoculation of Enterobacter 

agglomerans with Glomus etunicatum [KIM & al. 1998] leaded to a better mycorrhizal 

species development. 

In savannas, the mycorrhization rate was high when microclimatic conditions were 

favorable for rhizospheric bacteria development [LÓPEZ-GUTIÉRREZ & al. 2004]. The 

inoculation with ectomycorrhizal species success depends on fungal surviving in soil during 

preinfective phase, and this may be correlated to the helper bacteria presence. 

Many studies confirmed the efficacy in stimulating and potentiationing of 

mycorrhization effects of helper bacteria from Pseudomonas, Ralstonia and Bacillus 

genera: Pseudomonas fluorescens [DUNSTAN & al. 1998; BRULÉ & al., 2001; 

GAMALERO & al. 2004, cited by HAMEEDA & al. 2007], Pseudomonas putida 

[KOZDRÓJ & al. 2007], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [KOTHAMASI & al. 2006], 

Pseudomonas monteillii [REDDELL & WARREN, 1986, cited by DUPONNOIS & 

PLENCHETTE, 2003], Bacillus subtilis [DUNSTAN & al. 1998; BRULÉ & al. 2001], 

Ralstonia sp. [KATAOKA & FUTAI, 2009; HRYNKIEWICZ & al. 2010]. 

Similar effects have been reported in the case of actinomycetes. These organisms 

stimulated Amanita muscaria mycorrhization concomitantly with the inhibition of the 

pathogen: Armillaria obscura and Heterobasidion annosum [MAIER & al. 2004], or 

hyphal growth induction realised by Streptomyces strains [SCHREY & al. 2007]. Also, 

some oxalobacteriaceae stimulated Glomus mosseae in vitro growth [MIRANSARI, 2011]. 

There are some spores associated to the bacteria as Stenotrophomonas and 

Arthrobacter, with favourable effects on the spores germination [BHARADWAJ & al. 2008]. 

Some saprotrophic fungi, as Trichoderma hartzianum [IACOMI & al. 2010] can 

stimulate helper bacteria effects, showing in this manner a multilevel synergistical effect. 

There is a strong correlation between rhizospheric microbial species and 

mycorrhizal ones [DUNSTAN & al. 1998], the helper bacteria beneficial effects over the 

mycorrhizae being fungi-specific. In the studies realised by PIVATO & al. (2009), 

Pseudomonas fluorescens differently stimulated the development of some Glomus species. 

Different studies [FRANCO-CORREA & al. 2010; CALVARUSO al. 2007] 

revealed the fact that many actinomycetes species isolated from mycorrhizosphere had the 

capacity to solubilise Phosphorus from organic and anorganic soil sources, as well the 

capacity to produce siderophores or to fix Nitrogen. These bacteria have a more abundantly 

development in mycorrhizosphere comparing with their development in non-mycorrhizal 

plants rhizosphere. 

ASPARY & al. (2006) showed a high level of dependency between the helper 

bacteria strains and different mycorrhizal species. These results have been confirmed by 

other researchers [AZCÓN, 1989]. Some Bacillus subtilis strains stimulate Suillus 

granulatus development, but inhibit the development of Rhizopogon [KATAOKA & al. 

2009]. Also, in a research realised by XIAO & al. (2008), Bacillus subtilis significantly 

decreased Zea mays roots colonization frequency by the mycorrhizal species (from 75% at 

55.6%), inhibiting spores germination and hyphal growth, contrary to VIVAS & al. (2003) 

observations. 

62

63 


Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and phytopathogens 

The mycorrhizal species directly protect the host plant by releasing some 

compounds toxic to pathogens [ZARNEA, 1994], mechanical protection of the root 

[ZAMFIRACHE & TOMA, 2000] or by activating host plant defence mechanisms through 

modulating the salicic acid and jasmonate metabolism [MIRANSARI, 2011] or flavonoids 

metabolism [NEHLS & al. 1998], or indirectly by alterationing the microbial community 

structure due to the induction of the qualitative and quantitative changes of root exudates 

and also due to the stimulation of some favourable antagonistic microorganisms. 

Negative correlations between vesicular-arbuscular fungi and the rhizospheric 

pathogens have been observed [WEHNER & al. 2010]. There are some variations of soil 

pathogens inhibiting capacity depending on fungal species. 

Some mycorrhizal species [BOWEN & THEODORU, 1978] or the associated 

helper bacteria [LI & al. 2007; SIASON & al. 2009, cited by WEHNER, 2010] produce 

antibiotics against phytopathogens like: Phytophthora cinnamomi, Pythium 

aphanidermatum or Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici. Pseudomonas putida is 

antagonistic to Cylindrocarpon destructans, Pythium ultimum & Rhizoctonia solani [GU & 

MAZZOLA, 2003, cited by BUÉE & al. 2009]. 

According to AZCÓN-AGUILAR & BAREA (1997) the bacteria from 

Rhizobacterium genera can be used as biocontroling agents. Similarly, Bacillus subtilis and 

Pseudomonas fluorescens strains have antagonistic reactions against pathogens, being 

stimulated by the presence of mycorrhizae [SCHELKLE & PETERSON, 1996; AZCÓN- 

AGUILAR & BAREA, 1997; NEERAJ & SINGH, 2010]. 

Some Streptomyces strains that colonize Norway Spruce ectomycorrhizae, protect 

the plant against the attack of Heterbasidion annosum [LEHR & al. 2007; cited by 

HARTMANN & al. 2009]. The bacteria often have the capacity of degrading the toxins 

produced by phytopathogenic fungi or viral factors of them [COMPANT & al. 2005]. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and saprotrophic fungi 

The competition for nutritive resources is the most frequent relation established 

between mycorrhizal species and soil saprotrophic fungi. In McALLISTER & al. (1994) 

experiments, the inoculation of Lactuca sativa rhizosphere with Trichoderma koningii or 

Fusarium solani strains before inoculation with Glomus mosseae lead to development 

inhibition of the last. These effects have not been observed in the case of initial inoculation 

with Glomus mosseae. As mycorrhizal species are colonizing the hosts roots, the relations 

with saprotrophic fungi are changing, acting often synergistically for making bioavailable 

some minerals needed by plants. Many telluric species of fungi have strong reactions 

against phytopathogenic fungi. 

AZCÓN-AGUILAR & BAREA (1997) reported synergistical relations between 

Glomus and Trichoderma species concerning inhibiting Fusarium attacks at tomatoes or 

Pythium attacks al potatoes. By influencing soil microbiota, mycorrhizal species influence, 

also, the saprotrophic fungal activity, through inhibition processes [TIUNOV & SCHEU, 

2005] or through direct or indirect stimulation.


Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and protozoans 

In the rhizosphere, the protozoans are able to release nutrients with the 

consumption of the microorganisms. By consuming preferentially some bacteria, the 

protozoans change the bacterial community structure which leads to modifications in 

protozoans community, therefore a fast feed-back [RØNN & al. 2002]. 

The presence of the mycorrhizae can negatively influence protozoans community, 

indirectly by alteration the soil bacterial community in an unfavourable way for the 

protozoans or directly by production of some inhibitory compounds [RØNN & al. 2002]. 

The presence of protozoans has opposite effects to mycorrhizal species, 

stimulating the root ramification [BONKOWSKI & al. 2001]. 

Both microbial systems are beneficial and complementary for the plants, because 

the ectomycorrhizal species increase bioavailability of Phosphorus, and protozoans increase 

bioavailability of Nitrogen. However, the presence of both categories of organisms leads to 

an increasing competition for the plant secreted carbohydrats and their numerical reduction 

[TIMONEN & al. 2004; cited by HERDLER & al. 2008]. Different studies [HERDLER & 

al. 2008; OLSSON & al. 1996, cited by BONKOWSKI & al. 2001] revealed the fact that 

double inoculation, with protozoans and with fungi, strongly stimulated the biomass 

production of plants, concomitantly with the population significantly reduction of both 

categories of organisms. 

Interrelations between the mycorrhizal systems and invertebrates 

Although, the direct interactions between mycorrhizal species and the soil fauna 

are limited, they do exist. Among the soil animals that interact with mycorrhizal species 

and their host plant, there are different categories of invertebrates such as: insects, 

nematodes, annelids, mites etc. Many insect species (often larval stages) as well as 

nematodes, consume or attack both plant roots and mycelium (colemboles), affecting in this 

way the mycorrhizal symbiosis. 

A particularly interesting relation is represented by earthworms. The colonization 

rate has been better when plants were inoculated with mycorrhizal species in the presence 

of earthworms from Pheretina [ZAREA & al. 2009], their action being beneficial for 

mycorrhizae through several mechanisms: earthworms can produce phytohormons, and 

their excrement may contain ten times more propagules than the soil [GANGE, 1993, cited 

by ZAREA & al. 2009]. Adding earthworms lead to increase the harvest of Trifolium by 

improving the soil chemical properties and by producing the plant regulatory compounds 

due to microbial activity stimulations by earthworms [QUAGGIOTTI & al. 2004, cited by 

ZAREA & al. 2009]. The earthworms increase the number of free nitrogen fixing bacteria 

by qualitative modifications of the soil (modification of porosity and aggregation) and by 

improving plant water and oxygen uptake. The earthworms, also, stimulate the production 

of exudates and create microhabitats [ZAREA & al. 2009]. 

Many species of colenbolas feed with mycorrhizal species, although they prefer 

saprotrophic fungi [GANGE, 2001; cited by TIUNOV & SCHEU, 2005]. Colembolas feed 

with mycorrhizal species only when insects population reach high density levels. By 

feeding with saprotrophic fungal species, colembolas destabilize the soil fungal community, 

making them more susceptible to be influenced by the mycorrhizal species [TIUNOV & 

SCHEU, 2005]. 

64

Conclusions 

65 


Mycorrhiza forming species strongly modify the structure and dimension of 

rhizospheric microorganisms, either by direct interactions, or indirectly by influencing the 

release of the root exudates in rhizosphere. 

The mycorrhizae exercise, generally, a strong selective pressure on rhizospheric 

habitats, stimulating the development of mutualistic or comensal microbiota. 

The mycorrhizae influence all the relations established between different 

categories of organisms in rhizospheric microhabitats under late succesional stages, and in 

young rhizospaheric microhabitats the myrorrhizations success depends on the microbial 

community already established. 

The plant benefits from all of mutualistic relations established between 

mycorrhizal species and the soil organisms, while the fungal partner often competes with 

different soil organisms for the plant carbohydrates. 

The elucidation of the intimate mechanisms that underline the structure of 

microbial community and the processes that influence the mycorrhizal intensity and rate are 

premises in the elaboration of the efficient ecological reconstruction strategies or for the 

sustainable agriculture development. 

There are needed some extensive researches concerning signal phase prior to 

tripartite mutualistic relations development and the involved factors, in order to use and 

optimize them in the purpose of integrated pest management strategies development. 


This work was supported by the the European Social Fund in Romania, under the 

responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for 

Human Resources Development 2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342]. The first 

author is also grateful to Prof. univ. dr. Cătălin Tănase for all the advices that he offered. 

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18(2011): 71-80 

71 

SHARDA W. KHADE 

NEW CHARACTERISTICS FOR MORPHOTAXONOMY OF 

GIGASPORA SPECIES BELONGING TO ARBUSCULAR 

MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI 

SHARDA W. KHADE 1 

Abstract: New characteristics for morpho-taxonomy were devised to support the species concept in genus 

Gigaspora belonging to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Three species viz. G. margarita, G. decipiens 

and unidentified Gigaspora sp. were studied for various characters viz. bulbous suspensor, 

sporophore, germ tube, presence of septum and presence or absence connecticle. The term 

“Connecticle” is newly introduced and is a region present between the base of bulbous suspensor and 

septum overlying the sporophore. The term “Germ pore” is also newly introduced. The present study 

reported that germ tube in Gigaspora is always attached to the spore through a pore which is now 

named as germ pore. In all, eight types of subtending hypha were recorded during the present study 

with variations in shape of bulbous suspensor and sporophore along with presence or absence 

connecticle. Presence of germ pore, septum and germ tube was common feature in Gigaspora species 

undertaken for the study. The location of septum was another new character devised for taxonomy in 

the present study. Thus the present study upholds the species concept in Gigaspora based on morphotaxonomy. 

Key words: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, bulbous suspensor, connecticle, germ pore, germ tube, G. margarita, 

G. decipiens, morpho-taxonomy, septum, sporophore, unidentified Gigaspora sp. 

Introduction 

Traditionally, Glomeromycotan taxonomy of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal 

group has been based on the morphology of the spores. The way the spore is formed on the 

hypha (“mode of spore formation”) has been important to circumscribe genera and families, 

and the layered structure of the spore wall is used to distinguish species [WALKER, 1983; 

MORTON, 1988]. Glomeromycotan taxonomy is relatively young. Among the 

glomeromycotan fungi, the Gigasporaceae (Scutellospora and Gigaspora) members are 

distinguished by the formation of their spores on a “bulbous suspensor” and are well 

supported by molecular data. Recently, OEHL & al. (2008) revised family Gigasporaceae 

on the basis of morphological spore characters and 18S and 25S rRNA gene sequences. In 

the family Gigasporaceae, 36 Scutellospora species were reorganized in three new families 

including five new genera: Scutellosporaceae (Scutellospora), Racocetraceae (Racocetra, 

Cetraspora) and Dentiscutataceae (Dentiscutata, Fuscutata, Quatunica). The family 

Gigasporaceae now remains with a single genus Gigaspora. 

The group Gigaspora is the smallest group since member species were transferred 

into erected Scutellospora Walkers & Sanders primarily on the basis of presence of subcellular 

structures associated with germination [WALKERS & SANDERS, 1986]. With 

this, species level differences in Gigaspora rested upon seemingly small morphological 

differences in spore colour, size and wall thickness [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. 

1 Goa University, Department of Botany, Taleigao Plateau, GOA-403206, India. 

e-mail: shardakhade12@rediffmail.com

NEW CHARACTERISTICS FOR MORPHOTAXONOMY OF GIGASPORA SPECIES BELONGING … 

Gigaspora posses a problem since spore of all species differentiate only a spore wall and 

diverge in characteristics of that spore wall [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. Research 

workers questioned the fact that, do small morphological differences within the genus 

constitute adequate criteria for delimitation of species? Advanced studies in taxonomy viz. 

ontogeny define relationships between the characters while a phylogenetic study provides 

information on relationship between Gigaspora and other fungi in Glomeromycota 

[BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. Thus the validity and importance of morphological 

characters in establishing taxonomic species are of considerable importance to construct 

workable system of identification. In view of the above, the present paper throws light on 

new characteristics to be incorporated to boost the traditional morpho-taxonomy in 

Gigaspora species. 


Extraction of AM fungal spores. Spores of AM fungi associated with Carica 

papaya L. plants from Goa, India were isolated directly from rhizosphere soil samples by 

wet sieving and decanting method [GERDEMANN & NICOLSON, 1963]. All the 

available healthy turgid spores were isolated from the rhizosphere soil. Repeated sampling 

were carried out in monsoons (rainy season) when the spores sporulated newly in the soil. 

The host plant was same for all the samplings. This plant was grown in monoculture and 

mulching practices carried out in the field and because of this there were no weeds. 

Therefore the samplings were carried out under same environmental conditions and from 

the rhizosphere soil of the replicates of single host plant viz. papaya. 

Identification of AM fungi. Diagnostic slides containing intact and crushed spores 

of AM fungi were prepared in polyvinyl alcohol lactoglycerol [KOSKE & TESSIER, 

1983]. Spore morphology and wall characteristics were considered for the identification of 

AM fungi and these characteristics were ascertained using compound microscope, Leica 

WILD MP 3 and Nikon E 800. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were identified to species 

level using bibliographies provided by SCHENCK & PEREZ (1990), SCHÜßLER & al. 

(2001) and OEHL & al. (2008). 

Results 

The genus Gigaspora consists of azygospore with subtending hyphae. This hypha 

is attached to spore through a pore (Fig. 1). The subtending hypha consists of terminal 

swollen sporogenous cell called bulbous suspensor and sporogenous hypha called 

sporophore (Fig. 1). A septum is present at the base of the swollen portion separating the 

bulbous suspensor from the sporophore (Fig. 1). In some cases, the subtending hypha at the 

base of the bulbous suspensor metamorphoses to produce various shaped structure. This 

part of the subtending hypha connecting the bulbous suspensor to the sporophore which is 

overlined by the presence septum is called a connecticle (Fig. 1). In the present study, the 

type of bulbous suspensor, sporophore and connecticle varied in Gigaspora species. 

In all, eight types of subtending hypha were recorded during the present study 

(Table 1); (Fig. 2). 1) thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped sporophore 

(Fig. 2a), 2) thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with straight sporophore (Fig. 2b), 3) 

thick walled clavate bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore (Fig. 2c), 4) thin walled 

clavate bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore (Fig. 2d), 5) subglobose bulbous 

72

73 


suspensor with funnel shaped sporophore (Fig. 2e), 6) globose bulbous suspensor with 

funnel shaped connecticle and curved sporophore (Fig. 2f), 7) globose bulbous suspensor 

with vase shaped connecticle and curved sporophore (Fig. 2g), 8) globose bulbous 

suspensor with elongated connecticle and curved sporophore (Fig. 2h). 

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of characteristics of subtending hypha in Gigaspora species. 

Fig. 2. Diagrammatic representation of variations in subtending hyphae of Gigaspora species. 

a) Thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped sporophore. 

b) Thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with straight sporophore. 

c) Thick walled clavate bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore. 

d) Thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore. 

e) Sub-globose bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped sporophore. 

f) Globose bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped connecticle and curved sporophore. 

g) Globose bulbous suspensor with vase shaped connecticle and curved sporophore. 

h) Globose bulbous suspensor with elongated connecticle and curved sporophore.


Tab. 1. Characteristics of subtending hypha in Gigaspora species 

Location 

of septum 

Pore 

Sporophore 

(Sp) 

30µm wide at the base of 

Bs; 15–20µm wide, away 

from the base of Bs 

30–40µm wide at the base 

of Bs; 15–20µm wide, away 








Connecticle 

Bulbous suspensor 

(Bs) 

40–70 µm wide; 50–320 

µm long; 2–10µm thick 

wall 

80–200 µm wide; 170– 

350 µm long; 2–10µm 

thick wall 

200–350 µm wide; 270– 

400 µm long; 20–65µm 

thick wall 

Occurrence 

in 

Present At the base of Bs 

Absent 

G. margarita 

*Type of subtending 

hypha 

Thin walled clavate Bs with 

funnel shaped Sp (Fig. 2a, 

Fig. 3) 


Absent 

G. decipiens 


straight Sp (Fig. 2b, Fig. 8) 


Absent 

G. decipiens 

Thick walled clavate Bs 

with recurved Sp 


Absent 

150–250 µm wide; 180– 

300 µm long; 2–10µm 

thick wall 

Unidentified 

Gigaspora 

species 

(Fig. 2c, Fig. 9) 


recurved Sp 

(Fig. 2d, Fig. 10) 


100–50 µm wide at the base 

of Bs; 20–40 µm wide, 

away from the base of Bs 

Absent 

60–150 µm wide; 80–300 

µm long; 20–50µm long 

lateral hypha; 2–10µm 

thick wall 

G. margarita 

Subglobose Bs with funnel 

shaped Sp 

(Fig. 2e, Fig. 4) 

At the end of 

connecticle 

20–30µm wide Present 

40–60 µm wide at the base of Bs; 

20–30µm near septum 250–320 µm 

60–140 µm diam. 2–10µm 

thick wall 

G. margarita 

Globose Bs with funnel 

shaped connecticle and 

At the end of 

connecticle 

Present 

20–30µm wide 

long 

30–40 µm wide at the base of Bs, 

inflated at the centre, 40–60 µm 

wide, narrow near septum, 20–30 

µm wide; 200–350 µm long 

Constricted at the base, 30–40 µm 

wide, swollen below, 50–80µm 

wide, below the swollen portion 

straight 40–60 µm wide; 350–500 

µm long 

60–130 µm diam. 2–10µm 

thick wall 

G. margarita 

curved Sp (Fig. 2f, Fig. 5) 

Globose Bs with vase 

shaped connecticle and 

curved Sp (Fig. 2g, Fig. 6) 

At the end of 

connecticle 

Present 

30–40µm wide 

60–250 µm diam. 2–10µm 

thick wall 

G. margarita 

Globose Bs with elongated 

connecticle and curved Sp 

(Fig. 2h, Fig.7) 

*Bs = Bulbous suspensor; *Sp = Sporophore 

74

75 


Three species of Gigaspora with eight types of subtending hypha were recorded 

during the present study (Tab. 1); (Fig. 3 – Fig. 10). In G. margarita Becker & Hall, five 

types of subtending hypha were observed viz. thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with 

funnel shaped sporophore (Fig. 3), subglobose bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped 

sporophore (Fig. 4), globose bulbous suspensor with funnel shaped connecticle and curved 

sporophore (Fig. 5), globose bulbous suspensor with vase shaped connecticle and curved 

sporophore (Fig. 6) and globose bulbous suspensor with elongated connecticle and curved 

sporophore (Fig. 7). In G. decipiens Hall & Abbott, two types of subtending hyphae were 

observed viz. thin walled clavate bulbous suspensor with straight sporophore (Fig. 8) and 

thick walled clavate bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore (Fig. 9). In unidentified 

Gigaspora species, one type of subtending hypha was observed viz. thin walled clavate 

bulbous suspensor with recurved sporophore (Fig. 10). 

Types of subtending hypha in Gigaspora margarita 

Fig. 3. Thin walled clavate bulbous 

suspensor with funnel shaped sporophore 

(Bar = 30μm). 

Fig. 4. Sub-globose bulbous suspensor 

with funnel shaped sporophore 

(Bar = 20μm).


Fig. 5. Globose bulbous 

suspensor with funnel shaped 

connecticle and curved 

sporophore (Bar = 100μm). 

Types of subtending hypha in Gigaspora margarita 


suspensor with vase shaped 


sporophore (Bar = 100μm). 

[* Note the presence of pore (arrow) in Fig. 5-7] 

Fig. 8. Thin walled clavate 

bulbous suspensor with 

straight sporophore in 

Gigaspora decipiens 

(Bar = 20μm). 

Types of subtending hypha in Gigaspora species 

Fig. 9. Thick walled 

clavate bulbous suspensor 

with recurved sporophore 

in Gigaspora decipiens 

(Bar = 100μm). 

76 


suspensor with elongated 


sporophore (Bar = 50 μm). 

Fig. 10. Thin walled clavate 

bulbous suspensor with 

recurved sporophore in 

unidentified Gigaspora sp. 

(Bar = 100μm).

77 


In Gigaspora the innermost wall known as the germinal wall in the close 

proximity of bulbous suspensor, produces germ tube at the time of spore germination. This 

germ tube is attached to the spore through germ pore (Fig. 11-14). No variation was 

observed in the type of germ pore. However, in the present study the type of germ tube 

varied in different Gigaspora species. In G. margarita, numerous “warts” or “papillae” 

were present on the inner surface of germinal layer and they were especially concentrated 

in regions where germ tube originated (in close proximity to the suspensor cell) (Fig. 7, Fig. 

11). In this species, the germ tube was curved and germ pore was present at the point of 

attachment to the spore wall (Fig. 11). In G. decipiens, the warts were absent on the 

germinal wall in the vicinity of bulbous suspensor and here the germ tube was straight and 

attached to the spore through germ pore (Fig. 12). In unidentified Gigaspora sp., the 

germinal wall produced several centimeters long coiled germ tube with presence of germ 

pore at the point of attachment to the spore wall (Fig. 13, Fig. 14). 

Fig. 11. Curved germ tube in 

Gigaspora margarita (Bar = 25μm) 

Germ tubes in Gigaspora species 

Fig. 12. Straight germ tube in 

Gigaspora decipiens (Bar = 25μm)


Fig. 13. Coiled germ tube in unidentified 

Gigaspora sp. (Bar = 100μm). 

[* Note the presence of Germ pore (arrow) in Fig. 11-14] 

Discussions 

Now, the phylum Glomeromycota comprises about 200 described morpho-species 

that traditionally have been distinguished by features of the spore wall. WALKER (1983) 

established the concept of “murographs” to describe and compare the layered structure of 

the spore walls more easily. MORTON (1995) and STÜRMER & MORTON (1997) and 

STÜRMER & MORTON (1999) included considerations of the spore development to 

group these wall components hierarchically 

78 

Fig. 14. Coiled germ tube in unidentified 

Gigaspora sp. (Bar = 50μm) 

into complexes linked by ontogeny 

[REDECKER & RAAB, 2006]. Therefore in the present study various characteristics of 

spore especially the spore attachment of Gigaspora viz. bulbous suspensor and sporophore 

was studied in detail to support the species concept. 

Till date, eight species exists under genus Gigaspora of the family Gigasporaceae. 

They are as follows: G. albida Schenck & Smith, G. alboaurantiaca Chou, G. candida 

Bhattacharjee, Mukerji, Tewarii & Skoropad, G. decipiens Hall & Abbott, G. gigantea 

(Nicol. & Gerd.) Gerd. & Trappe, G. margarita Becker & Hall, G. ramisporophora Spain, 

Sieverding & Schenck, G. rosea Nicol. & Schenck [OEHL & al. 2008]. The synonymy of 

G. ramisporophora with G. margarita [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995] is not 

accepted based on molecular [DE SOUZA & al. 2004] and morphological [SPAIN & al. 

1989] differences. Gigaspora rosea and G. candida are also treated as separate species. 

Gigaspora tuberculata Neeraj, Mukerji, Sharma & Varma earlier reported under genus 

Gigaspora [SCHENCK & PEREZ, 1990] was later reported as synonym of Scutellospora 

persica (Koske & Walker) Walker & Sanders [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. 

It is reported that spore size and colour are stable distinct characters to support 

species concept in Gigaspora [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. In contrast to this,

79 


development of spore with two permanent layers is shared with all Gigasporaceae 

members. Also the variation of spores in Gigaspora is more limited than Scutellospora that 

exhibit wide range in colour and are often ornamented. This is due to strong genetic and 

developmental constraints which appear to limit the expression of variation in Gigaspora 

[BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 1995]. However, in the present study large variation was 

seen in the subtending hypha of Gigaspora species. Five different types of subtending 

hypha were recorded in G. margarita. The species recorded three different types of bulbous 

suspensor viz. clavate, subglobose and globose. The connecticle were of three types viz. 

funnel shaped, vase shaped and elongated while the sporophores were also of three types 

viz. straight, funnel shaped and curved. Lateral hyphal projection was present in subglobose 

bulbous suspensor. In G. decipiens, the bulbous suspensor was clavate and of two types, 

thin walled and thick walled. Here the sporophores were also of two types, straight and 

recurved. In unidentified species of Gigaspora, the bulbous suspensor was clavate with 

recurved sporophore. 

Another keen observation recorded in the present study was that septum delimiting 

the bulbous suspensor from the sporophore was present immediately at the base of all clavate 

bulbous suspensors and even at the base of subglobose bulbous suspensor of Gigaspora 

species. However, at the base of all globose bulbous suspensors, connecticles were present 

followed by septum delimiting the sporophore from it. These connecticles varied in shape and 

size and were associated only with globose bulbous suspensors of G. margarita. 

In Gigaspora species, a vital life history function is germination of spore. This 

germination of spore is always associated with the spore wall [BENTIVENGA & MORTON, 

1995]. The present study upholds the view of several workers [MAIA & al. 1993; SWARD, 

1978; SWARD, 1981] who reported that germination takes place through the formation of 

germ tube which always arises from inner papillate layer and pushes through the spore wall. 

However, the present study brought out the fact that its development is like that of bulbous 

suspensor which is attached to the spore through a pore and in case of germ tube the pore is 

designated as germ pore. No feature of this germ pore, described in the present study, 

distinguishes any of the Gigaspora species compared in this study. However, through the 

present study, it is confirmed the germ tube is always associated with germ pore. Further, in 

the present study, the type of germ tube varied within the species of Gigaspora. It was curved 

in G. margarita, straight in G. decipiens and coiled in unidentified Gigaspora species. 

Presence of germ pore was recorded in all the three species. 

Conclusions 

Glomeromycotan fungi are of great interest to ecologists because of its potential 

influence on ecosystem processes, its role in determining plant diversity in natural 

communities and the ability of the fungi to induce a wide variety of growth responses in 

coexisting plant species. Difficulties in identification, the inability to grow the fungi in pure 

culture, problems of taxonomic classification and a lack of basic information on the life 

histories of AM fungi hinder studies of the ecological significance of diversity of AM 

fungi. Nucleic acid based techniques have the potential to fill this gap in our knowledge by 

offering better means of identification and the opportunity to study links between the 

genetic diversity of AM fungi and functional and morphological diversity. The application 

of genus specific molecular markers has shown that different genera of AM fungi coexist in 

plant roots and that this is a common occurrence [SANDERS & al. 1996]. However the 

speciation concept still rests on the morpho-taxonomy of the spore. In Gigaspora, where 

there are relatively few species with small number of taxonomic characters, the present 

paper gives additional information on characters of taxonomic relevance.


New characters viz. bulbous suspensor, sporophore, germ tube, presence of 

septum and presence or absence connecticle are incorporated to differentiate Gigaspora 

members to species level. Even presence or absence of septum at the base of bulbous 

suspensor or the distance at which it is present from the base of bulbous suspensor is 

another distinguishing character. Further, the presence or absence of connecticle in 

Gigaspora species is newly introduced to carry out taxonomic studies. Additionally, the 

term germ pore used to designate the point of attachment of germ tube to the spore is also 

introduced for taxonomy of Gigaspora species. Further, my study contradicts the earlier 

reports that variations in Gigaspora are limited. My study brings out the facts that even the 

isolates of same species which was earlier distinguished on the basis of spore size and 

colour show large variations in the morphology of its subtending hypha and this aspect is 

newly studied in detail and documented in the present study. 

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80


18(2011): 81-86 

MANOLIU ALEXANDRU, IRIMIA ROMEO, MIRCEA CORNELIA, ŞPAC ADRIAN 

COMPOSITION OF THE VOLATILE OIL EXTRACTED FROM 

ABIES ALBA MILLER LEAVES PARASITIZED BY 

MELAMPSORELLA CARYOPHYLLACEARUM (DC.) J. SCHRÖT. 

MANOLIU ALEXANDRU 1 , IRIMIA ROMEO 1 , 

MIRCEA CORNELIA 2 , ŞPAC ADRIAN 2 

Abstract: Researches results highlights both qualitative and quantitative influences exercised by the parasitic 

species Melampsorella caryophyllacearum on the composition of the volatile oil extracted from 

Abies alba leaves, prelevated in 2010 from Oituz river basin (Bacău county). The isolation of 

volatile oils has been realized by hydrodistillation in Neo-Clavenger installation, followed by gaschromatography 

coupled with mass spectrometry analysis. The increase of the monoterpenes 

concentration in the parasitized sample could be explained by the degradative action of the enzymes 

produced by the pathogenic species Melampsorella caryophyllacearum or by the incapacity of 

syntheses from these monoterpenes of some compounds presenting a more complex structure in the 

parasitized plant case. 

Keywords: volatile oil, monoterpenes, sescviterpenes, Abies alba, Melampsorella caryophyllacearum 

Introduction 

The decline of Abies alba Mill. has been the subject of great concern in Central 

Europe and North America since the early 1970s [SKELLY & INNES, 1994]. Among the 

main proposed causes of fir decline were air pollutants, climatic and biotic factors. The use 

of dendro-ecological techniques has enabled researchers to date with annual resolution, and 

to quantify precisely the effects of fungal pathogens on radial growth [CHERUBINI & al. 

2002]. 

The fungus Melampsorella caryophyllacearum (DC.) J. Schröt. (Fungi, 

Basidiomycota) also called fir broom rust, has been reported to cause serious damage on 

Abies species [NICOLOTTI & al. 1995; MANOLIU & al. 2009]. The fungus causes the 

production by the tree of witches’ brooms, and hypertrophied ring growths on the trunk or 

branches resulting in spherical swellings [SOLLA & al. 2006]. Of greater concern, M. 

caryophyllacearum may contribute to a tree’s death by weakening it such that wind breaks 

the tree at the site of the swelling. 

The disease is common wherever firs grow, being present in North America 

[MERRILL Z & al. 1993], Europe [FRIGIMELICA & al. 2001], and Asia [ALEKSEEV & 

al. 1999]. 

1 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Biology of Faculty, bd. Carol I, 20A, 700505, Iaşi - Romania 

2 “Gr. T. Popa” Medecine and Pharmacy University, Pharmacy Faculty, st. University, 16, 700115, Iaşi - Romania 

81

COMPOSITION OF THE VOLATILE OIL EXTRACTED FROM ABIES ALBA MILLER LEAVES... 


Identification and quantification of volatile oil [ŞTEFĂNESCU, 1988] have been 

realized using healthy and parasitized leaves samples from Abies alba (fir). Because the 

pathogenic fungus Melampsorella caryophyllacearum can not be cultivated on nutritive 

media in laboratory, the analyzed samples have been collected from trees growing in Oituz 

river basin (46°08,091' N; 26°30,985' E, 651 m alt.) and transported in freezers in the 

laboratory. The vegetal material vegetal has been dried and crumbled. The two samples 

have been encoded in this way: Fr.S. – healthy leaves sample and Fr.B. – parasitized leaves 

sample. Separated volatile oil has been analyzed by gas-chromatography coupled with mass 

spectrometry, using a Neo-Clavenger installation, (GC) Agilent Technologies gas 

chromatograph - type 6890N. 

Method: 50 g of dry vegetal material crumbled in II sieve (Farmacopeea Română, 

X th edition) have been treated with 500 ml distilled water and 30 ml glycerin. The glycerin 

added on the vegetal product has the role to favor hydratation and volatile oil extraction. 

After the introduction of the water in graduated tube of the device and in the separator, the 

samples have been distilled for 3 hours. After distillation, the separation of the volatile oil 

has been favored by adding of 1 ml xylene; this quantity will be dropped from the final 

volume of the volatile oil. The separated volatile oil has been inserted in a graduated tube 

where its volume has been identified and reported to 100 g vegetal product. 

ml volatile oil (%) = 100 V/a 

where: 

V – extracted volume of volatile oil, expressed in ml; 

a – the mass of the used dry vegetal material, expressed in g. 


The achieved extraction capacity, expressed in ml volatile oil in 100g vegetal 

material, highlights a content of 2.76 in this type of compounds for Fr.S. sample and 0.37 

for Fr.B. sample, where a content by approximate 7.5 times smaller is observed. The 

analyzed volatile oil is predominantly constituted by monoterpenes and sescviterpenes 

(Table 2, Fig. 1 and 2). 

Tab. 1.The main compounds identified in volatile oil samples 

tR (min.) Compound 

Aria % 

Fr.S. Fr.B. 

4.788 santene 3.74 1.94 

5.429 tricyclene 1.64 0.78 

5.602 α−pinene 6.46 13.97 

5.887 camphene 6.94 5.62 

6.329 β−pinene 10.18 15.51 

6.407 myrcene 0.69 0.84 

6.718 α−phellandrene 0.12 0.11 

6.891 α−terpinene 0.08 0.06 

7.013 p-cymene 0.07 0.10 

7.116 limonene 9.48 10.06 

7.160 sabinene 2.18 4.29 

7.532 γ-terpinene 0.09 0.08 

82


7.965 α-terpinolene 1.50 0.57 

8.034 p-cymenil 0.04 0.08 

8.138 L-linalool 0.40 - 

8.198 t-allocymene 0.26 - 

8.389 mentha-1,4,8-triene 0.02 - 

8.519 fenchol 0.09 0.05 

8.623 α-campholenic aldehyde 0.42 0.26 

8.978 camphor 0.08 0.11 

9.107 exo-methyl-camphenilol 0.14 0.06 

9.194 pinocarvone 0.02 0.14 

9.229 isoborneol 0.03 - 

9.298 α-phellandrene-8-ol - 0.04 

9.358 endoborneol 1.66 - 

9.419 isopinocamphone 0.05 0.05 

9.454 terpinen-4-ol 0.12 0.07 

9.557 cis-m-menth-8-ene 0.08 

9.670 α-terpineol 1.37 0.80 

10.371 t-β-ocymene 0.20 - 

10.544 piperitone 0.01 - 

10.596 (E)-2-decenal 0.02 0.14 

10.873 lavandulyl acetate 0.05 - 

10.916 felandral 0.03 0.09 

11.003 (-)-bornyl acetate 12.14 7.68 

11.419 t.t-2,4-decadienal - 0.06 

11.548 1,3,5-tris(methylene)cycloheptane 0.08 - 

11.812 (+-)-m-mentha-1,8-diene - 0.15 

11.825 α-cubebene 0.14 0.08 

11.981 α-longipinene 1.87 0.92 

12.301 α-copaene 0.20 0.14 

12.206 δ-3-carene 0.80 - 

12.345 longicyclene - 0.19 

12.466 β-elemene 0.27 0.33 

12.552 sativene 0.06 - 

12.596 α-ylangene 0.03 0.24 

12.691 (-)-isoledene 0.49 - 

12.700 aromadendrene - 0.17 

12.838 isolongipholen 1.21 - 

12.959 (−)-β-caryophyllene 6.05 8.35 

13.003 α-cedrene 2.43 1.03 

13.063 (-)-sinularene - 0.08 

13.106 α-guaiene 0.04 - 

13.202 cis-β-bisabolen 0.03 - 

13.271 t-β-farrnesene 0.37 0.33 

13.375 α-himachalene 0.64 0.25 

13.444 α-humulene 2.69 4.59 

13.609 cis-cariophyllene 1.31 0.50 

13.660 γ-muurolene - 0.31 

83


13.756 γ-himachalene 0.65 - 

13.816 widdrene 1.34 - 

13.877 β-selinene 3.13 - 

13.989 α-selinene - 1.12 

14.050 β-himachalene 1.91 1.16 

14.206 α-amorphene 1.24 0.69 

14.266 δ−cadinene 2.54 1.81 

14.396 allo-aromadendrene - 0.18 

14.509 aromadendrene VI - 0.24 

15.063 valencene 0.03 - 

15.184 cariophyillen oxide 0.29 1.22 

15.513 longiborneol 0.54 - 

15.833 α-gurjunene 2.10 3.64 

15.842 (-)-longipholene - 2.22 

15.963 β-paciulen 0.55 - 

15.980 δ-cadinene - 0.37 

16.127 α-cadinol 0.85 - 

16.327 t-muurolol - 1.32 

20.507 β-bisabolene 0.14 - 

Fig. 1. Gas-chromatogram of the volatile oil – healthy leaves sample 

84


Fig. 2. Gas-chromatogram of the volatile oil – parasitized leaves sample 

By comparison with Fr.S. sample, the Fr.B. sample is characterized by an 

increased level of monoterpenes (61.39% Fr.S., 56.61% Fr.B.). The major monoterpenic 

structures are hydrocarbons, the concentration of the oxygenated derivates being increased 

in Fr.S. sample (16.61%) comparative with Fr.B. sample (9.35%), so the increasing of the 

monoterpenes content is realized through a increasing of the concentration in hydrocarbons 

structures. The sescviterpenes concentration is the same in both two samples, a slightly 

increased value being registered yet in Fr.S. sample (33.94% comparative to 31.48%). 

Instead, the oxygenated sescviterpenes presents an increased concentration in the 

parasitized sample (2.54% in Fr.B. sample comparing to 1.68% in Fr.S. sample). The 

reduction of the concentration in oxygenated compounds will determine a reduction of the 

therapeutic properties of the fir volatile oil de brad or the limitation of its use in 

aromatherapy. 

Conclusions 

The increase of the monoterpenes concentration in the parasitized sample could be 

explained by the degradative action of the enzymes produced by the pathogenic species 

Melampsorella caryophyllacearum or by the incapacity of syntheses from these 

monoterpenes of some compounds presenting a more complex structure in the parasitized 

plant case. 

The major compounds characteristic and common in both samples are the next 

monoterpenes: santene, α- and β-pinene, camfene, limonene, sabinene, bornilacetate, and 

85


also some sescviterpenic derivates: β-cariophyllene, α-cedrene, α-humulene, βhimachalene, 

Δ-cadinene and α-gurjunene. 

Modification of the content in volatile oil and of the quality of the volatile oil 

samples represents the consequence of the pathogenic process, which determines the 

impossibility of parasitized vegetal material use in order to obtain the volatile oil necessary 

in pharmacy, perfumes industry and aromatherapy. 

References 

1. ALEKSEEV V. A., ASTAPENKO V. V., BASOVA G., BONDAREV A. I., LUZANOV V. G., 

OTNYUKOVA T. N. & YANOVSKII V. M. 1999. The condition of the Kuznetsk-Alatau fir forests. 

Lesnoe Khozyaistvo, 4: 51-52. 

2. CHERUBINI P., FONTANA G., RIGLING D., DOBBERTIN M., BRANG P. & INNES J. L. 2002. Treelife 

history prior to death: two fungal root pathogens affect tree-ring growth differently. J. Ecol., 90: 

839-850. 

3. FRIGIMELICA A., CARPANELLI F., STERGULC M., KNIZEK B. & GRODZKI W. 2001. Monitoring of 

widespread forest diseases in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (north-eastern Italy). J. For. Sci., 47: 81-84. 

4. MANOLIU A., IRIMIA R., GRĂDINARIU P. & UNGUREANU E. 2009. The influence of the attack of the 

fungus Melampsorella caryophyllacearum (DC.) J. Schrot. (“witch brooms” on fir) on the peroxidase 

and catalase activity in host plant. Anale Şt. Univ. Iaşi a. Genetică şi biol. molec., 10(3): 25-28. 

5. MERRILL W., WENNER N. G. & PEPLINSKI J. D. 1993. New host distribution records from 

Pennsylvania conifers. Plant Dis., 77: 430-432. 

6. NICOLOTTI G., CELLERINO G. P. & ANSELMI N. 1995. Distribution and damage caused by 

Melampsorella cariophyllacearum in Italy. Shoot and Foliage Diseases in Forest Trees, pp. 289-29. 

7. SKELLY J. M. & INNES J. L. 1994. Waldsterben in the forests of Central Europe and Eastern North 

America: Fantasy or reality?. Plant Dis., 78: 1021-1032. 

8. SOLLA A., SÁNCHEZ-MIRANDA Á. & CAMARERO J. J. 2006. Radial-growth and wood anatomical 

changes in Abies alba infected by Melampsorella caryophyllacearum: a dendroecological assessment 

of fungal damage. Ann. For. Sci., 63: 293-300. 

9. ŞTEFĂNESCU E. 1988. Uleiuri eterice din cetina principalelor specii de răşinoase din România. Revista 

Pădurilor. Bucureşti, 3. 

86


18(2011): 87-93 

ŞENILĂ MARIN, ŞENILĂ LĂCRIMIOARA, ROMAN CECILIA 

EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR TRACE 

ELEMENTS ANALYSIS IN PERENNIAL PLANTS 

USING ICP-OES TECHNIQUE 

ŞENILĂ MARIN 1 , ŞENILĂ LĂCRIMIOARA 1 , ROMAN CECILIA 1 

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present the validation of inductively coupled plasma optical emission 

spectrometry (ICP-OES) method used for metals determination from several perennial plant 

samples. The suitability of two digestion procedures using wet digestion with mineral acids mixture 

on hot plate and microwave digestion was investigated to determine As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn 

in plants samples. The LOD of the seven analysed elements in solid samples varied between 0.20µg 

g -1 for Mn and 0.55µg g -1 for Pb. The found values for metals determined by ICP-OES in a vegetable 

certified reference material digested using the two procedures were compared with the certified 

values and good agreements between these values were obtained. The proposed method indicated 

satisfactory recovery, detection limits and standard deviations for trace metal determination in 

perennial plants samples. 

Key words: ICP-OES, plant analysis, method validation, multielemental analysis 

Introduction 

For most of the analytical determinations from solid samples the sample digestion 

is required. The heavy metals like cadmium, copper, iron, manganese, lead and zinc in 

plants are determined after different digestion procedures including various mixtures of 

concentrated acids such as hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid 

(HNO3), perchloric acid (HClO4) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Different digestion 

equipment can be used: open beakers heated on hot plates, block digesters and digestion 

units placed in microwave ovens [MARGUI & al. 2005; GOMEZ & al. 2007]. 

The analytical techniques that can be used for metals determination from aqueous 

solutions obtained through plants digestion are mainly based on atomic spectrometry with 

mono-elemental detection, such as flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) 

[MENDIL, 2006], graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS) [AYAR & 

al. 2009]. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and 

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) have the advantages of high 

samples throughput due to the multi-elemental determination and also, these methods have 

a wide working range [TORMEN & al. 2011]. 

Due to its advantages, ICP-OES has become one of the most used techniques for 

elemental determination, many studies being conducted to validate this method for metals 

analysis in a large variety of sample types. AYDIN (2008) has compared dry, wet and 

microwave digestion procedures for the determination of chemical elements in wool samples 

using ICP-OES technique, obtaining satisfactory recovery, detection limits and standard 

1 

INCDO-INOE Research Institute for Analytical Instrumentation, 67 Donath, 400293, Cluj-Napoca – Romania, 

e-mail: icia@icia.ro 

87

EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR TRACE ELEMENTS ANALYSIS IN… 

deviation for trace metal determination. BAKIRCIOGLU and co-workers [BAKIRCIOGLU 

& al. 2011] used ICP-OES technique for determination of some trace metals in cheese 

samples, packaged in plastic and tin containers, by ICP-OES after dry, wet and microwave 

digestion. ICP-OES and ICP-MS techniques were used for metals determination in vegetable 

seeds used in the production of biodiesel [CHAVES & al. 2010]. 

Dantas and co-workers [DANTAS & al. 2010] have measured the metals content 

in gum samples obtained from the deposits of internal combustion engines, using ICP-OES 

after microwave digestion. The heavy metal and trace element accumulation in edible 

tissues of farmed and wild rainbow trout was also studied by ICP-OES [FALLAH & al. 

2011]. The ICP-OES technique was validated for the determination of trace elements in 

basil powder [GHANJAOUI & al. 2011] and for the quality control of herbal medicines 

[GOMEZ & al. 2007]. MARGUI & al. (2005) has made a comparative study between 

EDXRF and ICP-OES after microwave digestion for element determination in some plant 

specimens. ICP-OES was also used for metals determination in biological samples: animal 

tissues [MATOS & al. 2009], nuts and seeds [NAOZUKA & al. 2011] or in different food 

samples [NARDI & al. 2009]. This method was successfully applied for the measurement 

of metals in environment (water, soil and sediment samples) used in the assessment of 

environmental quality [FRENTIU & al. 2007; LEVEI & al. 2010; ZOBRIST & al. 2009; 

SENILA & al. 2011; SIMA & al. 2011]. 

For multivariate optimization of ICP-OES technique used for the determination of 

microelements in fruit juice, Santos Froes and co-workers [SANTOS FROES & al. 2009] 

have been used the exploratory analysis (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, HCA, and Principal 

Component Analysis, PCA), which evaluated the plasma conditions (nebulization gas flow 

rate, applied power, and sample flow rate). In other study, fractional factorial design was 

used for the optimization of the digestion procedures followed using ICP-OES technique 

for multi-elemental determination in nuts [MOMEN & al. 2007]. 

The aim of this work is the development of an analytical method for the 

determination of elements (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn) in perennial plants grown in 

mining polluted areas by dual view inductively coupled plasma optical emission 

spectrometry (ICP-OES) using two types of wet digestion methods. 


A multi-elemental standard solution of 1000 mgL -1 containing all analysed 

elements (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn) supplied by Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) was 

used for calibration. HNO3 65% and H2O2 30% from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) 

analytical grade were used for samples digestion. Ultrapure water obtained by a Milli Q 

system (Millipore, France) was used for dilutions. A vegetable certified reference materials 

IAEA-359 Cabbage (Vienna, Austria) was used for the quality control of metals 

determination. 

Determinations were carried out using a Perkin Elmer Model Optima 5300 DV 

spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, USA) ICP-OES equipped with a Ultrasonic Nebulizer CETAC 

U-6000AT+ (CETAC, USA) and an auto sampler AS 93-plus. Argon (purity higher than 

99.995%) supplied by Linde Gas SRL (Cluj-Napoca, Romania) was used to sustain plasma 

and, as carrier gas. A closed-vessel microwave system Berghof MWS-3+ with temperature 

control mode, (Berghof, Germany) was used for wet digestion. All Teflon digestion vessels 

88


were previously cleaned in a bath of 10% (v/v) nitric solution for 48 h to avoid crosscontamination. 

Four specimens of perennial plants samples (Agrostis, Agropyrum repens, 

Trifolium repens, Urtica dioica), collected from a mining affected area of Baia Mare 

(Romania), were analysed in this study. Samples were dried in an oven at 40˚C till constant 

weight was achieved. The dried samples were then grounded with a Mixer Grinder and 

sieved through a 100 microns mesh. All the samples were originally stored in closed 

plastics bags until analysis. The certified reference material were analysed in the same 

experimental conditions used for sample analyses in order to evaluate the accuracy of the 

method. 

Wet digestion on hot plate 

For the wet digestion a mixture of HNO3/H2O2 was used in this study. For this 

procedure, the temperature was maintained at 120˚C for 2 h during digestion of 1.0 g of 

plant sample with 16 mL of 6:2 HNO3/H2O2 mixtures on the hot plate. After cooling, 10 

mL of distilled water was added on the sample and mixed. The residue was filtered through 

filter paper and then the sample was diluted to 50 mL with distilled water. Metal contents of 

final solution were determined by ICP-OES. 

Microwave digestion 

Approximately 1.0 g of sample was digested with 6 mL of HNO3 and 2 mL of 

H2O2 in microwave digestion system, according to the digestion program presented in Tab. 

1. The resulting solutions were cooled and diluted to 50 mL with distilled water. The 

resulted solutions were analysed by ICP-OES. 

ICP-OES determination 

The operating conditions employed for ICP-OES determination were 1300W RF 

power, 15 L min -1 plasma flow, 2.0 L min -1 auxiliary flow, 0.8 L min -1 nebulizer flow, 1.5 

mL min -1 sample uptake rate. Axial view was used for metals determination, while 2-point 

background correction and 3 replicates were used to measure the analytical signal. The 

emission intensities were obtained for the most sensitive lines free of spectral interference. 

The calibration standards were prepared by diluting the stock multi-elemental 

standard solution (1000 mg L -1 ) in 0.5% (v/v) nitric acid. The calibration curves for all the 

studied elements were in the range of 0.01 to 1.0 mg L -1 . 

Results and discussion 

Figures of merit 

Method validation is an important requirement in the practice of chemical analysis 

and it is the process of defining an analytical requirement, and confirming that the method 

under consideration has performance capabilities consistent with what the application 

requires. The estimation of the uncertainty associated to the analytical methods is necessary 

in order to establish the comparability of results, and it is an important parameter in 

reporting of analytical results. 

89


The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method and 

also the main analytical characteristics of the calibration curves (slope and correlation 

coefficients) for the developed ICP-OES procedure are indicated in Tab 2. The instrumental 

detection and quantification limits were estimated by analysing ten blank solutions. The 

LOD is defined as three times the standard deviation of the ten measurements, while the 

LOQ are defined as ten times the standard deviation of the ten measurements. The LODs 

and LOQs were calculated for the original solid samples (µg g -1 ) by taking into account the 

amount of sample digested and the final volume obtained by dilution. The LOD of the 

seven elements studied varied between 0.20 µg g -1 for Mn and 0.55 µg g -1 for Pb. These 

values are appropriate for the measurement with a good accuracy of maximum admitted 

limits of 1 µg g -1 for Cd, 2 µg g -1 for As and 10 µg g -1 for Pb, established by the European 

Directive 2002/32/EC on undesirable substances in animal feed. Recovery percentage 

values found for the analysis of spiked plants samples varied between 89% and 113%. 

As no certified reference materials for perennial plants were available, the 

accuracy of the proposed method was evaluated by analysing a vegetable certified reference 

material IAEA-359 Cabbage (Vienna, Austria). The use of this material is appropriate, 

because the CRM was digested and diluted in the same way as the perennial plants. The 

results are shown in Tab 3. The obtained results by both digestion methods show good 

agreement for all analysed elements between found and certified values, according to the ttest 

for a 95% confidence level, and the method is thus considered accurate. 

Repeatability was established from the average relative standard deviation (RSD) 

of three independent analyses at the real samples. Standard addition curves obtained from a 

plant sample spiked at different concentration levels from 50 to 500 µg L -1 were compared 

with external calibration lines established from multi-elemental standards in order to 

evaluate the matrix effect. The recovery values ranged between 86 and 119% of the spiked 

values. No matrix effect has been observed and therefore aqueous standards have been used 

for calibration. 

Analytical results 

Shoots of the four different perennial plants samples were digested using the wet 

digestion on hot plate and the microwave digestion. After digestion, 7 elements were 

determined by ICP OES: As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn, using external calibration with 

aqueous standard solutions. The obtained results are shown in Tab. 4, reported with 95 % 

confidence limit (n = 3). 

According to a Student's t-test, there was no difference between the concentrations 

of all elements for wet digestion on hot plate and microwave digestion at a 95% confidence 

level. Generally, lower standard deviations were obtained using the microwave digestion 

method. The results obtained reveal that the proposed digestion methods and measurement 

technique (ICP-OES) can be successfully applied to different kind of plants analysis. The 

measured values for As, Cd and Pb were generally below the maximum admitted limits 

established by the European Directive 2002/32/EC on undesirable substances in animal 

feed, while for the others analysed elements there are not established maximum admitted 

limits. 

90


Conclusions 

The principal figures of merit for the determination of trace elements by ICP-OES 

from perennial plants were evaluated. Two methods of sample digestion: wet digestion on 

hot plate and microwave digestion were compared and no significant differences between 

the results obtained were observed. The obtained results using the two digestion methods 

show good agreement with the certified values of one analysed vegetable CRM, for all 

analysed elements. Standard addition curves obtained from a plant sample spiked at 

different concentration levels were compared with external calibration lines established 

from multi-elemental standards and no significant matrix effect has been observed. The 

results show that the proposed technique (ICP-OES) and also the two digestion methods are 

suitable for metals determination in perennial plants. 


The financial support provided by the Romanian Ministry of Education and 

Research, PNCDI II Project RESOLMET no. 32161/2008 is greatly appreciated. 

Tab. 1. Operating conditions for the microwave digestion system 

Stage 

1 2 3 4 

Temperature / ˚C 160 120 100 100 

Ramp time / min 5 1 1 1 

Hold time / min 25 5 1 1 

Power / %* 60 20 10 10 

* 100 % power corresponds to 1400 W 

Tab. 2. Analytical parameters for metals determination using ICP-OES 

Element Wavelength LOD 

(nm) µg g -1 

LOQ 

µg g -1 

Slope Correlation 

coefficient 

As 188.979 0.30 0.90 13496 0.9996 

Cd 228.802 0.25 0.75 108844 0.9998 

Cu 327.393 0.30 0.90 245987 0.9995 

Fe 238.204 0.35 1.05 203903 0.9991 

Mn 257.610 0.20 0.60 1094626 0.9999 

Pb 220.345 0.55 1.65 23734 0.9997 

Zn 213.856 0.30 0.90 259230 0.9995 

91


Tab. 3. Analytical determination of metals in reference material. Values are expressed in 

µg g -1 and reported as average±ts; n=3; 95% confidence level 

Element Certified content Found content 

Hot plate digestion Microwave digestion 

As 0.096 - 0.104 0.094±0.012 0.103±0.011 

Cd 0.115 - 0.125 0.120±0.018 0.119±0.012 

Cu 5.49 - 5.85 5.39±0.48 5.28±0.51 

Fe 144.1 - 151.9 146±5.32 143±4.45 

Mn 31.3 - 32.5 31.7±2.48 32.5±2.23 

Zn 37.9 - 39.3 39.5±3.07 38.8±2.19 

Tab. 4. Concentrations (average±ts; n=3; 95% confidence level) for perennial plants 

obtained by ICP OES (dry weight), expressed in µg g -1 

Sample/ Digestion Agrostis Agropyrum Trifolium Urtica dioica 

element procedure 

repens repens 

As HP* 0.55±0.06 0.46±0.08 0.35±0.06 0.47±0.07 

MW** 0.51±0.05 0.44±0.06 0.37±0.05 0.43±0.06 

Cd HP 0.89±0.09 0.69±0.07 0.55±0.06 0.96±0.12 

MW 0.93±0.08 0.66±0.06 0.54±0.07 0.93±0.10 

Cu HP 4.51±0.45 3.25±0.39 2.23±0.25 4.62±0.30 

MW 4.22±0.36 3.53±0.39 2.11±0.20 4.72±0.41 

Fe HP 79.2±4.6 65.1±4.8 41.4±3.5 72.9±5.5 

MW 75.5±3.8 64.2±2.2 42.9±2.1 70.1±4.0 

Mn HP 5.65±0.48 4.34±0.59 3.05±0.38 5.11±0.52 

MW 5.44±0.25 4.55±0.28 3.55±0.39 4.96±0.23 

Pb HP 3.51±0.22 2.08±0.33 5.18±0.42 6.41±0.58 

MW 3.09±0.25 2.21±0.24 4.96±0.34 6.77±0.36 

Zn HP 47.7±2.5 66.9±5.3 44.8±3.7 84.4±6.3 

MW 44.8±2.4 67.5±3.1 46.1±1.9 84.0±3.3 

* Hot plate; **Microwave 

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digestion method using ICP-OES to measure metals in gum deposits of internal combustion 

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92


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93


18(2011): 95-102 

RADU MIHAI-IULIAN, ŞESAN TATIANA-EUGENIA 

CONTRIBUTION TO THE MACROMYCETES BIODIVERSITY 

FROM BOLINTIN DEAL FOREST – GIURGIU, ROMANIA 

RADU MIHAI-IULIAN 1 , ŞESAN TATIANA-EUGENIA 1 

Abstract: The paper contains the results of macromycetes investigations within the Bolintin Deal Forest 

near the city of Bucharest. The research objective was to inventory the species for this area, 

establishing the present status of biodiversity of fungi. There were identified 59 species of 

macromycetes. All the identified species represent a new contribution due to the lack of 

mycological research in the given area. The study is part of a larger research regarding the 

diversity and distribution of macromycetes in Bucharest and its surroundings, Romania. 

Keywords: fungal distribution and diversity, macromycetes, taxonomy, Bolintin Deal Forest, Giurgiu, 

Romania 

Introduction 

The Bolintin-Deal Forest, also known as Berceni Forest or Cotroceanca Forest is 

located in west of the Bucharest city, in-between the meadows of the rivers Ciorogârla (on 

the east side) and Sabar (on the west side). The forest should not be confused with Bolintin 

Forest or the Large Forest of Bolintin which is located more to the west and which is a SCI 

site according to the European Commission Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). The 

geographic limits coordinates are East – Lat. 44°44'77'' / Lon. 25°83'13'', West – Lat. 

44°44'33'' / Lon. 25°86'49'', North – Lat. 44°45'00'' / Lon. 25°83'56'' and South – Lat. 

44°43'27'' / Lon. 25°84'66'' according to the WGS84 standard and is located in MK-02 

according to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) geographic coordinate system. The 

altitude is 102–117 meters. 

From a geographical point of view the area is part of the Vlăsia Plain, which is a 

climatic and hydro-geographically interference area belonging to the Valachian platform. 

The link-up of the atmospheric masses from the NE and W-SW reflects a characteristic 

vegetation and soil structure [POSEA & ŞTEFĂNESCU, 1983]. 

The clime is temperate with some slight immoderate changes. The excessive 

humidity area which would characterize the general location between two river meadows is 

slightly attenuated, as the forest is also neighbored on west by the village Bolintin Deal and 

on the east the village Ciorogârla. Overall the forest has, in spite of its location, slight 

xerophile characteristics, most of the small herbs found during early and mid summer 

having small vegetation period. The soils are typical brown and brown-auburn forest soils. 

Vegetation is typical to the forest-stepic area and consists of trees (mainly Quercus 

genus) and small herbs (mainly from the Poaceae family). 

The native flora consists especially of trees and bushes belonging to the following 

species: Quercus pedunculiflora L., Quercus cerris L., Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Tilia 

1 Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 1-3 Portocalelor St., district 5, Bucharest – Romania, e-mail: 

radu_mihai_iulian@hotmail.com, tatianasesan@yahoo.com 

95

CONTRIBUTION TO THE MACROMYCETES BIODIVERSITY FROM BOLINTIN DEAL FOREST… 

tomentosa Moench., Ulmus sp., Carpinus betulus L., Cornus mas L., Crataegus monogyna 

Jacq. On the southern side, there is a swampy area with Salix sp. and Populus alba. Also on 

each edge of the forest there are species of Sambucus nigra L. şi Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. 

var. cerasifera (cultivated). The herbs consists of early species, which blossom before the 

trees can develop their crowns such as: Corydalis cava (L.) Schweigg. et Koerte, Ficaria 

verna Hudson, Anemone ranunculoides L., Anemone nemorosa L., Scilla bifolia L., Viola 

hirta L. etc. Also species of Arum maculatum L. and Pulmonaria officinalis L. are frequent. 

Material and method 

The mycological material was gathered during many field trips to the specified 

area in different seasons of the years 2009, 2010 and 2011. Some of the easiest 

identifications were made in the field and noted. Also in situ photographs have been taken 

using a Canon S3 IS camera. The material collected was brought to analysis in the 

laboratory. The examinations included macroscopic as well as microscopic aspects. The 

macroscopic consisted in the analysis of the color (cap, gills, spore-print, stalk), 

consistency, morphology, taste, odor, presence and characteristics of the latex and so on. 

For macroscopic analysis an Optika trinocular stereozoom microscope model SZM-GEM- 

2, eyepieces 10x and zoom head magnification 0.7x – 4.5x, equipped with an USB digital 

camera model Optikam Pro5, 5Mp have been used. 

The microscopic features that were pursued are referring to the morphology of the 

spores and other structures (cystidia, cap cuticle etc.). The observations made were noted 

and used in the process of identification the species. Most of the material was dried and is 

in the author’s possession. 

During determination, on some taxons we have also analyzed chemical 

characteristics using ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) – aqueous solution 10% and sulphovanilin 

(for Russula species), Melzer’s reagent (aqueous solution of chloral hydrate, potassium 

iodide and iodine) – to test spores on white spored mushrooms – and potassium hydroxide 

– aqueous solution 10%. 

For microscopic staining techniques several other chemicals were also used such 

as Congo red, aniline blue (Cotton blue 4B), Phloxine and Cresyl blue. 

The mycological nomenclature used is taken after SĂLĂGEANU & 

SĂLĂGEANU (1985), ŞESAN & TĂNASE (2006), TĂNASE & ŞESAN (2006), 

TĂNASE et al. (2009) as well as some macromycetes books and monographs such as 

ROMAGNESI (1967, 1981), BON (1988a, b), BREITENBACH & KRÄNZLIN (1984, 

1986, 1991), COURTECUISSE & DUHEM (1994), BORGARINO & HURTADO (2001), 

ROUX (2006) and others. The international herbaria names are taken after HOLMGREN & 

al. (1990), the name of the authors, after KIRK & ANSELL (1992) and Systematics of the 

Fungi regnum after KIRK & al. (2001, 2008) and CANNON & KIRK (2007). The 

scientific names (current names) have been updated according to the Index Fungorum 

[KIRK, 2011]. The Tracheophytes nomenclature is taken after Flora of Romania 

[SĂVULESCU, 1952-1976]. 

96



There were identified 59 species of macromycetes (49 genera) belonging to 3 

classes of the regnum Fungi: 2 Myxomycetes (3%), 6 Ascomycetes (10%) and 51 

Basidiomycetes (87%) (Fig. 1). All the taxons represent an absolute novelty for the studied 

area [ELIADE, 1965; BONTEA, 1985-1986; TĂNASE & POP, 2005]. 

Out of the taxons identified, from ecological point of view, there were identified 

31 species (53%) of wood fungi and 28 species (47%) of soil fungi (Fig. 2); a number of 7 

species (12%) form ectomycorrhizas, 9 (15%) are parasitic and 43 species (73%) are 

saprotrophs (Fig. 3). 

87% 

10% 

Myxomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes 

Fig. 1. Classes of macromycetes identified in the Bolintin Deal Forest 

53% 

97 

3% 

47% 

Wood fungi Soil fungi 

Fig. 2. Wood and soil fungi identified in the Bolintin Deal Forest 

73% 

15% 

12% 

Mycorrhizant Parasitic Saprotrophs 

Fig. 3. Proportion of the fungi, after their nutritional characteristics, identified in 

the Bolintin Deal Forest


List of species is presented in alphabetical order, with indication of location and 

date of first occurence. 

Myxogastrea 

Arcyria denudata (L.) Wettst., ad solum - 21.05.2011, in Carpino-Quercetum, alt. 107 m. 

Lycogala epidendrum (J. C. Buxb. ex L.) Fr., in ligno ramulos deciduos - 30.08.2009, in 

Carpino-Quercetum, alt. 107 m. 

Ascomycota 

Arachnopeziza aurelia (Pers.) Fuckel, ad ramulos deciduos - 20.06.2009, in Tilio- 

Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Humaria hemisphaerica (F. H. Wigg.) Fuckel, ad solum - 30.08.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 

110 m. 

Hypoxylon fragiforme (Pers.) J. Kickx, ad truncus amputatus decorticatus- 30.08.2009, in 

Carpino- Quercetum, alt. 107 m. 

Peziza vesiculosa Bull., ad solum - 21.05.2011, ad marginem Quercetum, alt. 115 m. 

(Fig. 4). 

Tarzetta catinus (Holmsk.) Korf & J. K. Rogers, ad solum - 21.05.2011, in Tilio- 

Quercetum, alt. 110 m (Fig. 5). 

Xylaria polymorpha (Pers.) Grev., in ligno trunci amputati - 30.08.2009, in Quercetum 

alt. 110 m. 

Basidiomycota 

Amanita rubescens Pers. var. rubescens, ad solum - 21.05.2011, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 

110 m (Fig. 7). 

Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm. s.l., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 30.08.2009, in 


Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél., ad cortex ramulos deciduos sambuci - 

21.05.2011, ad marginem silvarum, alt. 115 m. 

Auricularia mesenterica (Dicks.) Pers., ad trunco amputato decorticato - 30.08.2009, in 

Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Bjerkandera adusta (Willd.) P. Karst., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in 

Quercetum, alt. 117m. 

Bolbitius titubans (Bull.) Fr. var. titubans, ad cortex putrido in solum - 21.05.2011, in 


Boletus badius (Fr.) Fr. ?, ad solum - 20.06.2009, in Carpino-Quercetum, alt. 107 m. 

Calocera cornea (Batsch) Fr., ad ramulos deciduos - 21.05.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 115 

m (Fig. 9). 

Coprinopsis picacea (Bull.) Redhead, Vilgalys & Moncalvo, ad solum - 30.08.2009, in 


Coprinellus disseminatus (Pers.) J. E. Lange [‘disseminata’], ad cortex putrido truncus 

amputatus - 30.08.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Cyathus striatus (Huds.) Willd, ad radices crataegi parti in solum - 13.08.2011, ad 

marginem silvarum, alt. 117 m. 

Dacrymyces stillatus Nees, ad ramulos deciduos decorticatae - 30.08.2009, in Tilio- 


Daedalea quercina (L.) Pers., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in Quercetum, 

alt. 117 m. 

98


Daedaleopsis confragosa (Bolton) J. Schröt., ad ramulos deciduos - 13.08.2011, in Tilio- 


Fistulina hepatica (Schaeff.) With., ad cortex quercinum - 13.08.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 

117 m. 

Fomes fomentarius (L.) J. J. Kickx, ad cortex tili - 30.08.2009, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 

110 m. 

Galerina paludosa (Fr.) Kühner, ad muscum super trunco amputato - 21.05.2011, in 


Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat., in ligno truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in 


Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst., in ligno truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in 


Gymnopus dryophilus (Bull.) Murrill, ad solum - 20.06.2009, in Carpino-Quercetum, 

alt. 107 m. 

Gymnopus fusipes (Bull.) Gray, ad solum - 30.08.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 115 m. 

Hymenochaete rubiginosa (Dicks.) Lév., ad trunco amputato - 20.06.2009, in Tilio- 


Hyphodontia quercina (Pers.) J. Erikss., ad ramulos deciduos - 20.06.2009, in Carpino- 


Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds.) P. Kumm. var. fasciculare, ad cortex putrido - 

20.06.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Kuehneromyces lignicola (Peck) Redhead, ad cortex truncus amputatus - 30.08.2009, in 


Lactarius acerrimus Britzelm., ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Carpino-Quercetum, alt . 107 

m. 

Lenzites betulina (L.) Fr., ad ramulos deciduos - 13.08.2011, in Carpino-Quercetum, alt. 

107 m. 

Lepista nuda (Bull.) Cooke, ad solum - 21.05.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Leucopaxillus giganteus (Sowerby) Singer, ad solum - 20.06.2009, ad marginem 


Lycoperdon pyriforme Schaeff., ad solum - 20.06.2009, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer var. Procera, ad solum - 30.08.2009, in Quercetum, 

alt. 117 m. 

Marasmius oreades (Bolton) Fr., ad solum - 30.08.2009, ad marginem silvarum, alt. 117 

m. 

Marasmius rotula (Scop.) Fr., ad cortex putrido - 20.06.2009, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 

110 m. 

Oudemansiella mucida (Schrad.) Höhn., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in 


Parasola plicatilis (Curtis) Redhead, Vilgalys & Hopple, ad solum - 21.05.2011, ad 

marginem callis intram Quercetum, alt. 117 m. 

Phallus impudicus L. var. impudicus, ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Carpino-Quercetum, 

alt. 107 m (Fig. 6). 

Phylloporia ribis (Schumach.) Ryvarden, ad cortex crataegi - 20.06.2009, in Tilio- 


Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff.) P. Kumm., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 30.08.2009, in 


99


Russula cyanoxantha (Schaeff.) Fr., ad solum - 20.06.2009, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 110 

m. 

Russula foetens (Pers.) Pers., ad solum - 20.06.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 115 m. 

Russula heterophylla (Fr.) Fr., ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Tilio-Quercetum, alt. 110 m. 

Russula persicina Krombh., ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 115 m (Fig. 8). 

Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr., ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 115 m. 

Schizophyllum commune Fr., ad ramulos deciduos - 20.06.2009, in Quercetum, alt. 117 

m. 

Scleroderma citrinum Pers. var. citrinum, ad solum - 30.08.2009, in Tilio-Quercetum alt. 

110 m. 

Scleroderma verrucosum (Bull.) Pers., ad solum - 13.08.2011, in Quercetum, alt. 115 m. 

Stereum hirsutum (Willd.) Pers., ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in Tilio- 


Trametes hirsutum (Wulfen) Lloyd, ad cortex truncus amputatus - 30.08.2009, in Tilio- 


Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd, ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in Tilio- 


Volvariella bombycina (Schaeff.) Singer, ad cortex truncus amputatus - 20.06.2009, in 


Xerula radicata (Relhan) Dörfelt, ad trunco amputato putrido - 20.06.2009, in Carpino- 


Conclusions 

The study of macromycetes biodiversity in Bolintin-Deal Forest is the first one of 

this kind in this area, and since there are no bibliographic references, the whole study brings 

new mycological data regarding the surrounding forests of Bucharest that have been once 

part of the Vlăsia Plain. 

Determination of 59 different taxa during 2009-2011 indicated a large biodiversity 

in an area that is virtually unknown. 

Importance of the study resides in the new information of an area far too little 

investigated, keeping open a perspective of a more larger study of the forests near 

Bucharest with the purpose to know, protect and conserve their biodiversity. 


The authors would like to thank for all the support to Mr. Gavril Negrean, who 

provided some of the bibliography consulted and for all the good advices. For all the help 

given in the field we would like to thank to Mr. Daniel Kazimir Kurzeluk. 

This contribution has been presented at the XVI th Congress of European 

Mycologists, in Halkidiki, Porto Carras, Greece (19-23 September 2011), in the Section of 

Fungal distribution and diversity under the moderation of Paul M. KIRK (UK). 

100


References 

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Méditerranéen, Édisud, Aix-en-Provence, 440 pp. 

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herbaria of the world. 8 th Ed. Regnum Veg., 120: 704 pp. 

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12. KIRK P. M., CANNON P. F., MINTER D. W. & STALPERS J. A. 2008. Dictionary of the Fungi, 10 th 

edition, CABI International, UK, 771 pp. 

13. POSEA G. & ŞTEFĂNESCU I. 1983. Judeţele patriei: Municipiul Bucureşti cu sectorul agricol Ilfov. 

Bucureşti: Edit. Academiei R.P.R., 291 pp. 

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„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi, 251 pp. 

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24. * * European Commission Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). 

101


Fig. 4. Peziza vesiculosa Bull. 

Fig. 6. Phallus impudicus L. var. impudicus 

Fig. 8. Russula persicina Krombh. 

102 

Fig. 5. Tarzetta catinus (Holmsk.) Korf & J.K. 

Rogers 

Fig. 7. Amanita rubescens Pers. var. rubescens 

Fig. 9. Calocera cornea (Batsch) Fr.


18(2011): 103-104 

103 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE 

GALIUM RUTHENICUM WILLD. IN FLORA OF ROMANIA 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE 1 

Abstract: A newly identified species in the vascular flora of Romania, namely Galium ruthenicum Willd. is 

published now. This taxa has been identified in Tulcea county, Dobrudja province. It is grown on 

sunny, rocky places. 

It is also mentioned the differences against Galium verum L., a morphologically close taxa in flora 

of Romania. 

Keywords: Galium ruthenicum, features, ecology, distribution, Romania’s flora 

Introduction 

The genus Galium L. has 145 species in Flora Europaea [EHRENDORFER & 

KRENDL, 1976]. In Romania, the same genus Galium L. include 27 species [PAUCĂ & 

NYÁRÁDY, 1961]. Later on, there has been added other 9 species [CIOCÂRLAN, 2009]. 

Thus, in Romania’s flora there are 38 species in the genus of Galium L. 

There is added an other species in this Galium L. genus in this paper. 

Galium ruthenicum Willd., Sp. Pl. 1: 597 (1798) (G. verum L. subsp. ruthenicum 

(Willd.) P. Fourn.) is a morphologically close to a common species in flora of Romania, 

namely de G. verum L. These two species, Galium ruthenicum Willd. and G. verum L., are 

distinguished by several features presented further on, but especially by their ecology and 

distribution area. 

Characteristics 

The detailed description of Galium ruthenicum Willd. is made in Flora of the 

USSR, vol. XXIII [POBEDIMOVA, 1958]. The own characteristics of this species are like 

the next: 

– leaves linear-filiforms, 7-8 in whorls (at G. verum the leaves are disposed as 8-12 in 

whorls), 25-30 mm long and 0.5 mm wide (at G. verum the leaves are of 0.5-1.5 (–2) mm 

wide); 

– pedicels and especially the fruits have densely, harsh hairs (at G. verum the fruits are 

glabrous) (Fig. 1). 

Distribution and ecology 

From distribution and ecology points of view, these two taxa are fundamentally 

different. Galium verum is a species with a wide area of distribution, as it is distributed in 

the whole area of Eurasia. It is grown from the sea level to ca 1200 m. 

Galium ruthenicum is a pontic species, growing in steppic areas, often in rocky 

places. 

1 University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 59 Mărăşti Av., 011464, Bucharest – Romania

GALIUM RUTHENICUM WILLD. IN FLORA OF ROMANIA 

In Europe, Galium ruthenicum is distributed in Russia of SE, Ukraine, R. of 

Moldova [STANKOV & TALIEV, 1949; MAIEVSKII, 1954; POBEDIMOVA, 1958; 

GEIDEMAN, 1954; ZEROV, 1965]. 

In România, Galium ruthenicum has been identified in Dobrudja, Tulcea county, 

on a stony hill, ca 2 Km North of Făgăraşul Nou village. 

Accompanying species: 

Achillea leptophilla, 

Allium guttatum, 

Cleistogenes bulgarica, 

Hieracium echioides subsp. procerum, 

Moehringia grisebachii (on rocks, only) 

Onobrychis arenaria, 

Seseli pallassii, 

Stachys angustifolia, 

Veronica spicata subsp. barrielieri. 

Voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium BUAG, sheet no. 23947. 

References 

1. CIOCÂRLAN V. 2009. Flora ilustrată a României. Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta (ed. III). Bucureşti: Edit. 

Ceres, 1138 pp. 

2. EHRENDORFER F. & KRENDL F. 1976. Genus Galium L., In Flora Europaea, 4. Cambridge: Cambridge 

University Press. 

3. GEIDEMAN T. 1954. Opredelitel’ Rastenii Moldavskoi SSR. Moskva - Leningrad. 

4. MAIEVSKII. 1954. Flora Srednei Polosâ Evropeiskoi Časti SSSR. Leningrad. 

5. PAUCĂ A. & E. I. NYÁRÁDY. 1961. Genul Galium L., în Flora R. P. Române. 

6. POBEDIMOVA E. 1958. Genus Galium L., In Flora U. S. S. R., XXIII. Moskva - Leningrad. 

7. STANKOV S. & TALIEV V. 1949. Opredelitel’ vâsşih Rastenii Evropeiskoi Časti SSSR. Moskva. 

8. ZEROV D. et al. (ed.). 1965. Viznacinik Roslin Ukraini, Ed. 2. Kiev. 

Fig. 1. Galium ruthenicum Willd. (original) 

104


18(2011): 105-108 

THE VARIABILITY OF CEPHALARIA URALENSIS 

(MURRAY) ROEM. ET SCHULT. 

CIOCÂRLAN VASILE 1 

105 


Abstract: The variability of Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult., incl. subsp. dobrogensis 

Ciocârlan, subsp. nova, and an identification key, are presented in this paper. 

Keywords: Cephalaria uralensis, variability, features, ecology, distribution, Romania’s flora 

Introduction 

Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. is a Pontic–Balkanic species, 

distributed in Russia (C, W, E, Crimea), Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and, probable, in 

Greece [FERGUSON, 1976]. 

This species is distributed in Transylvania, Banat, Oltenia, Muntenia, Moldavia, 

Bucovina, and Dobrudja [OPREA, 2005]. 

As ecology, it is a xerophyllous species, growing on dry and sunny places, but also 

on rocky substrates. 


Data on the variability of Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. exist in 

flora of Serbie, only [DIKLIĆ, 1973], where are given two varieties, as: var. uralensis and 

var. puberula (Adamović) Diklić. 

In Flora of R. P. Române, vol. VIII [PRODAN, 1961] it is given a form, namely f. 

obtusilaciniata Răv. 

In Conspectus Florae Romaniae [BORZA, 1949] there is given an other forms, 

namely: f. dentata Schur, f. intermedia Schur, and f. tenuisecta Schur. 

In Flora of R. S. România, vol. XIII [BELDIE & VACZY, 1976] there is given a 

subspecies, namely subsp. multifida (Roman) Roman et Beldie. 

This last taxa, Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. subsp. multifida 

(Roman) Roman et Beldie is worth to be noted, being an endemite in Romania’s flora 

(neoendemite), registered in Flora of R. S. România, vol. XIII [BELDIE & VACZY, 1976]. 

Also, this taxa is included onto the Romanian Red List [OLTEAN & al. 1994]. 

Unfortunately, this taxa is missing in the Romanian Red Book [DIHORU & 

NEGREAN, 2009]. 

1 University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 59 Mărăşti Av., 011464, Bucharest – Romania

THE VARIABILITY OF CEPHALARIA URALENSIS (MURRAY) ROEM. ET SCHULT. 

Results and discusions 

The author of this paper discovered a new taxa in the flora of Dobrudja (South– 

East Romania) is presented further on. 

Cephalaria uralensis (Murray) Roem. et Schult. subsp. dobrogensis Ciocârlan, 

subsp. nova [BARANOV, 1971]. 

Perennial plant, with a stem of 30-60 cm in height; leaves opposed, penatelysectate, 

with 5-8 pairs of lanceolate segments, entirely, small, 0.8-1.2 cm long, decurrents; 

head of flowers of 0.8-1 cm in diameter; the outer calyx has pretty smalland uniform teeth; 

the achenes are tetragonal, of 4.5-5 mm long, hairy (Fig. 2 – habitus and fruits). 

The habitat: this subspecies is growing on dry, rocky places, between 100 and 

400 m. s. l. 

Spread: Alah-Bair hill (near Băltăgeşti village, Constanţa county) and on the 

Pietrosul hill (near Agighiol village, Tulcea county). 

Holotypus: in herbarium BUAG – University of Agricultural Sciences, Bucharest, 

conservatur also in herbarium I (University “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” of Iaşi, Romania) as 

isotypus. 

The differential characteristics of this new taxa (subsp. dobrogensis Ciocârlan, 

subsp. nova) against the type subspecies (subsp. uralensis) and subsp. multifida (Roman) 

Roman et Beldie [ROMAN, 1971], are given in the next dichotomic key of identification: 

1a Basal leaves with 2-4 (-5) pairs of entire segments, the terminal one being larger. The 

outer calyx has 4 long teeth and other 4 intermediately and very short teeth. ................ 

....................................................................subsp. uralensis (Fig. 1 - habitus and fruits) 

1b Basal leaves with more than 5 pairs of segments. The outer calyx with uniform and 

very small teeth ............................................................................................................2 

2a Stem of 30-60 cm height; basal leaves with 5-8 pairs of entire segments, smll, 0.8-1 

cm long; achenes of 4.5-5 mm long. ....subsp. dobrogensis (Fig. 2 - habitus and fruits) 

2b Stem of 50-150 cm height; leaves with 8-12 (-14) pairs of linear segments, lobulately; 

achenes to 10 mm long ..........................................................................subsp. multifida 

Obs.: Cephalaria uralensis subsp. dobrogensis and C. uralensis subsp. multifida 

are morphologically similar to C. media Litv., an endemic species distributed in Caucasus 

region [BOBROV, 1957]. 

References 

1. BARANOV A. 1971. Basic latin for plant taxonomists. Cambridge, Mass., USA. 

2. BELDIE AL. & VACZY C. 1976. Taxoni noi pentru flora României, In Flora of R. S. România, Cap. 3, 

XIII, Bucureşti: Edit. Acad. Române: 35-53. 

3. BOBROV E.1957. Fam. Dipsacaceae, In Flora of U. S. S. R. XXIV. Moskva - Leningrad. 

4. BORZA AL. 1949. Conspectus Florae Romaniae, f. II, Cluj: Tipografia „Cartea Românească”, 360 pp. 

5. DIHORU G. & NEGREAN G. Cartea roşie a plantelor vasculare din România, Edit. Acad. Române, 

Bucureşti, 2009, 630 pp. 

6. DIKLIĆ N. 1973. Fam. Dipsacaceae in Flore de la Republique Socialiste de Serbie. V. Beograd. 

7. FERGUSON I. 1976. Genul Cephalaria, in Flora Europaea, 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

106


8. OLTEAN M., NEGREAN G., POPESCU A., ROMAN N., DIHORU G., SANDA V., MIHĂILESCU S. 

1994. Lista roşie a plantelor superioare din România. Studii, Sinteze, Documentaţii de Ecologie, Acad. 

Română – Inst. de Biol., Bucureşti, I, 52 pp. 

9. OPREA A. 2005. Lista critică a plantelor vasculare din România. Edit. Univ. “Al. Ioan Cuza” Iaşi, 668 pp. 

10. PRODAN I. 1961. Fam. Dipsacaceae, In Flora Republicii Populare Române, VIII. Bucureşti, Edit. Acad. 

Române. 

11. ROMAN N. 1971. Elemente noi pentru caracterizarea fitogeografică a Porţilor de Fier. Stud. Cerc. Biol., Ser. 

Bot., 23(6): 478-484. 

107

THE VARIABILITY OF CEPHALARIA URALENSIS (MURRAY) ROEM. ET SCHULT. 

Fig. 1. Cephalaria uralensis subsp. 

uralensis – plant habitus and fruits 

(original) 

108 

Fig. 2. Cephalaria uralensis subsp. 

dobrogensis – plant habitus and fruits 

(original)


18(2011): 109-116 

109 

IONIŢA OLGA 

PILOSELLA HILL GENUS IN THE BESSARABIA`S FLORA 

IONIŢA OLGA 1 

Abstract: As a result of floristic and taxonomic investigations of the Pilosella genus within the flora of the 

Bessarabia have been established 11 species: P. officinarum F. Schultz et Sch. Bip, P. aurantiaca F. 

Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. praealta (Vill ex Gochn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. piloselloides (Vill.) 

Sojak, P. glaucescens (Bess.) Sojak, P. echioides (Lumn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. caespitosa 

(Dumort.) P. D. Sell et C. West, P. cymosa (L.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip, P. lactucela (Wallr.) P. D. 

Sell et C. West, P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak. & P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv.-Touv., the last three are 

new taxa recently detected for the flora in the study. After chorological analysis, has been concluded 

that 6 species are rare. Ecological and biomorfological characteristics of taxa have been established, 

the determination key of the Pilosella`s species has been drawn. 

Key words: genus Pilosella Hill, Bessarabia´s flora, taxonomy, bioecology, chorology 

Introduction 

Hieracium L. s. l. being one of the most polymorphic, complicated and bulky 

genera of magnoliophyta from the Holarctic flora, is considered nowadays by a large 

number of the authors as two separated genera Hieracium L. s. str. and Pilosella Hill 

(Asteraceae Dumort. family, Hieraciinae Dumort. subtribe, Cichorieae Lam et DC. tribe). 

A number of common morphological features are characteristic for both genera, which 

determine the exceptional diversity of the forms and complicate the determination of the 

taxa, different modes of reproduction - apomixes (required and optional), amphimixis etc. 

are inherent for them. Auto incompatibility is not compulsory and it is possible to form 

offspring from cleistogamy [TUPICINA, 2004]. 

Pilosella genus described by HILL (1756) soon after publication of the Hieracium 

genus (Linnaeus, 1753), has not been accepted as an independent generic taxonomic unit 

for a long time, but considered as a taxonomic unit with a status of subgenus - Pilosella 

[GRAY, 1821] or section – Piloselloidea [KOCH, 1837] within the Hieracium genus 

[TUPICINA, 2004]. Among the botanists from the 18-19 century only SCHULTZ & 

SCHULTZ-BIPONTINUS (1862) and ARVET-TOUVET (1880) have acknowledged the 

existence of Pilosella genus, as separate taxonomic units. The final delimitation of the 

Hieracium s. str. and Pilosella Hill. genera was done barely in the second half of the 20th 

century as a result of researches and the appearance of works of a number of the botanists 

as: SOJÁK (1971), SELL & WEST (1976), DOSTÁL (1984), ŠLẬKOV (1989) and others 

[ТIHOMIROV, 2001]. 

The delimitative criteria are related to the structural features of the generative 

organs, in this case of the morphology of the fruit components, which usually manifest 

conservative properties more advanced unlike the vegetative organs and is practiced safer 

in separating activities of the taxonomic categories [IONIŢA & NEGRU, 2010]. 

1 

Botanical Garden (Institute) of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chişinău – Republic of Moldova, 

e-mail: o_ionita@mail.ru


The most important characters that separate the Pilosella from the Hieracium 

genus are related to the achen structure, are essentially distinctive, that determine us to 

accept the separation of species previously assigned to the Hieracium genus from 

Bessarabia`s flora. 

The Hieracium L. s. str. genus has achenes from 2.5 to 5 mm lengh; ring shaped, 

apical with bristles in two series, but the Pilosella Hill genus - 1-2 (2.5) mm lengh, costate; 

apical, crenated coronule with bristles in one row. 


During floristic investigations as a study material has served both Hieracium L. 

collections from Botanical Garden herbarium of ASM and that of the Department of Botany 

of the State University of Moldova and our own collections, made during the last years. The 

critical analysis of Pilosella species was performed by the classical comparativemorphological 

method [KOROVINA, 1996]. The material collected in the field was 

hebarized then determined in office conditions, using contemporary floristic literature 

[NYARADY, 1965; SELL & WEST, 1976; NEGRU, 2007; GHEIDEMAN, 1986; 

ŠLẬKOV, 1989; DOBROCEAEVA & al. 1999] and some basic guidance on the 

nomenclature and bioecology of infragenerical taxa [SELL & WEST, 1976; 

CEREPANOV, 1995; POPESCU & SANDA, 1998; CIOCÂRLAN, 2009]. General Map of 

Bessarabia was taken from: Derev´ja i kustarniki Moldavii [ANDREEV, 1957]. 


After the deep consulting of the literature and thorough analysis of the herborized 

plants`collections of Pilosella the taxonomic composition, the biomorfological, ecological 

and corological features of the species, synonymy and detailed morphological description 

have been determined. 

Genus PILOSELLA Hill 

1756, Brit. Herb.: 441; P. D. Sell a. C. West, 1967, Watsonia, 6, 5: 313. – Hieracium 

subgen. Pilosella Tausch, 1828, Flora (Regensb.), 11, 1, Erg.-Bl.: 50. – Hieracium sect. 

Piloselloidea Koch, 1844, Syn. Fl. Germ., ed. 2, 2: 509 

L e c t o t y p e: P. officinarum F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

There are thousands of species widespread in the extratropical regions of the 

Eurasia (excluding East Asia) and the North Africa [ŠLẬKOV, 1989]. 

The key to determining species 

1a Flowering stem, scapiform (basal rosette leaves only) with an anthodium. Leaves with 

dense stellate hairs on the underside .................. P. officinarum F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

1b Flowering stem (without basal rosette leaves), with 1-4 cauline leaves and 1-3 bracts. 

Anthodiums - 2 or more. Leaves without or with few stellate hairs on the underside ...2 

2a Ligules deep-orange, turning purplish when dry ...P. aurantiaca F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

2b Ligules yellow ................................................................................................................3 

3a Anthodiums not more than 2-6 (8) .................................................................................4 

3b Anthodiums numerous, more than 10 ............................................................................5 

110

111 

IONIŢA OLGA 

4a Basal rosette glaucous, glabrous or with few eglandular hairs on the margin and 

median rib. Involucral bracts 5-9 mm ..........P. lactucella (Wallr.) P. D. Sell et C. West 

4b Basal rosette with simple eglandular hairs on both surfaces and with stellate hairs on 

underside. Involucral bracts 9-12 mm ......................... P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv.-Touv. 

5a Stems and leaves glabrous or with rare simple eglandular hairs ....................................6 

5b Stems and leaves with numerous simple eglandular hairs or glandular .........................9 

6a Stolons get out not only from basal rossete but also from the axils of the lower cauline 

leaves ................................................................................. P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak 

6b Stolons get out only from basal rossete ..........................................................................7 

7a Peduncles with dense stellate hairs P. praealta (Vill ex Gochn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

7b Peduncles without or with few stellate hairs ..................................................................8 

8a Involucral bracts and peduncles without or with few glandular hairs, simple hairs 

dispersed ............................................................................ P. piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak 

8b Involucral bracts and peduncles with glandular hairs, from dispersed till dense, without 

or with occasional simple hairs ..........................................P. glaucescens (Bess.) Sojak 

9a Plants with dense, simple rigid hairs, the cauline hairs appressed-ascendent .................. 

................................................................... P. echioides (Lumn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

9b Plants with rigid hairs, very rare, the cauline patent ....................................................10 

10a Stolons long .............................................P. caespitosa (Dumort.) P. D. Sell et C. West 

10b Stolons absent or short .................................................................................................11 

11a Cauline leaves or bracteant ..................................P. cymosa (L.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

11b Cauline leaves or bracteant 5-20 ............... P. echioides (Lumn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 

S e c t i o n 1. Echinina (Naeg. et Peter) Schljak. comb. nova. – Hieracium sect. 

Piloselloidea subsect. Echinina Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 117. 

Steams and leaves hard-bristled, few or numerous cauline leaves. Basal leaves 

during flowering usually dry, rarely partially preserved. Ground stolons decumbent absent. 

Involucral bracts light green, abundant stellate hairy. 

1. P. echioides (Lumn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 1862, Flora (Regensb.), 45: 431; 

Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 329. – Hieracium echioides Lumn. 1791, Fl. 

Poson. 1: 348; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 418; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. раст. 

МССР: 582; Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 380; Negru, 

2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 270; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 870. – H. echioides subsp. 

echioides; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1368; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. 

Europ. 4: 375, s. restr. 

Hemicryptophyte, grows on dry herbaceous places, sunny hills, rocky coasts, 

sands, steppes. Eurasian element; xeromesophyllous, mesothermal, low acid-neutrophilous. 

Sporadically in Chilia, South Bugeac, North Bugeac, Gârneţ, Codrii, Rezina, Râşcani and 

Briceni geobotanical districts. The species areal includes the Central Europe (the Est), the 

Est Europe (excluding the North), the Caucasus, Mediterranean region, Asia, Mongolia, 

Iran. 

S e c t i o n 2. Praealtina (Gremli) Schljak. comb. nova. – Hieracium subgen. 

Pilosella grex Praealtina Gremli, 1878, Excurs.-Fl. Schweiz, ed. 5: 330 (sine dignitate). – 

Hieracium subgen. Piloselloidea sect. Praealtina (Gremli) G. Schneid. 1891, in Sagor. u. 

G. Schneid. Fl. Centralkarp. 2: 295; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1391. 

Compact steam, without cavities, with solitary or rare setaceous hairs, till 

dispersed, the upper part slightly stellate-tomentose. Leaves blue-green, rough, usually,


glabrous, only few thorny thirst on the margins, sometimes with stellate hairs along the 

midrib. Inflorescence corymbose, rarely umbellate, consisting of small anthodium. 

Involucral bracts lax adherent. Ligules yellow, without red stripes on outer part. Stigmas 

yellow. 

2. P. praealta (Vill. ex Gochn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 1862, Flora (Regensb.), 45: 

429; Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 332. – Hieracium praealtum Vill. ex Gochn. 

1808, Tent. Pl. Cichor.: 17; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 441. – H. florentinum All. subsp. 

praealtum (Vill. ex Gochn.) Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1402. – H. praealtum 

subsp. praealtum; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 371, s. restr. 

Hemicryptophyte identified on sunny meadows, glades and forest edges, steppe 

slopes (dry), field margins. European element (Mediterranean); xeromesophyllous, 

mesothermal, low acid-neutrophilous. Sporadically in the North Bugeac, Gârneţ, Codrii, 

Bălţi, Rezina, Râşcani, Briceni and Hotin geobotanical districts. The species areal includes 

the East and Central Europe, the Mediterranean region. 

3. P. piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak, 1971, Preslia (Praha), 43, 2: 185. – P. aggr. 

piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak, Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 334. – H. 

piloselloides Vill. 1779, Prosp. Hist. Pl. Dauph.: 34; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. раст. 


2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 271; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 870. – H. florentinum All. 

grex florentinum Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 554, s. l.; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. 

Pflanzenreich, 82: 1409. – H. piloselloides subsp. piloselloides; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, 

Fl. Europ. 4: 371. 

Hemicryptophyte, in herbaceous and rocky places met. European element 

(Mediterranean); xeromesophyllous, mesothermal, low acid-neutrophilous. Sporadically in 

Gârnet, Codrii, Rezina, Bălti and Briceni geobotanical districts. The species areal includes 

the East, South and Central Europe, the Caucasus. 

4. P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak. comb. nova; Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части 

СССР, 8: 334. – Hieracium magyaricum Naeg. et Peter subsp. rojowskii Rehm. 1897, 

Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, 47: 288. – H. bauhinii Bess. subsp. rojowskii (Rehm.) Zahn, 

1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82:1417. – H. praealtum Vill. ex Gochnat subsp. bauhinii 

(Bess.) Petunnikov, Sell & West, 1976, Fl. Europ. v. 4, p. 372. – H. rojowskii (Rehm.) 

Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 452, s. restr. (sine auct. comb.). – H. rojowskii Rehm. 

Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 381. 

Hemicryptophyte, grows on dry and herbaceous slopes, in rural areas, on wayside. 

Continental Eurasian element; xerophyllous, mesothermal, acid-neutrophilous. Rare taxa, 

collected from Codrii and Gârnet geobotanical districts (Fig. 1). The species areal includes 

the Caucasus, the East and Central Europe, the Mediterranean region. 

5. P. glaucescens (Bess.) Sojak, 1971, Preslia (Praha), 43, 2: 185, s. restr.; 

Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 341. – Hieracium glaucescens Bess. 1809, Prim. 

Fl. Galic. 2: 149; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 462; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. раст. 

МССР : 584; Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 381; Negru, 

2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 271. – H. magyaricum subsp. magyaricum; Naeg. et Peter, 

1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 576. H. bauhinii Bess. subsp. magyaricum (Naeg. et Peter) Zahn, 

1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82:1421. – H. praealtum Vill. ex Gochnat subsp. thaumasium 

(Peter) P. D. Sell, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 372. 

Hemicriptophyte identified on meadows, dry slopes, forest edge, the edge of fields 

and roads. European (mediterranean) element; xerophyllous, mesothermal, acid- 

112

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IONIŢA OLGA 

neutrophilous. Rare spread in the Codrii district. Colected only from two localities of the 

Hânceşti district: Sărata Galbenă and Bozieni villages (Fig. 1). The species areal includes 

the East and the Central Europe, the Mediterranean region (East), the Minor Asia. 

S e c t i o n 3. Cymosina (Naeg. et Peter) Schljak. comb. nova. – Hieracium sect. 

Piloselloidea subsect. Cymosina Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 116, 398. - 

Hieracium subgen. Piloselloidea sect. Cymosina G. Schneid. 1891, in Sagor. u. G. Schneid. 

Fl. Centralkarp. 2: 292; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1149, 1305 (cum auct. 

Naeg. et Peter, 1885). 

Stem with numerous bristles, on lower part often upward, abundantly stellate 

pubescent. Leaves with simple hairs on both surfaces, with stellate hairs on both parts or 

only beneath. Cauline leaves 2-4 (7), with glandular hairs often covered on the top. 

Inflorescences umbellate or corymbose. Anthodiums numerous; outer involucral bracts 

appressed, with simple hairs and often with glandular hairs. Yellow flowers. Stigmas 

yellow. Supraterraneous stolons slender. 

6. P. cymosa (L.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 1862, Flora (Regensb.), 45: 429; 

Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 344. – Hieracium cymosum L. 1763, Sp. Pl., ed. 

2: 1126, p. p.; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 549, p. p.; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. 

раст. МССР: 584; Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 384; Negru, 

2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 270; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 870. – H. cymosum subsp. 

cymosum Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 401; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 

82: 1309; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 372, s. restr. 

Hemicryptophyte, vegetates on meadows, steppes slopes. Eurasian element; 

xeromesophyllous, mesothermal, low acid-neutrophilous. Found sporadically in the North 

Bugeac, Gârnet, Codrii, Bălţi, Rezina, Râşcani, Briceni and Hotin districts. The species 

areal includes Scandinavia (South), the East and the Central Europe, the Mediterranean 

region (East). 

S e c t i o n 4. Pratensina (Aschers. et Graebn.) Zahn, 1923, in Engl. 

Pflanzenreich, 82: 1148-1149, 1239 (cum auct. Aschers.). – Hieracium sect. Piloselloidea 

subsect. Collinina Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 1: 116. 

Fistulose steam, (1) 2-3 (4) leaves, with distanced simple hairs, horizontally or 

patent, disperse stellate-tomentose. Leaves soft, thin, green or yellowish green, sometimes 

glaucescent, upper surface with few or without stellate hairs on the ribs, with simple hairs 

on the both surfaces. Peduncles stellate-tomentose. Involucres disperse stellate-tomentose, 

(5) 7-9 mm length, outer involucral bracts lax adherent. Stigmas dark, sometimes the same 

color as the ligules. Ground and underground stolons present. 

7. P. caespitosa (Dumort.) P. D. Sell et C. West, 1967, Watsonia, 6, 5: 314, s. 

restr.; Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 349. – H. caespitosum Dumort. 1827, Fl. 

Belg.: 27; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 373; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. 

раст. МССР: 584; Negru, 2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 270; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 

870. – H. pratense Tausch, Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 596. – H. pratense Tausch subsp. 

pratense; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1269. 

Hemicryptophyte identified on the meadows and forest edges. Eurasian element; 

mesophyllous, mesotermal, acid-neutrophilous. Rare species in the Codrii, Bălţi, Briceni 

and Hotin geobotanical districts (Fig. 1). The species areal includes West Siberia, New 

Zealand, the Caucasus (revealed by V. Nicolaev (1989) after one specimen) [TUPICINA, 

2004].


8. P. aurantiaca (L.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 1862, Flora (Regensb.), 45: 426; 

Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 351.– Hieracium aurantiacum L. 1753, Sp. Pl.: 

801; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 653, p. max. p.; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. раст. 


2007, Det. pl. fl. R. Mold.: 270; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 869. – H. aurantiacum 

subsp. aurantiacum; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82 :1242; P. D. Sell a C. West, 

1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 374, s. restr. 

Hemicryptophyte, vegetates in the stand glades of oak with birch and oak with 

cherry. Eurasian element; mesophyllous, microthermal, low acid-neutrophilous. Rare taxa, 

spread only in the Briceni district (Fig. 1). The species areal includes the North and Central 

Europe, Balkans; adventive in North America. 

S e c t i o n 5. Auriculina (Fries) Schljak. comb. nova. – Hieracium subgen. 

Pilosella II. Auriculina Fries, 1862, Uppsala Univ. Årsskr. (Mat.-Nat. – Epicr. Gen. Hier.): 

18. - Hieracium subgen. Piloselloidea sect. Auriculina (Fries) G. Schneid. 1891, in Sagor. 

u. G. Schneid. Fl. Centralkarp. 2: 284. 

Stem 25 (50) cm, slender, usually with 1 leaf, with slender decumbent, glabrous or 

glabrescent stolons at the base, with distanced leaflets. Leaves glaucous, spathulate to 

linear-lanceolate, with few or without stellate hairs beneath, on the midrib. Inflorescence 

(1) 2-6 (8) anthodiums. Involucres 6-8 (9) cm; involucral bracts green or blackish, usually 

whitish marginate. Ligules yellow, without red stripes. Stigmas yellow. 

Pilosella lactucela (Wallr.) P. D. Sell et C. West 

9. P. lactucela (Wallr.)P. D. Sell et C. West, 1967, Watsonia, 6, 5: 314; Шляков, 

1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 355. – Hieracium lactucella Wallr. 1822, Sched. Crit. 1: 

408; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 369, s. restr.; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 

869. – H. auricula auct. non. L.: Lam. et DC. 1805, Fl. Fr., ed. 3, 4: 24; Юксип, 1960, Фл. 

СССР, 30: 670. – H. auricula subsp. auricula auct.: Naeg. et Peter, 1885, Hier. Mitt.-Eur. 

1: 189; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1198. 

Hemicryptophyte, grows on the meadows. European element; mesophyllous, 

amphitolerant, acid-neutrophilous. Rare species, registered in Briceni, Codrii and South 

Bugeac geobotanical districts (Fig. 1). The species areal includes Scandinavia (South), the 

East and South Europe, Atlantic Europe (East) and Mediterranean region (East). 

Pilosella flagellare (Willd) Arv.-Touv. 

10. P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv.-Touv. 1873, Monogr. Pilos. Hier. Dauph.: 13. - P. 

flagellaris (Willd.) Arv.-Touv., Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 375. – Hieracium 

flagellare Willd., Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1278, pro sp. coll. (= H. pratensepilosella); 

Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 643; P. D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 369, 

pro sp. coll. propr.; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 869. – H. flagellare (Willd.) Naeg. et 

Peter, Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 385. – H. flagellare 

subsp. petunnikovii Peter, 1893, Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Götting. 2: 74. – H. petunnikovii (Zahn.) 

Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 638 (sine auct. comb.). 

Hemicryptophyte, identified on meadows, forest edge and glades, dry slopes, 

sands. Europen element; xeromesophyllous, mesothermal, acid-neutrophilous. Rare spread 

in Briceni, Codrii and Râşcani districts (Fig. 1). The species areal includes Scandinavia 

(Finland), the East and the Central Europe. 

S e c t i o n 6. Pilosella. Hieracium subgen. Pilosella I. Pilosellina Fries, 1862, 

Uppsala Univ. Årsskr. (Mat.-Nat. – Epicr. Gen. Hier.): 10. 

114

115 

IONIŢA OLGA 

Steam scapiform with an anthodium. All leaves basal, with densely stellate hairs 

on the underside, sometimes on the top. Involucres with densely stellate hairs. Ligules 

yellow, those marginal with red stripes on outer face. 

11. P. officinarum F. Schultz et Sch. Bip. 1862, Flora (Regensb.), 45: 421.; 

Шляков, 1989, Фл. евр. части СССР, 8: 358. – Hieracium pilosella L. 1753, Sp. Pl.: 800, 

p. p.; Zahn, 1923, in Engl. Pflanzenreich, 82: 1158; Юксип, 1960, Фл. СССР, 30: 692; P. 

D. Sell a C. West, 1976, Fl. Europ. 4: 368; Гейдеман, 1986, Опред. высш. раст. МССР: 

582; Доброч., Котов, Прокуд., 1999, Опред. высш. раст. Укр.: 379; Negru, 2007, Det. 

pl. fl. R. Mold.: 270; Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilus. Rom.: 867. – Pilosella communis Arv.-Touv. 

1873, Monogr. Hier. Pilos.: 13. 

Hemicryptophyte, grows on herbaceous and sunny places. European element 

(Mediterranean); xeromesophyllous, amphitolerant, euryonic. Commune in Chilia, 

sporadically in the North Bugeac, Gârneţ, Codrii, Bălţi, Rezina, Râşcani, Briceni and Hotin 

districts. The species areal includes Scandinavia, the central and Atlantic Europe (except 

the North), the Mediterranean region, Minor Asia, Caucasus, adventive in the North 

America, New Zeeland. 

Conclusions 

� The spontaneous flora of the Bessarabia includes 11 species of the Pilosella: P. 

officinarum F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. aurantiaca F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. praealta 

(Vill ex Gochn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak, P. glaucescens 

(Bess.) Sojak, P. echioides (Lumn.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. caespitosa (Dumort.) P. 

D. Sell et C. West, P. cymosa (L.) F. Schultz et Sch. Bip, P. lactucela (Wallr.) P. D. 

Sell et C. West, P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak. and P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv.-Touv. 

� Three new species for the flora in the study have been identified: P. lactucela (Wallr.) 

P. D. Sell et C. West, P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak. and P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv. 

Touv. 

� Of all highlighted taxa, 6 are rare: P. aurantiaca F. Schultz et Sch. Bip., P. glaucescens 

(Bess.) Sojak, P. caespitosa (Dumort.) P. D. Sell et C. West, P. lactucela (Wallr.) P. D. 

Sell et C. West, P. rojowskii (Rehm.) Schljak. and P. flagellare (Willd.) Arv. Touv. 

Numerous investigations and inventory in field are necessary further to make possible 

the indication of rare degree and endangered status of the mentioned taxa and to 

elaborate special measures for their conservation. 

References 

1. ANDREEV V. 1957. Derev´ja i kustarniki Moldavii. Moskva: Akad. Nauk SSSR: 7-8. 

2. ARVET-TOUVET C. 1880. Essal de classification sur les generes Pilosella & Hieracium principalement 

pour les espèces et les formes de la region Sud-Ouest de i'Europe, Bull. Soc. Dauph. Échange Pl. Sér. I. 

Bull. 7: 278-292. 

3. CEREPANOV S. 1995. Sosudistye rasteniâ Rosii i copredel´nyh gosudarstv. Sankt-Peterburg: Мir i sem´â- 

95, 990 pp. 

4. CIOCÂRLAN V. 2009. Flora ilustrată a României. Bucureşti: Edit. Ceres: 867-880. 

5. DOBROČAEVA. D., KOTOV M., PROKUDIN Û. & al. 1999. Opredelitel´ vysših rastenij Ukrainy. Кiеv: 

Naukova Dumka: 378-389. 

6. DOSTÁL J. 1984. Notes to the nomenclature of the taxa of the Czechoslovac flora. Folla Mus. Rev. Nat. 

Bohem. Occld. Bot., 21: 1-22.


7. GHEIDEMAN T. 1986. Opredelitel´ vysših rastenij Moldavskoj SSR. Chisinau: Ştiinta: 580-586. 

8. IONIŢA O. & NEGRU A. 2010. Specii noi de Pilosella Hill. (Asteraceae Dumort.) din flora Basarabiei. 

Akademos, 4(19): 124-126. 

9. КOROVINA О. 1986. Мetodičeskie ukazaniâ k sistematike rastenii. Leningrad: VIR, 210 pp. 

10. NEGRU A. 2007. Determinator de plante din flora Republicii Moldova. Chişinău: Universul: 270-271. 

11. NYARADY E. 1965. Flora Republicii Populare Române. Bucureşti: Edit. Acad. Republicii Populare 

Române, 10: 214-750. 

12. POPESCU A. & SANDA V. 1998. Conspectul florei cormofitelor spontane din România. Lucrările Grădinii 

Botanice. Bucureşti: Edit. Universităţii din Bucureşti. 336 pp. 

13. SCHULTZ F. & SCHULTZ-BIPONTINUS C. 1862. Pilosella ais eigene Gattung aufgestellt. Flora 

(Regensburg). 27: 417-432; 28: 433-441. 

14. SELL P. & WEST C. 1976. Hieracium L. In: Tutin T. G. et al. Flora Europaea. Cambridge: Cambridge 

University Press, 4: 358-410. 

15. ŠLẬKOV R. 1978. Rod Pilosella Hill. In: Flora evropejscoj časti SSSR. Leningrad: Nauka, 8: 300-377. 

16. SOJÁK J. 1971. Přehled československých druhù rodu Pilosella Hill. Preslia, 43(2): 183-186. 

17. SOJÁK J. 1971a. Speclerum generis Pilosella Hill combinations novae. Folia Geobot. Phytotax, 6: 217-219. 

18. ТIHOMIROV V. 2001. Rod Pilosella Hill vo flore Belarusi. Avtoreferat dissertacii na soiskanie učёnoi 

stepeni kandidata biologiceskih nauk. Minsk. 21 pp. 

19. TUPICINA N. 2004. Ậstrebinki Sibiri. Novosibirsk: Nauka. 207 pp. 

20. ÛKSIP A. 1960. Rod Hieracium L. In: Flora SSSR. Moskva & Leningrad, 30: 732 pp. 

Fig. 1. The spread of rare species of Pilosella Hill on the Bessarabia`s territory 

116 

THE BESSARABIAN 

GEOBOTANICAL DISTRICTS 

Chilia (Chl) 

Bugeacul de Sud (BgS) 

Bugeacul de Nord (BgN) 

Gârneţ (Gr) 

Codrii (Cd) 

Rezina (Rz) 

Bălţi (Bl) 

Râşcani (Rş) 

Briceni (Br) 

Hotin (Ht) 

▲ – Pilosella lactucella 

■ – Pilosella rojowskii 

● – Pilosella flagellare 

► – Pilosella aurantiaca 

▼ – Pilosella glaucescens 

◄ – Pilosella caespitosa


18(2011): 117-120 

CANTEMIR VALENTINA, NEGRU ANDREI, STEPHYRTSA ANA 

TAXONOMICAL POSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BUSCHIA LATERIFLORA 

(DC.) OVCZ. (RANUNCULACEAE JUSS.) SPECIES IN THE BESSARABIA 

CANTEMIR VALENTINA 1 , NEGRU ANDREI 1 , STEPHYRTSA ANA 1 

Abstract: Having the target of taxonomic concretization the Ranunculus L. and Buschia (DC.) Ovcz. genera 

from Bessarabia flora, the Herbarium specimens of Botanical Garden Academy of Sciences, and 

Moldova State University were investigated and analyzed. Research results attest the priority 

concept of Ranunculus L. genus and the presence of Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz. species in 

native flora. Revealing a new habitat for Buschia lateriflora species complete the species area within 

South-East Europe limits. Morphologic distinctive criteria of studied genus are given. 

Key words: taxonomical position, distribution, Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz., Bessarabia 

Introduction 

It is known that from BERNARD DE JUSSIEU (1789) and up to present the 

Ranunculaceae family system is constantly exposed to taxonomic treatments and 

modifications. For its classification, this family, possessing pronounced and difficult 

heterobatmy, is the subject of a comprehensive study concerning to all methods of modern 

taxonomy. However, up to date, a perfect system of classification of this family is absent. 

According to A. Takhtajan’s phylogenetic system [TAKHTAJAN, 1987], the 

Ranunculaceae family is divided into 6 subfamilies: Coptidoideae (phylogenetically, the 

most archaic and primitive), Thalictroideae (including Isopyroideae), Anemonoideae, 

Ranunculoideae, Delphinioideae, Hellebroideae. The Ranunculoideae subfamily, where is 

includes the Ranunculus genus (including Buschia), numbers 21 genera. 

Analyzing the data referring the Ranunculus L. genus for the monograph “Flora of 

Bessarabia”, we deviated from the traditional classification system on above-mentioned 

genus, following the N. Tsvelev’s opinion [TSVELEV, 2001] in assessing the systematic 

value of taxa at the level of genus. We are considering really and more adequate such 

treatment of the volume “in sensu stricto” and the delimitation within the Ranunculoideae 

subfamily of the Ranunculus L., Ficaria Guett., Batrachium (DC.) S.F. Gray, 

Ceratocephala Moench, Buschia Ovcz. genera, earlier and at present recognized by us, 

confirmed in the limits of the Bessarabian territory. 


As biological material for investigations the Herbarium of Botanical Garden 

(Institute) and, Moldova State University exsiccates were served. The basic methodical 

recommendations [KOROVINA, 1986] were used, for performing the expedition and 

cameral studies. The taxa nomenclature at the level of family, genus and species was taken 

1 Botanical Garden of the Moldova Academy of Sciences, Pădurii str., no. 18, 2002, Chişinău – Republic of 

Moldova, e-mail: v_cantemir@yahoo.com; andrei.negru1@gmail.com; ana_sterirta39@yahoo.com 

117

TAXONOMICAL POSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BUSCHIA LATERIFLORA (DC.) OVCZ. … 

from the fundamental published works by [CEREPANOV, 1995; TUTIN & al. 1993-2006] 

and, the bioecological peculiarities of species are exposed [POPESCU & SANDA, 1998]. 


The formal system of Ranunculus L. s. l. genus includes a great biodiversity of 

species (over 600) that distinguish themselves both by distinctive morphologic criteria and, 

geographic localization. The morphologic non-homogeneity of species of given genus 

induced the systematic investigators’ to such attempts of dividing this genus into a number 

of generic taxa. 

According to Ovczinikov’s [OVCZINIKOV, 1940] opinion, scientist-taxonomist, 

Prantl’s introduction (1876) in taxonomic composition of Ranunculus genus the R. 

lateriflorus DC. and R. nodiflorus L. species is considered unjustified. These species, based 

on comparative analysis of their morpho-structural peculiarities, could not be assigned to 

any sections of the genus Ranunculus. The distinctions being rather evident, the author, 

analyzing the Ranunculaceae family for the USSR Flora, includes these two taxons in the 

Micranthus Ovcz. subgenus (OVCZINIKOV, 1937). Later on, OVCZINIKOV (1940) 

combines both species into Buschia Ovcz. new genus. 

Tab. 1. Morphological distinctive criteria of the Ranunculus and Buschia genera. 

Genus/Criterion Buschia Ranunculus 

Calyx structure Perigon (petaloid, deciduous) Perianth (bicalyculate) 

Flower position 

Sessile, axillary in the 

dichotomies stem 

Flowers are not axillary, 

sessile 

Honey-leaves 

Reduced, elongated, spoonshaped 

Honey-leaves of another type 

(sessile) 

Stem branched Dichotomous – dichasial 

Differentiation of the 

inflorescence from the 

vegetative part 

Lack of differentiation in the 

upper part to separate from the 

vegetative part of the 

inflorescence 

Cauline ramification of 

another type 

Presence of inflorescence and 

of vegetative part 

From the ecological point of view Buschia genus prefers the humid and swampy 

habitats (biotopes), sometimes halophilous; it is also identified in water surfaces forming a 

number of ecological modifications. The terrestrial forms are small (4-13 cm), branched 

from the base with short internodes; the aquatic forms (Ranunculus lateriflorus form natans 

Gluck) are high, achieving to 15-20 cm, subramose, with long internodes and narrow 

leaves. Among these forms there are crossing varieties. 

The investigation of exsiccates, existent in the Herbarium of the Botanical Garden 

Academy of Sciences of Moldova concerning the Ranunculus genus permitted the revealing 

of an exsiccate, collected by Zelenetskij N. and identified initially as Ranunculus nodiflorus 

L. (the South of Bessarabia, Tatarbunar, on the alkaline soils) [ZELENETSKIJ, 1891]. 

Later on, V. Lipskij in 1892 reviewing Zelenetskij’s herbarium, collected from the South of 

Bessarabia, determined this sample as R. lateriflorus DC. We confirm the correctness of 

this species identification. With the purpose of discovering the new places of growth of the 

118

CANTEMIR VALENTINA, NEGRU ANDREI, STEPHYRTSA ANA 

species Buschia lateriflora (DC) Ovcz. within Bessarabia’s limits, new additional 

expedition studies are necessary. 

Genus Buschia Ovcz. 

1940, Bot. journal. 25, 4-5: 339. - Ranunculus L. subgen. Micranthus Ovcz. 1937, USSR 

Flora, 7: 474 

Annual herbs, erect or ascending. Stems dichotomous branched. Basal alternatelyleaved, 

complete, ovate-oblong, long-petiolate, those superior are opposed, short-petiolate, 

oblong-lanceolate, rarely dentate. Very small flowers, achieves to 2,0-3,0 mm in diameter, 

those superior are 2-3, sessile, disposed in the axil of the branches, with an opposite 

bracteate’s foliole. Perigon petal-shaped; tepals 5(4), yellow, partially bi-symphpetalous, 

deciduous. Honey-leaves 3-5, membranous, candicant, spoon-shaped, sometimes very 

reduced, nectariferous foveole at the base, covered with a semicircular squama 

(rudimentary leaf), free in the superior part. Stamens 4–7, anthers small, orbiculated. 

Apocarpous gynoecium, numbers 3–10 uniovulate carpels. Receptacle glabrous. Relative 

numerous fruit (6-25) dispose in globulous cephalodium, granular-tuberculated, beak 

slightly dilated at the base, a little elongated (B. lateriflora) or short (B. nodiflora). 

Typus generis: Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz. (Ranunculus lateriflorus DC.). 

Species type of the genus in the native flora of Bessarabia is identified. 

The genus includes 2-4 species, sporadic spread in the South-East Europe, in 

Mediterranean region (including, Northern Africa), Caucasus, Crimea, the inferior stream 

of Volga river, the Northern part of the Middle Asia. 

Buschia lateriflora (DC.) Ovcz. 1940, Бот. журн. 25, 4-5: 339; Доброч. и др. 

1999, Опред. высш. раст. Украины: 52; Цвелев, 2001, Фл. Вост. Европы, X: 159. – 

Ranunculus lateriflorus DC. 1817, Reg. Veg. Syst. Nat. 1: 251; Овч. 1937, Фл. СССР, 7: 

474; Tutin, 1964, Fl. Europ. 1: 236; Tutin et Akeroyd, 1993, Fl. Europ., ed. 2, 1: 284. 

Ciocârlan, 2009, Fl. Ilustr. a Rom.: 169. – Fig. 1. 

Plants are of 4-15 (25) cm, glabrous. Stems dichotomic ramified. Basal leaves ovate 

or oval elliptical, complete or dentate, long-petiolate, lamina of 12-20 (25) x 5-8 (10) mm. 

Leaves caulinary elongated-lanceolate, rarely dentate, and short-petiolate. Flowers of 2.4–3.0 

mm in diameter, sessile or subsessile, axillary in the dichotomies of the stem, in the superior 

part 2–3. Sepals 5, petal-shaped, membranous, elongated-elliptical, yellowish, deciduous. 

Honey-leaves 3, rarely 2, reduced, elongated spoon-shaped. Androecium of 4-5 stamens, 

anthers suborbicular. Receptacle conic, glabrous. Achenes achieve 2.8–3.3 mm, ovate-pearshaped, 

brown, granular-tuberculated on the margins, beak of 1.0–1.3 mm. 2n=16. 

Annual terofite, blooming in April-May, vegetates on sandy-place, humid, alkaline 

soil, river meadows temporary flooded. 

Element eurasiatic (mediterranean), mesophyte (hygrophyte) species, halophilous, 

mesotherm, prefers soils with neutral-alkaline reaction. The species area covers continental 

Eurasia and North Africa. In the flora of Bessarabia it vegetates in the southern part of the 

territory (the steppe by Stipa L. with Festuca L. districts, on the alkaline soils, southern 

Budgeac). 

119

TAXONOMICAL POSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BUSCHIA LATERIFLORA (DC.) OVCZ. … 

Fig. 1. Buschia lateriflora (DC) Ovcz. (after P. N. Ovczinikov). 

a – general view; b – flower; c – nectary; d – achene; e – apical part of flowering shoots. 

Conclusions 

The study and the analysis of the herbarized material confirm the presence of the 

Buschia lateriflora (DC) Ovcz. species in the Bessarabia’s flora. 

The discovery of this habitat Buschia lateriflora completes the species area in the 

South-East Europe limits. 

Buschia lateriflora represents a native floristic element (not adventive), spread 

rarely in the Bessarabia’s limits and requires further research. 

References 

1. CEREPANOV S. K. 1995. Sosudistye rastenija Rossii i sopredel´nyh gosudarstv. Sanct-Peterburg, 990 pp. 

2. КОROVINA О. N. 1986. Metodiceskie ucazania c sistematike rastenii. Leningrad, 210 pp. 

3. OVCZINIKOV P. N. 1937. Ljutiki (Ranunculus) flory SSSR. V: V. L. KOMAROV Flora SSSR. Leningrad, 

7: 477. 

4. OVCZINIKOV P. N. 1940. Buschia - novyj rod semejstva ljuticovyh (Ranunculaceae). V: Botaniceskii 

jurnal SSSR. Leningrad. 25(4-5): 334-340. 

5. POPESCU A. & SANDA V. 1998. Conspectul florei cormofitelor spontane din Romania. Acta Botanica 

Horti Bucurestiensis. Lucrarile Gradinii Botanice. Edit. Univ. din Bucuresti, 336 pp. 

6. TAKHTAJAN A. L. 1987. Sistema Magnoliofitov. Leningrad, 439 pp. 

7. TUTIN T. G. & al. (asisted by J. R. AKEROYD & M. E. NEWTON). 1993-2006. Flora Europaea. 1-5, 2 nd 

ed., Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 

8. TSVELEV N. N. 2001. Rod Buschia Ovcz. V: N. N. TSVELEV (Pod red.). Flora Vostočnoi Evropy. Sanct- 

Peterburg, X: 159-160. 

9. ZELENETSKIJ N. 1891. Otčot o botaničeskih issledovanijah Bessarabskoj gubernii (Uezdy Benderskij, 

Akkermanskij i Izmail´skij). Odessa, Izd. Bessarabskoj Gubernskoj Upravy, 95 pp. 

120


18(2011): 121-134 

SÎRBU CULIŢĂ, OPREA ADRIAN, ELIÁŠ PAVOL jun., FERUS PETER 

NEW CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF ALIEN FLORA IN 

ROMANIA 

SÎRBU CULIŢĂ 1 , OPREA ADRIAN 2 , ELIÁŠ PAVOL jun. 3 , FERUS PETER 4 

Abstract: In this paper, a number of seventeen alien plant species are presented, one of them being now for the 

first time reported in Romania (Sedum sarmentosum Bunge). Some species are mentioned for the first 

time in the flora of Moldavia (Aster novae-angliae L., Cenchrus incertus M. A. Curtis, Chenopodium 

pumilio R. Br., Fraxinus americana L., Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell, Petunia × atkinsiana D. Don, 

Solidago gigantea Aiton, Tagetes erecta L.) or Transylvania (Kochia sieversiana (Pallas) C. A. Mey.), 

and some are reported from new localities (seven species). For each species, there are presented 

general data on the geographical origin, its distribution in Europe and worldwide, as well as its 

invasion history and current distribution in Romania. Some of these species manifest a remarkable 

spreading tendency, expanding their invasion area in Romania. Voucher specimens were deposited in 

the Herbarium of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi (IASI). 

Keywords: alien plants, flora, new records, Romania 

Introduction 

According to ANASTASIU & NEGREAN (2005), the alien flora of Romania 

includes 435 species, of which 88.3% are neophytes and 11.7% are archaeophytes. 

Therefore, species of alien origin currently represent ca 13% of the total flora of the 

country, which was estimated by CIOCÂRLAN (2009) to 3335 species. In the last years 

there is a continuous enrichment of Romania’s flora with new alien plant species 

[ANASTASIU & NEGREAN, 2008; OPREA & SÎRBU, 2010; SÎRBU & OPREA, 2011]. 

Some of these alien species can become invasive, threatening natural and 

agricultural ecosystems, causing damages to the economy and human health [PIMENTEL & 

al. 2000; McNEELY, 2001; WITTENBERG & COCK, 2001]. All signatories to the 

Convention on Biological Diversity, including Romania, are obliged to prevent the 

introduction of, control, or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats 

or species [WITTENBERG, 2005]. Reporting those newly alien species arrived in Romania’s 

flora, and monitoring the spreading of those previously reported, can be useful tools in 

establishing measures in order to eradicate them before become invasive and harmful. 

In the present paper we report a new alien species for the flora of Romania, as well 

as other new or rare alien species for the flora of Moldavia and Transylvania, some of 

which have an invasive character. 

1 

University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Faculty of Agriculture, 3, Mihail Sadoveanu 

Alley, Iaşi – Romania, e-mail: culita69@yahoo.com 

2 

“Anastasie Fătu” Botanical Garden, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, 7-9 Dumbrava Roşie St., 700487, Iaşi – 

Romania 

3 

Slovak Agricultural University, Faculty of Agrifood Resources, Nitra – Slovakia 

4 

Arboretum Mlynany, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Vieska nad Zitavou – Slovakia 

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NEW CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF ALIEN FLORA IN ROMANIA 


All the species in this paper were recorded during our recent field works on alien 

plants, in the historical provinces Moldavia and Transylvania (Romania). The geographic 

coordinates were recorded using eTrex Legend HCx GPS system. Voucher specimens were 

deposited in the Herbarium of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 

Iaşi (IASI). Morphological characters of species were analyzed on the specimens collected 

from the field and compared with the data from relevant literature sources [TUTIN & al. 

1964-1980, 1993; KUNJUN & OHBA, 2001; CIOCÂRLAN, 2009; OHBA, 2009]. The 

taxonomy and nomenclature of species follow Flora Europaea [TUTIN & al. 1964-1980, 

1993], except Sedum sarmentosum Bunge [KUNJUN & OHBA, 2001; OHBA, 2009]. 

Terminology and definitions recommended by RICHARDSON & al. (2000) and PYŠEK & 

al. (2004) were used for the status of alien plants. 

Results & discussions 

During our recent field investigations, focused on alien plants in Moldavia and 

Transylvania (2010), we recorded a new alien plant species for the flora of Romania 

(Sedum sarmentosum Bunge), several new alien species for the flora of Moldavia (e. g. 

Aster novae-angliae L., Cenchrus incertus M. A. Curtis, Chenopodium pumilio R. Br., 

Fraxinus americana L., Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell, Petunia × atkinsiana D. Don, 

Solidago gigantea Aiton, Tagetes erecta L.) or Transylvania (e. g. Kochia sieversiana 

(Pallas) C. A. Mey.), and other species identified in new localities, some of them with an 

invasive character (e. g. Brachyactis ciliata (Ledeb.) Ledeb., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., 

Euphorbia dentata Michx., Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal., Impatiens parviflora DC., 

Sicyos angulatus L.). 

a) New records in the alien flora of Romania 

Sedum sarmentosum Bunge 

A species native to Eastern Asia (China) [KUNJUN & OHBA, 2001], cultivated 

for ornamental purposes and naturalized in Japan [MÜLLER & OKUDA, 1998], North 

America [OHBA, 2009], as well as in numerous European countries, such as: Spain 

[CASTROVIEJO, 1995], Montenegro [STEŠEVIĆ & al. 2008], Slovenia [JOGAN & al. 

1995], Czech Republic [PYŠEK & al. 2002], Switzerland [WITTEMBERG, 2005], 

Belgium [VERLOOVE, 2006], Hungary (casual) [BALOGH & al. 2004], Croatia 

[ŠEGULJA & REGULA BEVILACQUA, 1994], Austria [FISCHER & al. 2008], 

Germany, Italy and Slovakia [MARHOLD, 2011]. 

In Romania, this species was recently found in Mediaş town (Sibiu county), on a 

platform of a concrete channel, along the Henri Coandă street (46º09′59.32′′N; 

24º21′37.50′′E; leg. Eliáš P. jun., Oprea A., Sîrbu C., Ferus P., 2011 August 18) (Fig. 1). 

On that place, this species grow abundantly, forming mono-specific and compact clumps, 

presumably by vegetative reproduction. 

We do not know the introduction date of this species into Romania. None of the 

floristic papers in Romania, either older [BAUMGARTEN, 1816; SCHUR, 1866; FUSS, 

1866; SIMONKAI, 1886; KANITZ, 1879-1881; BRÂNDZĂ, 1879-1883; GRECESCU, 

122


1898; PRODAN, 1939; BORZA, 1947], or more recent [RĂVĂRUŢ, in SĂVULESCU, 

1956; BELDIE, 1977; OPREA, 2005; CIOCÂRLAN, 2009] does not mention it. Its 

morphological characters, based on the study of herbarium specimens, in agreement with 

the data from relevant literature sources [KUNJUN & OHBA, 2001; OHBA, 2009], are 

presented below. 

S. sarmentosum is a perennial herb, glabrous, with stems creeping and ascending, 

branched, rooting at nodes, 10-25 cm; leaves 3-verticillate, sessile; blade pale yellowish - 

green, 10-25 × 4-6 mm, base abruptly narrowed, spurred, apex subacute; cyme 

corymbiform, bracts similar to leaves, smaller; flowers ± sessile, 5-merous; sepals 

lanceolate to oblong, 3.5-5 mm, green, apex acute to obtuse; petals yellow, lanceolate to 

oblong, 5-8 mm, apex long-mucronate; stamens 10, shorter than petals; carpels 5, distinct, 

oblong, 5-6 mm. Fruit polyfollicle. 

S. sarmentosum is a polyploid species (2n = ca 72) [OHBA, 2009], blooming in 

May-June and fruiting in August [KUNJUN & OHBA, 2001; FISCHER & al. 2008]. The 

actively clonal reproduction allows it to maintain populations even when no seeds are 

formed (Croatia) [ŠEGULJA & REGULA BEVILACQUA, 1994]. Into the natural range, 

this species prefers rocky and shaded fields, up to the altitude of 1600 m [KUNJUN & 

OHBA, 2001]. In North America it is reported on dry rocks, between 0 and 500 m altitudes 

[OHBA, 2009]. In Croatia, it grows on sandy or rocky anthropogenic grounds and on old 

walls, where it can form almost pure stands [ŠEGULJA & REGULA BEVILACQUA, 

1994]. In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, S. sarmentosum is indicated in folk 

medicine, e.g. in chronic viral hepatitis [HE & al. 1998], or as a vegetable [KUNJUN & 

OHBA, 2001]. 

b) New records in the alien flora of Moldavia 

Aster novae-angliae L. (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae (L.) G. L. Nesom) 

It is a species native to North America [FEHÉR, 2008], introduced in Europe as an 

ornamental plant, and naturalized in many regions [TAMAMSCHJAN, 1999/1959; YEO, 

in TUTIN & al. 1976]. In Romania, it is also cultivated in gardens [MORARIU & 

NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU, 1964], from where it sometimes escapes and spreads freely: 

Banat [ARVAT, 1977] and Muntenia [NEGREAN, 1972]. It was also found in Moldavia, 

in Iaşi city, on a vacant land, near the railway, ca 500 m, westward of the railway station 

(47º10′13.16′′N; 27º33′36.60′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., 2010 October 12), where it grows into a 

phytocoenosis dominated by Elymus repens. 

Cenchrus incertus M. A. Curtis 

Species native to North and Central America [HITCHCOCK, 1950; 

SZIGETVÁRI, 2008], and naturalized in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe 

[CLAYTON, in TUTIN & al. 1980; SZIGETVÁRI, 2008; DAISIE, 2011]. In Romania it 

was relatively recent reported [CIOCÂRLAN & al. 1991], along the Black Sea littoral, in 

Vama Veche and subsequently in other localities from Dobrudja [CIOCÂRLAN, 2000; 

CIOCÂRLAN & al. 2004; OPREA, 2005]. In Moldavia, a small population of C. incertus 

has been identified at Galaţi railway station (45º26′38.09′′N; 28º03′41.94′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., 

Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 August 20). It seems to be now a species on the way 

of spreading in Romania. 

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Chenopodium pumilio R. Br. 

This is a species originating in tropical regions, unintentionally introduced in 

Europe by importing wool from Australia [AELLEN, 1979, cited by CHYTRY, 1993]. In 

Romania, it was first mentioned by CHYTRY (1993) (leg. 1989) and COSTEA (1994), 

from the Danube Delta, on sandy river banks influenced by the human activities. In other 

areas it also grows on ruderal grounds, railway stations, and river banks [CHYTRY, 1993]. 

According to CHYTRY (1993), due to high capacity for dissemination and long viability of 

seeds, the species is expected to further spread in South-Eastern Europe. Indeed, we 

recently found it in other localities from the Danube Delta (e. g. Crişan, Sulina, Maliuc and 

Caraorman), but also in Southern part of Moldavia, on the left bank of the Danube river, in 

Galaţi town (between 45º25′06.11′′N; 28º02′07.82′′E and 45º26′11.75′′N; 28º04′43.43′′E; 

leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A.; 2011 August 02), and at Cotul Pisicii (45º25′10.27′′N; 

28º11′17.09′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P.; 2011 August 20). 

Fraxinus americana L. 

This is one of the most common ash species in North America [GRIFFITH, 1991], 

introduced in Europe at 1724 [CSISZÁR & BARTHA, 2008], and now occasionally 

reported as sub-spontaneous tree in France, Bulgaria, Hungary and Lithuania [DAISIE, 

2011]. In Romania it is cultivated as isolated trees in parks, along the streets and in forest 

plantations [DUMITRIU-TĂTĂRANU, 1960; MORARIU, in SĂVULESCU, 1961]. As a 

sub-spontaneous plant, this ash species was previously reported in Dobrudja, at Mamaia (on 

the Tăbăcărie lakesides) [FĂGĂRAŞ & al. 2008]. We also have identified this species, as 

sub-spontaneous, in Galaţi county, at Tirighina-Barboşi railway yard (45º24′07.13′′N; 

27º58′14.96′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02), Şendreni (near the road; 

45º25′12.26′′N; 27º53′48.45′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02) and Galaţi (near 

the railway station; 45º26′26.68′′N; 28º04′00.85′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., 

Ferus P., 2011 August 20). 

Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell 

Species originating in North and South America, naturalized in a large part of 

South-Western Europe [WEBB & PHILCOX, IN TUTIN & al. 1972]. In Romania it was 

previously reported by CIOCÂRLAN & COSTEA (1994), on wet alluvia from the Danube 

Delta – Sacalin Island, towards the Sfântul Gheorghe distributary channel, and, 

subsequently, it was also mentioned from Chilia Veche and Periprava [CIOCÂRLAN, 

1994, 2009]. We found this species along the Sulina distributary channel, at Mila 28 (West 

of Maliuc) (45º10′19.63′′N; 29º02′56.96′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 03), at 

Crişan (45º10′32.71′′N; 29º23′06.52′′E; leg. Oprea A., 2011 September 15), as well as in 

the city of Galaţi, on the left bank of Danube river (45º25′33.22′′N; 28º02′55.32′′E; leg. 

Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02). 

Petunia × atkinsiana D. Don (=P. axillaris (Lam.) Britton, Sterns et Pogg. × P. 

integrifolia (Hook.) Schinz & Thell.; P. hybrida Vilm.) 

Ornamental plant of hybrid origin, which was obtained from crosses between P. 

axillaris and P. integrifolia, in the second half of the nineteenth century [GUYOT, 1961]. 

Occasionally, it was reported as a refugee from the gardens in some countries from Central, 

Western and Southern Europe [DAISIE, 2011]. In Romania, it was introduced, probably, 

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towards the end of the nineteen century, now being widely cultivated as an ornamental 

plant. It was occasionally reported as a plant escaped from gardens, in several localities 

from Transylvania [BORZA, 1959] and Dobrudja [HOREANU, 1975; FĂGĂRAŞ & al. 

2008]. We also found it on vacant lands or roadsides, in many localities in Southern 

Moldavia (Galaţi county): Fârţăneşti (45º47′06.06′′N; 27º58′54.76′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea 

A., 2011 July 31), Tg. Bujor (45º52′27.05′′N; 27º55′33.23′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 

July 31), Galaţi (45º24′46.41′′N; 28º01′46.88′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02), 

Hanu Conachi (45º34′54.15′′N; 28º35′42.14′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02), 

Costache Negri (45º42′02.03′′N; 27º43′00.15′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02), 

Cudalbi (45º46′16.16′′N; 27º41′11.46′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02), Pechea 

(45º37′20.24′′N; 27º48′00.82′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 August 02). 

Solidago gigantea Aiton (S. serotina Aiton; S. gigantea subsp. serotina (Kuntze) 

McNeill) 

Species native to North America (United States and Canada) [BRITTON & 

BROWN, 1970], from where it was introduced in Europe, as an ornamental plant, in 1758 

(London) [JAKOBS & al. 2004; WITTENBERG, 2005; WEBER & JAKOBS, 2005]. 

Although the first naturalized populations in Europe were recorded shortly after its 

introduction, the plant has been spread throughout the continent mainly after the year of 

1850 [WEBER & JAKOBS, 2005]. Nowadays, it is widespread in almost all european 

countries, between 42ºN and 63°N [MCNEILL, in TUTIN & al. 1976; WEBER & 

JAKOBS, 2005]. In Romania, according to MORARIU & NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU 

(1964), S. gigantea was firstly published by SCHUR (1866), on the river meadows between 

Avrig and Bradu (Transylvania). This is, however, an erroneous information, because the 

species indicated by SCHUR (1866) is S. canadensis, and not S. gigantea. Therefore, 

probably, the first indication of this species in Romania remains that made by BORBAS 

(1886), cited by MORARIU & NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU (1964), which mentioned S. 

gigantea from Lipova (Arad county). In the last century the species has also been 

mentioned on the Danube river meadows and Danube Delta [PRODAN, 1935-1939, 1939], 

as well as from Transylvania, Maramureş, Banat and Oltenia [BORZA, 1947; MORARIU 

& NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU, 1964; ŞTEFUREAC & al. 1971; ROMAN, 1974; 

DIHORU & al. 1968-1970]. In Moldavia, it has been previously known only from gardens. 

As a sub-spontaneous plant, it was recently found in the following localities: Fundu 

Moldovei (on the left bank of the Moldova river; leg. Sîrbu C., 2006 July 25), between 

Pojorâta and Sadova (the left bank of the Moldavia river; 47º32′01.79′′N; 25º29′32.36′′E; 

leg. Sîrbu C., 2011 September 01) (Suceava county), as well as in Răducăneni (the left bank 

of the Bohotin river; 46º57′37.32′′N; 27º56′34.69′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2011 

September 11) (Iaşi county). Currently, we can state that in Romania, this species is quite 

common (invasive) on the river meadows in Transylvania, Crişana, Maramureş, and Banat, 

but it is still rather rare in the other provinces of the country. 

Tagetes erecta L. 

Species native to Central America (Mexico), from where it was introduced into 

Central Europe, in the 1573 [NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU, 1964; GUYOT, 1961], for 

ornamental use. Today, it is reported as a casual alien plant from many european countries 

[GUYOT, 1961; ESSL & RABITSCH, 2002; MOSYAKIN & YAVORSKA, 2002; 

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PYŠEK & al. 2002; BALOGH & al. 2004; VERLOOVE, 2006; DAISIE, 2011]. In 

Romania, it was listed as a garden plant, starting from the 19 th century [SZABO, 1841; 

PORCIUS, 1885; BRÂNDZĂ, 1879-1883; SIMONKAI, 1886; GRECESCU, 1898]. 

According to DIACONESCU (1961) and ANASTASIU (1994), it is naturalized in 

Bucharest (in the Botanical Garden). We have found it as a sub-spontaneous plant (escaped 

from gardens) in Horleşti-Rediu, on a ruderal place (leg. Sîrbu C., 2006 September 03) (Iaşi 

county), Fundu Moldovei (on the left bank of the Moldova river; leg. Sîrbu C., 2006 July 

25) (Suceava county), as well as at Crişan (Danube Delta) (45º10′25.41′′N; 29º23′33.67′′E; 

leg. Oprea A., 2011 September 15). 

c) New record in the alien flora of Transylvania 

Kochia sieversiana (Pallas) C. A. Mey. (Bassia sieversiana (Pallas) W. A. Weber; 

K. scoparia var. sieversiana Graebn.; K. densiflora Turkz. in DC.; K. scoparia var. 

densiflora Moq. in DC.). 

A species originating in Central Asia and Siberia [ILJIN, 1970/1936], first time 

reported in Romania, from Muntenia, by CIOCÂRLAN (1991). Subsequently, it was 

identified in Dobrudja [MITITELU & al. 1992; CIOCÂRLAN, 1994], and Moldavia 

[OPREA, 1997a, 1998; OPREA & al. 1997; SÎRBU & OPREA, 1998; COROI & COROI 

A.M., 1999; COROI, 2001; COROI A.M., 2001; OPREA, 2005], but its area of invasion in 

Romania is certainly wider and in a continuous expansion. It is quite similar to K. scoparia 

(of which it is distinguished by the numerous whitish hairs, located under flowers), reason 

why, in many cases, it may have been erroneously identified, as K. scoparia. Recently it 

was also found in Transylvania, in Sibiu city, on a ruderal ground, near the railway station 

(45º47′32.25′′N; 24º10′18.90′′E; leg. Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., Oprea A., Sîrbu C., 2011 

August 19). 

d) Alien species found in new localities 

Brachyactis ciliata (Ledeb.) Ledeb. (Erigeron ciliatus Ledeb.; Symphyotrichum 

ciliatum (Ledeb.) G. L. Nesom) 

It is an Asian species [BOTSCHANTZEV, 1999/1959], known as alien plant in 

Poland [BRÓŚ & PODGÓRSKA, 2005], R. of Moldova [DAISIE, 2011] and Romania. It 

was found in Eastern Romania (Moldavia), in the year 1967 [VIŢĂLARIU, 1971; POP & 

VIŢĂLARIU, 1971]. Subsequently, it has spread fairly quickly in this province, as well as 

in Muntenia and Dobrudja (including the Danube Delta) [OPREA, 2005]. In Transylvania, 

this plant was previously reported only from Cluj-Napoca [FILIPAŞ & CRISTEA, 2006]. 

We also found it at Gheorgheni (Harghita county) (on a ruderal ground, near the railway 

station; 46º43′10.68′′N; 25º34′21.71′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., Oprea A., 2011 

August 18), as well as in Sibiu (Sibiu county), near the railway station (45º47′14.51′′N; 

24º10′46.95′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 August 19). 

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 

Species originating in tropical and subtropical Asia [CIOCÂRLAN, 2009] or 

Africa [HILDEBRAND, 2008], now widespread throughout the world, mainly in regions 

with warmer climates [HITCHCOCK, 1950; BRITTON & BROWN, 1970; JÜRGENS, 

126


1977; SALIMATH & al. 1995; CLAYTON & al. 2006]. It is reported as a naturalized alien 

plant in Southern Europe [HANSEN, in TUTIN & al. 1980] and as casual in the central and 

western regions [LE CLERCH, 1973; HANSEN, in TUTIN & al. 1980]. The first report of 

this species in Romania (as a sub-spontaneous plant) was from Iaşi, where it seems to have 

arrived accidentally (in 1957) with seeds of Lolium perenne bought from the market, and 

used for lawns in the surroundings of the Agronomical Institute [RĂVĂRUŢ & 

MITITELU, 1960]. Subsequently, E. indica has not been confirmed as a sub-spontaneous 

species in Iaşi. Instead, it was reported from Crişana (North-Western Romania) 

[NEGREAN & KARÁCSONYI, 1984], Dobrudja [COSTEA, 1996], as well as from 

Muntenia [NEGREAN & CONSTANTIN, 1999; OPREA & al. 2004]. Recently it has been 

found in Galaţi railway station (45º26′41.69′′N; 28º03′40.48′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., 2011 July 

20), in the second locality in Moldavia. E. indica is seen in general as a common and 

harmful weed of crops in warmer regions of the world [HITCHCOCK, 1950; JÜRGENS, 

1977]. In Romania, although it was mentioned only in a few localities so far, the fact that 

his presence was noted in so distant regions (Maramureş, Moldavia, Dobrudja, Muntenia) 

may be an alarm signal on its invasive capacity, particularly in that regions with high 

temperature and light resources. 

Euphorbia dentata Michx. 

Species of North American origin, naturalized in Ukraine [MOSYAKIN & 

YAVORSKA, 2002], R. of Moldova [MÎRZA & ŞABANOVA, 1992], Belgium, Italy 

[DAISIE, 2011], as well as in Eastern Asia [MA & LIU, 2003; LEE & al. 2009]. In 

Romania, it was previously known from Socola-Iaşi (including var. cuphosperma Engelm.) 

[OPREA, 1997b] and from Buzău railway stations [SÎRBU, 2005]. To these, we add now 

two other localities in Southern Moldavia: Tecuci – Southern railway station 

(45º25′04.23′′N; 27º25′23.42′′E; leg. Sîrbu & Oprea 2011, 2011 August 01) and Movileni - 

railway yard (45º24′17.50′′N; 27º57′26.80′′E; leg. Sîrbu & Oprea, 2011 August 02). 

Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal. (Donia squarrosa Pursh) 

Species native to North America [BRITTON & BROWN, 1970], accidentally 

introduced to Europe in the first half of last century (Ukraine) [TAMAMSCHJAN, 

1999/1959; PROTOPOPOVA & al. 2006]. It is now known as an invasive plant in Ukraine 

and R. of Moldova [MÎRZA & al. 1987; MOSYAKIN & YAVORSKA, 2002; 

PROTOPOPOVA & al. 2006], naturalized in Central and Eastern Russia 

[TAMAMSCHJAN, 1999/1959; HANSEN, in TUTIN & al. 1976], with a casual status in 

other european countries [GUDZINSKAS, 1997; KUKK, 1999; PYŠEK & al. 2002; 

REYNOLDS, 2002; GREUTER, 2006-2009]. In Romania, it was previously mentioned 

from Iaşi at Socola railway station [SÎRBU & OPREA, 1998] and Galaţi [SÎRBU & 

OPREA, 2008]. Recently, it was also found at Movileni railway yard (between 

45º24′19.33′′N; 27º57′13.27′′E and 45º24′26.89′′N; 27º56′36.58; leg. Sîrbu & Oprea, 2011 

August 02), as well as at Tirighina-Barboşi railway yard (45º24′20.50′′N; 27º59′31.95; leg. 

Sîrbu & Oprea, 2011 August 02) (Galaţi county). 

Impatiens parviflora DC. 

Species originating in the mountainous regions of central Asia [POBEDIMOVA, 

1974/1949], invasive in Europe, except the Mediterranean region [MOORE, in TUTIN & al. 

127


1968; WITTENBERG, 2005]. In Romania, it was mentioned initially by PRODAN (1939), as 

an ornamental plant, sometimes escaped from gardens (without location). It is now quite 

widespread in Transylvania [DRĂGULESCU, 2003; CIOCÂRLAN, 2006], Crişana [POP & 

al. 1968; RESMERIŢĂ, 1970], Maramureş [RESMERIŢĂ & al. 1975-1987, cited by 

OPREA, 2005; OPREA & SÎRBU, 2006], Banat [GOGA, 1980; PĂTROESCU & al. 2007], 

and Moldavia [OPREA & al. 1997; SÎRBU & OPREA, 1998; DARABAN, 2007]. In this 

paper, we mention it from the following new localities: Borşa (Maramureş county) (leg. 

Sîrbu, 2006 August 23), the chalet Bâlea-Râu (leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2009 August 17), 

Cârţişoara at Glăjărie (leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., 2009 August 19) (Sibiu county), Braşov 

(45º40′27.10′′N; 25º38′33.82′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 August 

19), Sibiu - railway station (Sibiu county) (45º47′41.41′′N; 24º10′09.82′′; leg. Sîrbu C. Oprea 

A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 August 18), Bogăţii Forest (Braşov county) (leg. Sîrbu C., 

Oprea A., 2009 August 19), Gheorgheni (46º42′59.89′′N; 25º34′29.15′′E; leg. Sîrbu C. Oprea 

A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 August 18) (Harghita county), Burdujeni-Suceava (railway 

station) (47º40′12.79′′N; 26º15′50.45′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., 2011 June 15), between Câmpulung 

Moldovenesc and Pojorâta (47º32′04.64′′N; 27º29′45.86′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., 2011 September 01) 

(Suceava county). 

Juncus dudleyi Wiegand (J. tenuis Willdenow var. dudleyi (Wiegand) F. J. 

Hermann; J. tenuis var. uniflorus Farwell) 

Species native to North America [BRITTON & BROWN, 1970], reported as an 

alien plant in some countries of Western and Central Europe [SNOGERUP, in TUTIN & al. 

1980; DAISIE, 2011], previously mentioned in Romania from the Făgăraş Mountains, in 

Brezcioara valley (Braşov county) [NEGREAN, 1987; CIOCÂRLAN, 2009]. It was also 

found at Borzont (46º40′52.26′′N; 25º23′35.69′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., 

Ferus P., 2011 August 18) (Harghita county). 

Sicyos angulatus L. 

Species native to North America [BRITTON & BROWN, 1970], and naturalized in 

a large part of Europe [VASILCHENKO, 1972/1957; TUTIN, in TUTIN & al. 1968; 

PYŠEK & al. 2002; ESSL & RABITSCH, 2002; STEŠEVIĆ & al. 2008; VIVANT, 1983; 

SANZ ELORZA & al. 2001]. In Romania, it is known as an alien plant (sporadically) in all 

provinces of the country [BAUMGARTEN, 1816; HEUFFEL, 1858; COMAN, 1946; 

BORZA, 1947; PRODAN & NYÁRÁDY, in SĂVULESCU, 1964; CIOCÂRLAN, 2009; 

ANASTASIU, 2010]. In Moldavia (Eastern Romania) it was previously reported from 

Suceava county only (Northern Moldavia) [MITITELU & al. 1989]. We have also found it 

in Galaţi city (Southern Moldavia), on the banks of a stream that flows into the Danube 

river (45º24′55.86′′N; 28º01′53.35′′E; leg. Sîrbu C., Oprea A., Eliáš P. jun., Ferus P., 2011 

August 20). 

Conclusions 

In this paper, a number of seventeen alien plant species are presented, one of them 

being mentioned for the first time in Romania’s flora, eight species are new in Moldavia 

and one species is new in Transylvania. Other seven species are reported now from new 

localities. 

128


Some of these species (e.g. Brachyactis ciliata, Chenopodium pumilio, Eleusine 

indica, Euphorbia dentata, Grindelia squarrosa, Impatiens parviflora, Kochia sieversiana, 

Solidago gigantea, Sicyos angulatus) have a remarkable spreading tendency, expanding 

their area of invasion in Romania. Others are still quite rare, but the capacity of all these 

alien species to reproduce without human help must be taken into account in order to 

prevent their further invasion. 


This work was supported by ANCS Romania, PN II CAPACITĂŢI, project SK-RO 

0013-10, contract number 474/07.03.2011, and CNCSIS-UEFISCDI Romania, project 

number PNII - IDEI_1227. 

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133


Fig. 1. Sedum sarmentosum Bunge, at Mediaş, Sibiu county 

134


18(2011): 135-149 

135 

PRASAD P. RAMA CHANDRA 

ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DIPTEROCARPACEAE OF 

NORTH ANDAMAN FOREST, INDIA 

PRASAD P. RAMA CHANDRA 1 

Abstract: Dipterocarpaceae is one of the important timber families of Andaman Islands whose members were 

largely exploited for their timber in the past. The current study discusses in detail about the family 

Dipterocarpaceae of North Andaman forest with reference to its species composition, population 

structure and other ecological entities. Data was analyzed using various ecological and statistical 

methods. Dipterocarps were encountered in 97 plots, occupying 80% of the sampled area with 68 

stems ha -1 and basal area of 8.2 m 2 ha -1 . Dipterocarpaceae ranked 3 rd with reference to stem density 

(11%) and 1 st with respect to basal area (18%). The family showed five species viz., Dipterocarpus 

alatus, D. costatus, D. gracilis, D. grandiflorus and Hopea odorata compounded from two genera – 

Dipterocarpus and Hopea. Keeping in view of the species demographic structure as well as 

regeneration status, conservative measures are suggested along with certain research questions which 

need immediate attention in the fragile insular ecosystems of Andaman Islands. 

Key words: Andaman, dipterocarps, dispersion, endemic, regeneration, South East Asia 

Introduction 

Dipterocarpaceae is one of the main timber families in the forests of Southeast 

Asia that forms a high proportion of the emergent and main canopy strata of the forest 

[MANOKARAN, 1996]. The members of this family, besides playing a vital role as 

potential timber species that form an important means of economy in the timber market 

[APPANAH, 1998; POORE, 1989] also act as source of other non-timber products for the 

livelihood of the forest dwellers [PANAYOTOU & ASHTON, 1992]. The species of 

Dipterocarps often locally referred as Gurjan, are extensively utilized for the extraction of 

resins. From the oleoresins of Dipterocarpus alatus and Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, 

Gurjan oil is produced which is used as medicine to treat various skin ailments and ulcers. 

The resins also have industrial application as varnish and anti-corrosive coatings. The hard 

solid resin, commonly called as rock dammar, derived from Hopea species is used for 

making boats and handicrafts [SHIVA & JANTAN, 1998]. 

With reference to South Asia the family is distributed in India, Andaman & 

Nicobar Islands (A&N), Nepal, Bangladesh and Srilanka [ASHTON, 1982]. A detailed 

review on systematic distribution and taxonomical classification of Dipterocarpaceae 

globally was elucidated by MAURY-LECHON & CURTET (1998) and for Indian subcontinent 

by KUNDU (2008). The family Dipterocarpaceae derived its name from one of 

its important genera Dipterocarpus and has 17 genera with more than 500 species 

[MAURY-LECHON & CURTET, 1998] out of which, 10 genera and 99 species are 

exclusively found in South Asia (FAO 1985). Within the Indian forest scenario, the family 

is diversified by 31 species with 16 endemic (14 to peninsular India, one in North East and 

one in Andaman Islands) from 5 genera [TEWARY & SARKAR, 1987]. 

1 

Lab for spatial Informatics, International Institute of Information Technology, Gachibowli, 500032, Hyderabad – 

India, e-mail: rcprasad@iiit.ac.in

ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DIPTEROCARPACEAE OF NORTH ANDAMAN FOREST, INDIA 

In the past and current scenario, forests are exploited beyond their limit, ultimately 

threatening the survival of the species. A successful management of recycling process 

provides continuous supply of goods and is true even with the plant resources. If the species 

are utilized proportionately without disturbing their ecological conditions and are allowed 

for regular natural regeneration process, they may sustain themselves to provide the unintermittent 

supply of products. But due to lack of this awareness and illicit anthropogenic 

activities many species are facing risk of extinction. The same is the case with 

Dipterocarpaceae members of A&N which fall under one of the five phytogeographical 

regions that show wide distribution of the family [APPANAH, 1998]. 

The forests of A&N were virgin until the establishment of the penal colonies 

around 1857 and then exploitation for timber, predominantly of Padauk (Pterocarpus) and 

Gurjan (Dipterocarpus). Forests were logged for timber by adopting either clear felling 

system or selective felling system by the forest department depending on the necessity and 

suitability of the scheme [DEVRAJ, 2001]. Forests areas which were extracted have been 

regenerated naturally or artificially by proposing various forest working plans such as 

conversion working circle, protection working circle, minor forest produce circle etc., for 

sustainable management [BASU, 1990; DEVRAJ, 2001]. Apart from the logging actions of 

forest department, the forests of A&N were also exploited to major extent by the 

encroachment activities of Island settlers. The study of PRASAD & al. (2010) detailed 

various anthropogenic and natural driving factors that have affected the forest of North 

Andaman, threatening phytodiversity. The factors discussed are more or less similar in the 

other adjacent Islands of archipelago with profound contribution in the deterioration of 

forest ecosystem. Keeping in view of the importance of Dipterocarpaceae of A&N and the 

logging activities these Islands faced till recent past it is of prime importance to have a 

database with reference to their species composition and demographic structure. This is 

essential for setting up priorities for conservation of the species based upon their population 

structure and endemicity. However such kind of information for these Islands is scanty and 

limited. In this context, adding to the already existing database, the current study attempts 

to describe the ecological attributes and spatial distribution of the family Dipterocarpaceae 

of A&N archipelago. 

Forests of A&N have mixed assemblage of species composition, showing 

similarities with the flora of mainland India, Malayasia and Indonesia [SINGH & al. 2002]. 

Several floristic [BHARGAVA, 1958; THOTHATHRI, 1961, 1962; BALAKRISHNAN & 

NAIR, 1977; DAGAR, 1989; REDDY & al. 2008; REDDY & PRASAD, 2008] and few 

ecological studies [PADALIA & al. 2004; TRIPATHI & al. 2004; PRASAD & al. 2007a, 

2009a; RASINGAM & PARTHASARATHY, 2009; RAJKUMAR & 

PARTHASARATHY, 2008] were carried out to detail the structure, biological richness and 

diversity patterns of forest of Andaman Islands. However the family level species studies 

are new to these Islands and so far such kind of study was carried out by PRASAD & al. 

(2008) on Euphorbiaceae of North Andaman. Though Euphorbiaceae is one among the 

important species rich families, usually the forest of Southeast Asia are referred as 

Dipterocarpus forest, because of their distinct distribution in most of the Southeast Asian 

forests [APPANAH, 1998]. The spatial pattern of Dipterocarpaceae within A&N is unique 

and the family is represented only in Andaman Islands and absent in Nicobar [MATHEW 

& al. 2009]. 

136

137 


Objective of the study 

In general, majority of the field inventories focus on deriving the species richness 

and diversity at regional or at forest community levels. However, this type of studies 

usually specifies the phytodiversity patterns across the study area. A detail understanding 

about the species richness, spatial distribution and population structure of a plant family 

will help in the generation of quantitative database about the demography of the species 

within the family, their current status and threat they face if proper conservative steps are 

not initiated. It also helps in assessing the loss of ecological services rendered by the 

species for forest ecological dynamics and livelihood of the people, once the species enter 

into the phase of extinction. Towards this direction, the current study discusses in detail 

about the family Dipterocarpaceae of North Andaman forest of A&N archipelago with 

reference to its species composition, population structure and other ecological entities along 

with its occurrence, dominance and existence (?) in other adjacent Islands. The study 

provides an essential database of Dipterocarpaceae species towards their conservation 

efforts and supports further research for the future investigators to work on lesser known 

Dipterocarpaceae of Andaman forests. 

Study area 

The present study was carried out in the North Andaman (NA) forest of A&N 

(Fig. 1) which is one among the 14 identified Biosphere Reserves of India [DEVRAJ, 

2001]. NA constitutes one of the important major Islands of A&N and lies between 12°95 ” 

N and 92°86 ” E covering an area of 1458 km 2 . All the Islands of NA were declared either as 

protected areas or as wild life sanctuaries towards conservation measures [HANDBOOK, 

1983]. Topography is undulating having hills and narrow valleys with highest elevation of 

732 m above mean sea level represented by Saddle Peak, which is the top point in the entire 

A&N. Typical tropical rain forest climate exists in these Islands due to continuous showers 

from both south-west and north-east monsoons and with least temperature variations. The 

soils belong to Serpentine series with top soil having high base status and less nutrient 

values supporting dense evergreen forests of Dipterocarpus and its associates [DEVRAJ, 

2001]. 

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area


Though the topographic variations are minor with poor soil conditions these 

Islands seize an extraordinary vivid biodiversity and endemism. As per CHAMPION & 

SETH (1968) major hinterland vegetation types of study area include Andaman evergreen, 

Andaman Semi evergreen and Andaman Moist deciduous. 


The detailed vegetation map prepared using satellite data [PRASAD & al. 2007b] 

formed basis for the selection of plots (0.1 ha size) for field inventory in two predominant 

forest types viz evergreen (EG) and semi-evergreen (SEG) of the study area. About 120 

plots (62 in EG, 58 in SEG) covering entire NA forest were surveyed during field inventory 

for phytosociological data collection. The size of each sample plot was 32 x 32 m for trees, 

10 x 10 m for saplings (two opposite corners of the main plot) and 1 x 1 m for seedlings (all 

the four corners of the main plot). Within each plot all the trees having diameter at breast 

height (DBH) > 30 cms were measured, with simultaneous investigation on sapling and 

seedling data. 

The data was analyzed to extract the structural and ecological aspects of 

Dipterocarpaceae using various phytosociological approaches by deriving frequency, 

density, basal area to compute Important Value Index [CURTIS & MCINTOSH, 1950]. 

Calculation of IVI facilitates in identifying the dominant and co-dominant species along 

with their association to form community within the study area. Girth class analysis was 

performed to view the contribution of stem density and basal area by various girth classes. 

Braun-Blanquet system (1932) was used to depict the constancy (presence of occurrence of 

species within the sampled plots) classes as; Rare constancy (0-20%), low (21-40%), 

intermediate (41-60%), moderately high (61-80%) and high (81-100%). This analysis helps 

in assessing the population status of the species. 

To analyze the association between the species, the traditional method of chisquared 

procedure [WAITE, 2000] was used. Since sample size is

139 


m = the species mean 

Based on the ID values, distribution of species can be interpreted as random (ID = 

1.0) clumped (ID >1.0) and regular (ID 30 (120 plots) 

d = 

2 

2χ - 2( N −1) 

−1 

2 

χ was corrected using the following equation 

Where d is the correction factor and used to define the distribution as 

d ≤ 1.96 : the null hypothesis accepted (random) 

d < -1.96: regular 

d > 1.96 : clumped 

Results 

The survey yielded a total of 7392 individuals from 60 families, 134 genera and 

192 species. Out of 120 sampled plots, Dipterocarps were encountered in 97 plots i.e 80% 

of the sampled area was occupied by the species. This observation is apt with the 

ASHTON’S (1982) remark, who stated that 80% of the abundant, emergent individuals in 

lowland forest of Southeast Asia are Dipterocarps. Dipterocarpaceae ranked 3 rd after 

Myristicacea and Sterculiaceae with reference to stem density (11%) and 1 st with respect to 

basal area (18%). The results are similar to the study of MANOKARAN & al. (1990) in 50 

ha plot of Pasoh reserve forest where Dipterocarps dominated the site with 9% stem density 

and 24% basal area. Dipterocarpaceae in NA forest with 68 stems ha -1 , covering basal area 

of 8.2 m 2 ha -1 showed five species viz., Dipterocarpus alatus, D. costatus, D. gracilis, D. 

grandiflorus and Hopea odorata compounded from two genera – Dipterocarpus and 

Hopea. 

Among the two forest types sampled 76% of the Dipterocarps stem density (616) 

was recorded from EG. With reference to D. alatus, 9 out of the 10 individuals were 

represented in SEG while for D. grandiflorus 289 out of 295 were encountered in EG 

indicating the species ecological amplitude and preferential habitats. Values for stems and 

basal area ha -1 were more for D. grandiflorus. Maximum DBH was recorded in D. gracilis 

while minimum average DBH was observed in D. grandiflorus. Though D. alatus 

represented with a population of 10 individuals it has showed high average DBH. The 

Braun-Blanquet constancy classification scaled D. alatus (3.3%) and D. costatus (6.7%) 

under rare, D. grandiflorus (27.5%) and Hopea odorata (20.8%) at low and D. gracilis 

(46.7%) on intermediate constancy.


Tab. 1. Species parameters of Dipterocarpaceae 

Species D. alatus D. costatus D. gracilis D. grandiflorus H. odorata 

Number of Plots in 

which species occurred 

4 8 56 33 25 

Stems recorded 10 43 417 295 46 

Mean 0.08 0.36 3.48 2.46 0.38 

Standard Deviation 0.54 1.86 7.19 5.52 0.90 

Variance 0.74 1.36 2.68 2.35 0.95 

Index of Dispersion 8.85 3.80 0.77 0.96 2.47 

2 

χ correction factor 30.49 14.68 -1.85 -0.32 8.87 

IVI 0.80 1.86 17.59 11.07 2.68 

Stems ha -1 1 4 35 25 4 

Basal area ha -1 0.2 0.4 4.4 2.6 0.5 

Saplings ha -1 (%) -- -- -- 12.3 -- 

Seedlings ha -1 (%) -- -- 0.8 14.6 -- 

Max-DBH 302 301 452 404 300 

Average-DBH 160 102 102 95 109 

Understanding the distribution and dominance of the species is one of the 

important aspects of ecosystem research. Species, in general, tend to undergo intra-species 

and inter-species competitions for the deployment of available optimal resources in their 

niches. The one which is the successor of the struggle proves itself dominant by showing 

wide eco-regional distribution dominating the sites with their stem density, area occupancy, 

abundance, etc. So when one species is identified as dominant, it is also interesting to know 

about the species which are acting as competitors for the species. In other words, it is to 

make out the other co-dominant species that are associated with the dominant species and 

forms the distinct community. Based on the derived IVI value, D. gracilis (17.59) was 

found to be the dominant species both in Dipterocarpaceae as well as in the entire sampled 

area and forms a community with Myristica glaucescens and Pterygota alata. Though the 

other four species of Dipterocarpaceae, didn’t dominate the study area they have their 

associated or neighbouring species based on IVI as follows: D. grandiflorus with 

Artocarpus chaplasha and Celtis wightii; D. costatus along Mitragyna rotundifolia and 

Baccaurea sapida; D. alatus with Canarium manii and Antiaris toxicaria; H. odorata under 

Artocarpus lakoocha and Dillenia andamanica community. 

2 

χ value obtained for the species D. gracilis – D. grandiflorus, D. gracilis - 

The 

H. odorata and D. grandiflorus – H. odorata exceeded the values of 

140 

2 

χ = 3.841(p


other species showed significantly independent nature at 95% confidence interval with few 

exceptions (** in Tab. 2). 

Tab. 2. Species association and independent distribution analysis 

Test Chi-Square test Fisher's Test 

Species association Observed Expected chi- P-values 

values Values values (95% CI) 

D. gracilis – D. grandiflorus 33.0 15.4 49.11 -- 

D. gracilis – H. odorata 25.0 11.7 33.43 -- 

D. grandiflorus – H. odorata 25.0 6.9 78.72 -- 

D. alatus – D. costatus -- -- -- 0.22197* 

D. alatus – D. gracilis -- -- -- 0.04471** 

D. alatus – D. grandiflorus -- -- -- 0.00498** 

D. alatus – H. odorata -- -- -- 0.45826* 

D. costatus – D. gracilis -- -- -- 0.00169** 

D. costatus – D. grandiflorus -- -- 0.00002** 

D. costatus – H. odorata -- -- -- 0.0001** 

CI - Confidence Interval, * Not significant, ** statistically significant 

The study of population structure provides information about the growth patterns 

and regeneration status of the species. The current analysis of girth wise stem and basal 

area distribution shows varied results for all the five species. With reference to high stem 

density, D. alatus showed equal number in both 60-90 cm and >240 cm class, while H. 

odorata showed in 60-90 cm. In the remaining three species more or less a reverse J shaped 

pattern was observed with high stem density in lower girth classes and low in higher 

implying negative exponential relationship. Except in D. gracilis and D. grandiflorus, the 

girth class 210-240 cm was completely absent in other species and in D. alatus even there 

was no representation of 120-150 cm girth class. With respect to basal area, an increasing 

trend was observed with low girth classes contributing low basal area and high by higher 

classes, with some exceptions in girth classes by different species as evident from the Fig. 

2. In general an ideal representation of the girth classes in terms of stem density and basal 

area was shown by D. gracilis. The analysis of seedling and sapling data showed poor 

regeneration trend for all the five species. Overall observation of sampled data showed very 

low percent of saplings and seedlings for D. grandiflorus, only seedlings for D. gracilis and 

neither for the remaining three species (Tab. 1). 

The d correction factor calculated for the five species showed two values viz., 

>1.96 and < -1.96, rejecting the null hypothesis of random distribution (d ≤ 1.96). Out of 

the five species, D. alatus, D. costatus and Hopea odorata showed clumped pattern (d > 

1.96) following negative binomial distribution, while D. gracilis and D. grandiflorus 

followed regular distribution (d


(www.iucnredlist.org). The result of the Braun-Blanquet approach also confirms the rarity 

and low density of the species particularly D. alatus (endemic) D. costatus and Hopea 

odorata. The low population density coupled with listing under IUCN categories puts these 

species at high risk of threat and deserve special ecological importance for protection and 

conservation. 

Stem Density 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

160 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

30-60 60-90 90- 

120 

Dipterocarpus alatus 

120- 

150 

30-60 60-90 90-120 120- 

150 

150- 

180 

180- 

210 

Dipterocarpus gracilis 

15 

12.5 

10 

7.5 

5 

2.5 

0 

150- 

180 

180- 

210 

30-60 60-90 90- 

120 

210- 

240 

210- 

240 

>240 

>240 

Hopea odorata 

120- 

150 

150- 

180 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

25.00 

20.00 

15.00 

10.00 

5.00 

0.00 

180- 

210 

142 

210- 

240 

Girth classes 

20 

16 

12 

8 

4 

0 

150 

120 

90 

60 

30 

0 

>240 

30-60 60-90 90- 

120 

30-60 60-90 90- 

120 

2.00 

1.50 

1.00 

0.50 

0.00 

Dipterocarpus costatus 

120- 

150 

150- 

180 

180- 

210 

Dipterocarpus grandiflorus 

120- 

150 

150- 

180 

180- 

210 

Basal area 

210- 

240 

210- 

240 

Stem density 

Fig. 2. Stem density and basal area distribution in different girth classes of 

Dipterocarpaceae species 

>240 

>240 

1.60 

1.20 

0.80 

0.40 

0.00 

10.00 

8.00 

6.00 

4.00 

2.00 

0.00 

Basal area

Discussions 

143 


Dipterocarps are observed mostly on the low altitudinal zones [WHITMORE, 

1988] and the number of individuals and species decreases with increasing altitude 

[DEVRAJ, 2001]. However in the current study, the altitude of sampled plots ranged 

between 10–350 m and doesn’t show significant correlation between the species 

distribution and altitudinal levels. This distribution is similar to Peninsular Malaysia where 

the altitudinal zones of the family ranged between 0-300 m and the forest are usually 

referred as low-undulating Dipterocarp forest [SYMINGTON, 1943; WYATT-SMITH, 

1963; APPANAH, 1998]. 

The constraint of accessibility restricted the researchers to explore these Islands 

widely in the past. Inspite of this barrier, some of the workers carried out floristic studies 

and contributed fundamental information about the floristic elements of these Islands. In the 

recent past, researchers started working on the diversity patterns in different Islands of 

A&N archipelago and provided detailed account on the vegetation structure and richness 

patterns of various forest types existing in these Islands (Tab. 3). In all these studies 

Dipterocarpaceae was observed as one of the dominant families either in terms of stem 

density or basal area or any other phytosociological parameter. 

To sum up, the study carried out under the project Biodiversity characterization at 

landscape level in Andaman and Nicobar Islands by Department of Space and Department 

of Science and Technology, India [HANDBOOK, 2003] enumerated nine Dipterocarpaceae 

species from the random survey of 539 plots (0.1 ha & 0.04 ha sizes) in all the major 

Islands of A&N. However the report [HANDBOOK, 2003] did not provide information 

about Island wise distribution of the species. Hence the other possible sources of literature 

were surveyed to detail Island wise distribution of Dipterocarps. 

PADALIA & al. (2004) worked on Andaman Islands and observed Dipterocarps 

dominating the site with 18% (EG) to 15% (SEG) of stem density and D. turbinatus as 

second dominant species based on IVI. However the study cited only 3 species of 

Dipterocarpaceae (Tab. 3). The study carried out by RASINGAM & PARTHASARATHY 

(2009) in the Little Andaman recorded Dipterocarpaceae as 4 th dominant family 

contributing 6.77% of the stem density. They have encountered 3 species from the survey 

of 8 ha plots laid in four different vegetation types. An interesting comparative observation 

of their study with the current one is with reference to D. alatus, an endemic species of the 

Island. The current study recorded only 10 individuals (1 stem ha -1 ) in contrast to their 

observation of 103 (13 stems ha -1 ). So far there is no detailed information on the 

Dipterocarps of South Andaman. A survey conducted by PANDEY & al. (2006) on home 

gardens and home forest gardens in South Andaman listed D. grandiflorus as one of the top 

storey species.


Tab. 3. Distribution of Dipterocarps in Andaman Islands 

South 

Andaman 

Pandey & 

al. (2006) 

Little 

Andaman 

Rasingam 

and 

Parthasarathy 

(2009) 

Baratang 

Islands 

Chauhan 

(2004) 

Middle 

Andaman 

Rajkumar and 

Parthasarathy 

(2008) 

North 

Andaman 

Prasad 

(current) 

Andaman 

Islands 

Padalia & al. 

(2004) 

A&N 

Handbook 

(2003) 

S.No Species 

1 Dipterocarpus alatus ψ ψ ψ 

2 Dipterocarpus andamanicus ψ 

3 Dipterocarpus costatus ψ ψ ψ 

4 Dipterocarpus gracilis ψ ψ ψ ψ ψ 

5 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus ψ ψ ψ 

6 Dipterocarpus griffithii ψ ψ ψ 

7 Dipterocarpus incanus ψ ψ 

8 Dipterocarpus kerrii ψ 

9 Dipterocarpus turbinatus ψ ψ ψ 

10 Hopea helferi ψ 

11 Hopea odorata ψ ψ ψ 

12 Dipterocarpus grandis ψ --? 

ψ – Present, ? – Doubtful record 

144

145 


With respect to Middle Andaman, the study of RAJKUMAR & 

PARTHASARATHY (2008) on tree diversity using one ha plot each in two different 

locations of Andaman Giant EG forest, recorded a total of five Dipterocarpaceae species 

out of which two species viz., D. kerrii and D. andamanicus were not encountered in the 

previous and the current studies. They have also observed Dipterocarpaceae as dominant 

family in terms of stem density, basal area and biomass and listed D. incanus as abundant 

species. The research work of CHAUHAN (2004) in Baratang, a group of scattered Islands 

adjacent to Middle Andaman, listed three Dipterocarp species. One of the interesting 

observations (Tab. 3) with respect to Baratang and Middle Andaman is recording of D. 

griffithii. This species was not reported in other Islands of archipelago (except in 

HANDBOOK, 2003). This infers that the species is restricted to a group of Islands and 

since both are neighboring Islands, there is a possibility of occurrence of species in both the 

Islands. Results of the stratified random survey in EG forest of NA by PRASAD & al. 

(2007a) reported Dipterocarpaceae as dominant family based on the Family importance 

Value Index which is the sum of relative diversity, relative density and relative dominance. 

From the above it is evident that these studies cumulatively provided the list of 

Dipterocarpaceae species that can be seen in Andaman Islands and also ranked it as one 

among the top families. They also conclude about the tracing of certain species which are 

having restricted distribution and require different sampling effort. For example, recording 

of D. kerrii and D. andamanicus, which were sampled only in Middle Andaman and none 

of the other surveys listed them. These lacunae can be attributed either to the sampling 

strategy adopted or site selected for study or can also be to the confined distribution of the 

species population. 

Added to the above list of species, PADALIA & al. (2004) reported D. grandis in 

their work on phytosociological studies of Andaman Islands. But the literature survey on 

Dipterocarpaceae across the world did not yield such kind of species. Also the study 

[HANDBOOK, 2003] recorded H. odorata from mixed evergreen forest of Nicobar Islands, 

which is contradicting with the observations of SINGH & al. (2002) and MATHEW & al. 

(2010) who stated the absence of Dipterocarpaceae in Nicobar Islands. Both these 

information need to be further quantified and investigated. Apart from the species listed in 

the Tab. 3, DEVRAJ (2001) mentioned certain species of Dipterocarpaceae viz., D. baudii, 

D. chartaceus, D. crinitus, D. dyeri, D. fagineus, D. hasseeltii, D. obtusifolius, D. 

oblongifolius, D. retusus, D. turbinatus, D. tuberculatus, whose presence is doubtful in the 

Andaman Islands. However, the existence of some of these species like D. turbinatus 

[PADALIA & al. 2004; RAJKUMAR & PARTHASARATHY, 2008], D. tuberculatus 

[JHA & SARMA, 2008] D. obtusifolius (biotic.org) D. baudii and D. dyeri (apafri. org) 

were confirmed by some studies and elaborated investigations about their population 

structure needed to be worked out along with the status of other species from the above list 

which are not so far confirmed in A&N. 

Hitherto D. alatus is considered to be the only endemic species of 

Dipterocarpaceae observed in the study area (Fig. 3) but SHIN & KYI (apafri. org, 2010) 

reported that D. baudii and D. dyeri are found only in Andaman and in that case they may 

also be considered as endemic too. Now the research question needed to be addressed is 

whether these species are really confined to these Islands? If these species are present in the 

Islands they should have been encountered in any of the floristic or ecological studies 

carried out till now. The possibility of their extinction couldn’t be ruled out as forest of 

Andaman Islands are heavily exploited in the last four decades for valuable timber as well


as a vast proportion of forest converted into settlement and agricultural purpose by the 

Island settlers [PRASAD & al. 2009b, 2010; Fig. 4]. Species which have narrow ecological 

amplitude doest not survive once their habitats are destroyed. It is also possible that these 

species may have very limited population in special pockets of Island vegetation in certain 

remote inaccessible location which has kept them isolated. 

Fig. 3. Dipterocarpus alatus – An 

endemic and endangered species 

encountered in the study area 

Fig. 4. Dipterocarpus species amidst agriculture field near 

the foothill of Saddle Peak National Park of North Andaman 

One of the significant points from the above observations is with reference to the 

number of Dipterocarpaceae species. JACOB (1981) in his work on taxonomical 

distribution of Dipterocarpaceae cited presence of eight species of Dipterocarpaceae from 

Andaman Islands in contrast to the current study which showed 12 species compounded 

from the field studies and literature survey. Also he reported that the Dipterocarpaceae from 

Andaman Islands has only one endemic species contributing 12% of the endemicity while 

REDDY & al. (2004) enlisted two species D. alatus and D. turbinatus var. andamanica. So 

the issue to resolve is whether the increase in the species number as observed in the current 

study is real one or ambiguity in assigning the nomenclature to the species by various 

researchers. As mentioned by VASUDEVA RAO (2004) sometimes even within the same 

publication (local flora), the one and similar species is referred under two different names. 

He cited few species of Dipterocarpaceae from Andaman, which were misinterpreted as 

two different species eg., D. griffithii – D. grandiflorus; D. turbinatus – D. gracilis. 

Considering this statement, it has to be checked whether D. turbinatus var. andamanica and 

D. andamanicus are synonyms of single species or distinguishably two separate species? 

Conclusions 

Analysis of the current research and other relevant studies taken in the study area 

substantially supported Dipterocarpaceae as one the chief family contributing a good 

proportion of stem density and basal area to the vegetation of Andaman Islands. Depending 

146

147 


on the different sampling methods adopted, in different location of the Islands one or other 

species of Dipterocarpaceae dominated the site. A cumulative number of species belonging 

to the family were derived from the available literature, but still existence of certain species 

is doubtful, which needs further exploration. Towards this future, investigation should 

focus on detailed systematic family level studies, utilizing different sampling strategies in 

all the Islands of archipelago, to enumerate complete family species richness, their 

demographic status and uncertainty among the species citation. The study also showed poor 

regeneration status of the Dipterocarps. This is important to consider, especially for the 

endemic species D. alatus, in the NA whose adult population is also very low (Fig. 3). The 

low population of the species may be due to delayed flowering, poor / slower germination 

rate or unable to compete with the dominant species under closed canopy conditions or 

other unfavorable site conditions. The Andaman canopy lifting system developed for 

improving the regeneration patterns in Dipterocarps [CHENGAPPA, 1944] should be 

reconsidered with high priority to save the population of the species from entering into the 

status of threatened or extinct. 

Acknowledgement 

The study utilized data from the project – Biodiversity characterization at 

landscape level in Andaman and Nicobar Islands using remote sensing and GIS under Jai 

vigyan science and technology mission project. Thanks are due to Dr. C. Sudhakar Reddy 

for his field expertise and to Dr. A. N. Sringeswara for his comments on the manuscript. 

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18(2011): 151-157 

151 

DEREVENKO TATIANA 

EX SITU CONSERVATION OF SAUSSUREA PORCII DEGEN IN Y. 

FEDKOVYCH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY BOTANIC GARDEN 

DEREVENKO TATIANA 1 

Abstract: The International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation emphasizes on conservation of rare 

species ex situ as the main task and its aim is the creation of a reserve stock for the possibility of 

active recovery in nature. We have introduced in the culture and first have been studied rhythm of 

phenological development and flowering, depending on weather conditions, seed production and 

added guidelines for breeding the endangered Eastern Carpathians endemic species - Saussurea 

porcii Degen, which is listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine and the European List of Globally 

Threatened Animals and Plants. We have created a field bank S. porcii – it is our contribution to the 

conservation of plant diversity. 

Key words: Saussurea porcii Degen, ex situ conservation, Red Data Book of Ukraine, a field bank, the biology 

of developing 

Introduction 

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation states that the conservation of living 

plants collections of endangered species of regional floras, especially endemics, as the most 

vulnerable is very important. [GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR PLANT CONSERVATION, 

2002]. From the Carpathian region`s 219 endemic taxons [ТАСЄНКЕВИЧ, 2006] in the 

collections of CHNU Botanic Garden today are saved specimens of 11. Saussurea porcii 

Degen is the Eastern Carpathians endemic, which has the phylogenetic relationships of 

Siberia. In Ukraine it is distributed in: Chornogora mountain range (Polonyna Rogneska, 

ur. Primaratik), the upper Chornyi and Bilyi Cheremosh (Mountain Gnetesa, polonyna 

Glystuvata, between polonynas Glystuvata and Preluky). In Romanian Carpathians it has 

been cited from the Maramureşului Mountains (at Borşa and Lanul Cercănel 

[ŞTEFUREAC, 1971], and in Rodna Mountains (on the Mountain of Corongiş, under the 

rocks called “Porţii”, as well as on the opposite slope of it [ŞTEFUREAC, 1971; 

NYÁRÁDY, 1933]. This species is listed as disappearing into the Red Data Book of 

Ukraine [ДІДУХ, 2009], as critically endangered (CR) in Ukraine and as extinct (EX) in 

Romania – accordingly to the Red Data Book of Carpathians [ТАСЄНКЕВИЧ, 2002], as 

endangered (EN), in the European List of Globally Threatened Animals and Plants (1991). 

Today are known only 6 populations of S. porcii in the Carpathian Mountains [БАГЛЕЙ & 

ДАНИЛИК, 2009], mostly on wetlands in the crooked green alder in the subalpine zone. It 

needs to establish reserves to protect it. Basically, it has a small populations numbering 

1 

Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University Botanic Garden, Fedkovych 11, 58022, Chernivtsi – Ukraine, 

e-mail: tderevenko@ua.fm

EX SITU CONSERVATION OF SAUSSUREA PORCII DEGEN IN Y. FEDKOVYCH NATIONAL … 

from 400 to 1000 individuals. The most numerous one has several thousand individuals and 

occupying an area of several tens of hectares on the polonyna Glystuvata (the Chyvchyn 

Mountains) (Fig. 1). Only this population from all has a high level vitality constituent 

individuals (Fig. 2) [БАГЛЕЙ, 2011]. 

Currently, only CHNU Botanic Gardens living collection present some specimens 

of S. porcii, unlike all the botanical gardens of Ukraine [ЛЕБЕДА, 2011]. 


Saussurea porcii Degen is a hemikryptophyte, herbaceous perennial plant, to 80 

cm height, with sessile lanceolate leaves, forming wings along the stem and inflorescence 

corymbose. From polonyna Glystuvata locality the planting material has been introduced 

CHNU Botanic Gardens, in 2007. In the Botanic Garden a place in partial shade for 

planting S. porcii, and a high soil moisture provided by regular watering this populationlocus 

was chosed (Fig. 3). 

Monitoring the phenological stages was carried out by conventional methods, 

recommended by the Botanical Gardens of USSR Council [МЕТОДИКА 

ФЕНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ НАБЛЮДЕНИЙ В БОТАНИЧЕСКИХ САДАХ СССР, 1979], 

and mathematical processing of phenological observations were carried out according to the 

method of the Central Botanical Garden [КРАТКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО 

МАТЕМАТИЧЕСКОЙ ОБРАБОТКЕ ДАННЫХ ФЕНОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ 

НАБЛЮДЕНИЙ, 1972]. The study of seed production was carried out according to the 

guidelines by Т. О. RABOTNOV [РАБОТНОВ, 1992] and VAYNAGY [ВАЙНАГИЙ, 

1974]. 


The International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation emphasizes that 

conservation of rare species ex situ is the main task and its aim is the creation of a reserve 

stock for the possibility of active recovery in nature [МЕЖДУНАРОДНАЯ 

ПРОГРАММА БОТАНИЧЕСКИХ САДОВ ПО ОХРАНЕ РАСТЕНИЙ, 2000]. As for 

successful repatriation should be explored more fully the biological characteristics, which is 

possible only in ex situ conditions, we are studying the biology of developing and 

reproduction of S. porcii and it is a preparatory stage to the restoration in nature. 

The results of the study of phenological rhythm of S. porcii in the collection of the 

CHNU Botanic Garden during 2007 – 2011 years are presented in Tab. 1. In the spring, S. 

porcii begins growing season in CHNU Botanic Garden in early April, when average daily 

air temperature did not fall below +5 ºC, the bud of resumption elongates, shoots and leaves 

starts to grow. About a week after the stable transition of mean daily air temperatures over 

+10 ºC an inflorescences are formed in the generative shoots, on average, this occurs early 

in the second decade of May, often coinciding with the transition of daily average 

temperatures over +15 ºC. From the beginning of growing season before the flowering 

passes near 88 days (Table 2). It comes into flower in the last third of June – mid of July, 

until early of August. The earliest onset of phenophases had been observed in 2009 – the 

152

153 


first decade of June, when flowering time was 1.5 months, which is obviously connected 

with the early spring practically without a rain right up to June and the second wave of 

drought lasted from July to early October. The average duration of flowering S. porcii over 

the years of observation was 33 days. The shortest flowering period noted in 2010 was of 

18 days, due to the fact that the average air temperature during the flowering time was 

approximately 3 ºC above normal and reached 23.2 ± 0.7 ºC. Inflorescences of S. porcii 

(Fig. 4) have a diameter from 2.5 to 7.5 cm, and a height from 4.5 to 11 cm; on average the 

inflorescences are composed of 30 botryoidal florets (from 15 to 60), each predominantly 

having 9 disk florets (rarely 7 or 10). In the florescence of disc florets clearly are observed 

2 phases, namely: staminale and carpellary one. We determined the duration of each phases 

in sunny weather and at average air temperatures about 20 ºC, starting by staminale phase, 

which lasts about 24 hours; after drying the stamens begins carpellary phase and lasts about 

24 hours, too. Thus, about 20 hours lasts phase of the budding and florescence of disk 

florets actually lasts about 2 days. 

We have observed there are infected plants by aphids in a phase of active growth 

of the inflorescence before flowering, which resulted in shrinkage of the tops of generative 

shoots and, accordingly, to a lack of florescence in 50% of generative shoots in the culture. 

Seeds of S. porcii begin to ripen from mid August and by the end of it, 

dissemination is finish. Seeds are dark brown in color, having an oblong shape, slightly 

flattened at the sides, length from 0.72 to 0.62 cm and a diameter from 0.11 to 0.15 cm. 

Weight of 1000 seeds is about 1.400 Kg. 

As an important indicator of the life of rare plants ex situ is their ability of 

generative reproduction. We investigated the seed production (SP) of generative shoots (a 

number of mature seed). In situ depending on the vitality of population SP ranges from 

153.8 ± 2.01 to 280.2 ± 3.75 [БАГЛЕЙ, 2009]. In the CHNU Botanic Garden this number 

is fluctuating between 10 and 135, with an average of 55.4 ± 7.8. Study of ex situ seed 

production coefficient (SPC) have found that mature seeds are formed only at 1/3 (32.4%) 

from all number of seed germs in each generative shoots of S. porcii. Well known is that 

the number of seed germs have a genetically fixed value and therefore varies considerably, 

with lower limits than the number mature seeds, which depends on a large number of 

different factors of exogenous and endogenous origin. The second level is repeated it again 

- the number of flowers in generative shoots (in the inflorescence) varies far less than the 

number of mature fruits. Both figures are in varying degrees depending on the specific 

conditions of growth of individuals of a particular species. In our case, such difference 

between seed productivity in nature (in situ) and in culture (ex situ) can be explained by the 

fact that the culture reduce the florescence period (only part of the flowers makes seeds, 

and the rest remains in various bud stages). Partly, it is a consequence of not perfect 

condition for cultivation of S. porcii, and partly - the result of the impact of weather 

conditions, and a certain lack of pollinators. In any case, it's an interesting question, and it 

requires additional and parallel studies, both in nature and cultivation. 

In June and July at the base of the shoots, virginal and generative individuals are 

formed, from 3 to 7 resumptions buds. The growing season lasts an average about 200 days,


and finishes with the start of frost in late October – early November. Maximum seed 

germination was 83% in the autumn, sowing in boxes with a soil mix of deoxidized peat, 

leaf soil and sand. More than 70% of the seedlings in their second year become the 

generative phase of development. 

Conclusions 

We have introduced in the culture the endangered Eastern Carpathians endemic 

species of Saussurea porcii Degen. In accordance with our program of restore the nature 

populations of endangered plant species, we have created a field bank of S. porcii. To 

restore the disturbed populations should only correctly collect seeds and sow it, and through 

a growing season will have a representative genetic planting material. And that is important 

– without the high financial costs. Implementation of this program in the CHNU Botanic 

Garden is our contribution to the conservation of plant diversity and compliance with 

international obligations of Ukraine in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. 

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978-966-97059-1-4. 

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АН СССР, Глав. Ботан. Сад, Совет бот. Садов СССР, 10 с. 

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15. ***2002. Global strategy for Plant Conservation. Montreal, 19 pp. 

154

Tab. 1. Saussurea porcii Degen rhythm of development in the collection of CHNU Botanic Garden 

Year/ Beginning Formation of 

Beginning of Full ripening End of Duration of 

Efflorescence Mass flowering End of flowering 

statistics of grows flower stalk 

ripening of seeds vegetation vegetation 

2007 - 27. V 24. VI 5. VII 13.VIII 9.VIII 21.VIII 3.XII - 

2008 11.IV 19.V 30.VI 7. VII 26. VII 10. VIII 27. VIII 22.X 194 

2009 1.IV 21.IV 2.VІ 23.VI 15.VII 7.VIII 28.VIII 27.X 209 

2010 4.IV 5.V 11.VII 15.VII 28.VII 15.VIII 30. VIII 18.X 197 

2011 30.III 21.V 16.VII 19.VII 10. VIII 13. VIII 31. VIII 25.X 209 

M±2m 3.IV±5,7 12.V±13,1 27.VI±15,4 6.VII±9,0 31.VII±10,5 11.VIII±2,8 28.VIII±3,7 31.X±16,6 202,3±7,9 

V 6.1 11.0 9.6 5.3 5.5 1.4 1.7 6.1 3.9 

Tab. 2. Climatic data during the Saussurea porcii Degen flowering in the collection of CHNU Botanic Garden 

Number of 

Flowering period T ºС of air during the flowering 

The number of Σ 

Year/ 

days before 

days with precipitation 

statistics 

Efflorescence End of flowering Duration Max Min M ± m 

flowering 

precipitation (mm) 

2007 - 24.VI 13.VIII 51 36.9 10.0 20.8±0.5 15 86.1 

2008 81 30.VI 26.VII 27 32.3 9.9 19.5±0.5 20 185.8 

2009 63 2.VI 15.VII 44 31.7 8.2 19.4±0.5 22 103.8 

2010 99 11.VII 28.VII 18 32.6 12.9 23.2±0.7 7 53.7 

2011 109 16.VII 10. VIII 26 33.1 10.3 20.4±0.5 17 123.6 

М±m 88 ± 10.2 33.2 ± 6,1 33.3 ± 0.9 10.3 ± 0.8 20.7 ± 0.7 16.2 ± 2.6 110.6 ± 22.0 

М±2m 27.VI ± 15,4 31.VII ± 10.5 


V 23.1 9.6 5.5 41.4 6.2 16.5 7.5 35.8 44.5 

155


Fig. 1. The population of Saussurea porcii Degen on the polonyna Glystuvata 

(foto by Vacyl Budjac) 

Fig. 2. Saussurea porcii Degen in situ 


156

Fig. 3. Saussurea porcii Degen ex situ (in CHNU Botanic Garden) 

Fig. 4. The inflorescens of Saussurea porcii Degen in situ 


157 

DEREVENKO TATIANA


18(2011): 159-167 

BISHT POONAM, PRASAD PRATTI, NAUTIYAL BHAGWATI PRASAD 

POLYGONATUM VERTICILLATUM (LINN.) ALL. AND 

POLYGONATUM CIRRHIFOLIUM (WALL.) ROYLE: TWO 

THREATENED VITAL HEALERS FROM ASTHAVERGA 

NURTURED BY GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA 

BISHT POONAM 1 , PRASAD PRATTI 1 , NAUTIYAL BHAGWATI PRASAD 2 

Abstract: The biodiversity of Garhwal Himalaya supports a large number of medicinal plants used in various 

ailments as a drug. Polygonatum verticillatum and Polygonatum cirrhifolium, the healers from 

'Asthaverga' of 'Ayurveda', are reported from Garhwal Himalaya, but due to overexploitation are 

encompassed in threatened category. The present study is a documentation of these plants to facilitate 

the conservation of these crude drugs in their natural habitat and to domesticate them. The study also 

provides information regarding the resident’s outlook, living in surrounding area of these species, 

towards these species. 

Key words: conservation, medicinal, Polygonatum verticillatum, Polygonatum cirrhifolium 

Introduction 

India possesses the world's richest medicinal plant heritage and traditional and 

local knowledge and Himalaya is one of the mega biodiversity regions of the world 

[HEYWOOD, 2000]. The Indian Himalayan region (IHR) supports over 1748 (32.2% of 

India) plant species of known medicinal value [SAMANT, 1998]. The Garhwal Himalaya 

has been a centre of spiritual knowledge, religiosity and pilgrimage from ancient times and 

it is also rich in biodiversity. Polygonatum verticillatum and Polygonatum cirrhifolium are 

the two medicinal enticers from this goblet of biodiversity and key ingredients of 

'Ashtaverga' of 'Ayurveda'. 


The present manuscript was prepared by extensive literature survey of documented 

directories and a field survey was also conducted to verify the documentations. 

The study was carried out in two districts of Uttarakhand viz. Pauri and 

Rudraprayag. Rudraprayag district covering an area of about 2439 sq. km lies between 

latitude 30°19' and 30°49' North and longitude 78°49' and 79°21'13" East. The climate 

varies from sub-tropical monsoon type (mild inter, hot summer) to tropical upland type 

(mild winter, dry winter, short warm summer). The soils are natural, dynamic, 

heterogeneous, non-renewable resource, which support plant and animal life 

[ANONYMOUS, 2009]. Pauri encompasses an area of 5230 sq. km and situated between 

1 High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre (HAPPRC), HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), 246 

174, Uttarakhand – India, e-mail: bishtpoonam81@gmail.com 

2 Department of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plants (HAMP), School of ES & NRM, Mizoram 

University, Aizawl, 796 009, Mizoram – India 

159

POLYGONATUM VERTICILLATUM (LINN.) ALL. AND POLYGONATUM CIRRHIFOLIUM (WALL.) … 

Latitude 29°45' to 30°15' North and 78°24' to 79°23' Longitude East. The region has a subtemperate 

to temperate climate, which remains pleasant throughout the year. The soils are 

derived from rocks and terraces present are silt to clayey loam and are very fertile 

[ANONYMOUS, 2011]. 

Local people were interviewed randomly concerning the local uses of the plants 

under study. During the interviews local name of the plants, parts used and formulations 

were asked (see Appendix). These participants were then divided into three groups 

according to the age groups and gender viz. category I (male 25-50 years), category II 

(male 51-90 years) and category III (female 25-90 years). 

Result and discussion 

Privileged Garhwal Himalaya 

The hills of Uttarakhand, standing almost centrally in the long sweep of Himalaya, 

are also known as the 'Garh-Kum' region [KANDARI & GUSAIN, 2001]. Garhwal 

Himalaya lies between 77°33’5” to 80°6’ E longitude and 29°31’9” to 31°26’5” N latitude 

[NAND & KUMAR, 1989]. Thus the Garhwal region enjoys a wide range of altitudes 

extending from about 325 m in the Bhabar tract to the height of about 7,817 m forming the 

Nanda Devi peak of the Greater Himalaya or Himadri [KANDARI & GUSAIN, 2001]. The 

Garhwal Himalayas due to its distinct meteorological, geographic, geological and 

ecological patterns is rich in bio-resources as well as diverse flora and fauna [GAIROLA & 

BISWAS, 2008]. The high altitude regions of Uttarakhand Himalayas can be divided into 

three main climatic zones viz. alpine, temperate and sub-tropical [SHAH & JIAN, 1988]. 

The alpine zone which ranges between 2500 to 4000 m is rich in wild medicinal plants like 

Angelica glauca, A. archangelica, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Carum carvi, Picrorhiza 

kurroa, Aconitum heterophyllum, Nardostachys jatamansi, Saussurea lapa, Podophyllum 

hexandrum, Rheum emodi, R. moorcroftianum, Aconitum balfourii, Swertia spp. etc. The 

temperate zone commencing from 1000 to 2700 m elevation is rich in many orchids of 

medicinal importance, Rhododendron arboreum, Corylus jackmontii, Hippophae 

rhamnoides, Polygonatum verticillatum, P. cirrhifolium, Hypericum oblongifolium, 

Arisaema intermedium, Hedychium spicatum etc. The sub-tropical zone is the region 

existing in the valleys of the temperate zone. They are not characterized by as rich a variety 

of medicinal plants but they also account for the bio diversity of the state [ANONYMOUS, 

2002]. The medicinal plant diversity available in tropical belt mainly incorporates: 

Embelica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica, Cinnamomum tamala, Zanthoxylum 

alatum, Berberis ssp., Rubus elliptcus, Gloriosa superba, Withania somnifera, Rauvolfia 

serpentina, Aloe vera etc. [KANDARI & GUSAIN, 2001]. 

Verve of “Ayurveda” 

The literal meaning of "Ayurveda" is (Ayur = life and veda = knowledge) the way 

or science of life. Ayurveda (1000-500 BC) originated from our ancient literature – 

“Atherva-veda”, the knowledge of which was documented in 'Charak–Samhita' (1000 BC) 

and ‘Sushruta-Samhita’ and are considered to be the authentic books. “Ayurveda” may be 

said to be a treasure house of knowledge about medicinal plants. All of the plants which are 

used for their medicinal properties have been thoroughly evaluated and classified for 

thousand of years. It is an ancient philosophy based on a deep understanding of eternal 

truths about the human body, mind and spirit. Unlike orthodox medicine, it is not based on 

160


the frequently changing findings of specific research projects, but rather on permanent, 

wise, eternal principals of living [GODAGAMA & HODGKINSON, 1997]. 

"Ayurveda" is bestowed with "Asthaverga" a group of eight plants used as tonic 

which promotes body heat, dries up serious fluids, carminative and antitussive, and are 

useful in vitiated conditions of pitta and vata, agalactia, seminal weakness, internal and 

external haemorrhages, cough, bronchitis, burning sensation and general debility. These 

eight plants belongs to two families, 'Liliaceae' comprising mahameda (P. verticillatum), 

meda (P. cirrhifolium), kakoli (Roscoea alpina/purpurea), ksheerakakoli (Lilium 

pollyphyllum), and 'Orchidaceae' comprising jeevak (Malaxis acuminata), rishibhak (M. 

muscifera), riddhi (Habenaria edgeworthii), vriddhi (H. intermedia) [VARIER, 1995]. 

Introduction to the plants 

Polygonatum is a genus of erect or decumbent perennial herbs belonging to family 

Liliaceae and distributed in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Thick fleshy 

creeping sympodial rhizomes characterize the genus. According to MILLER (1754) the 

generic name of Polygonatum is derived from the character of the rhizome which resembles 

much as yovi, a Knee, because it has many little Knees. LINNAEUS (1753) listed three 

species of Polygonatum under the genus Convallaria, namely, C. verticillata, C. 

polygonatum and C. multiflora in his book 'Species Plantarum' .These were treated under 

the generic name Polygonatum by ALLIONI (1785). In the natural system of classification 

of BENTHAM & HOOKER (1862-1883) family liliaceae was classified in the series 

Coronarieae. 

The systematic position of Polygonatum according to phylogenetic system of 

classification of HUTCHINSON (1973) was: 

Phylum: Angiospermae 

Subphylum: Monocotyledons 

Divison: Corolliferae 

Order: Liliales 

Family: Liliaceae 

Genus: Polygonatum 

Polygonatum is represented by 57 species in the world concentrated in Himalayas 

[OHARA & al. 2007]. Out of the species occurring in IHR two are imperative ingredients 

of Asthaverga. 

Polygonatum verticillatum (Linn.) All. syn. Convallaria verticillata (Linn.), is 

known as whorled Solomon’s seal in English and locally known as mitha dudhia 

[NAUTIYAL & NAUTIYAL, 2004] and Kantula [GAUR, 1999]. The species is 

recognized as ‘mahameda’ in Ayurveda and in Sanskrit as Tridanti, Devamani and 

Vasuchhidra (Fig. 1). It is an erect tall herb, 60-120 cm high. Leaves are whorled, sessile, 

10-20 cm long, linear or lanceolate, acute or rarely tip carcinate, glaucous beneath, 

occasionally ciliolate on margins and veins. Flowers are white, pinkish white or pale green, 

in whorled racemes, rarely lilac. The flowering and fruiting takes place in the month of 

June to October. This species is found in the temperate Himalayas at altitudes of 1800-3900 

m amsl. From Garhwal Himalaya P. verticillatum was reported from Bhuna, Dunagiri and 

Niti by NAITHANI (1984), Binsar by GAUR (1999), Tungnath, Rudranath, Valley of 

Flowers and Dayara by VASHISTHA (2006). 

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle syn. Convallaria cirrhifolia Wall. another 

member of Asthaverga recognized as King's Solomon’s seal in English, locally as Khakan 

161


[GAUR, 1999], ‘meda’ in Ayurveda, Dhara, Manichhidra and Svalpaparni in Sanskrit (Fig. 

2). It is also a tall erect, perennial herb, 60-120 cm high with whorled (3-6) sessile, linear 

leaves having tendril like tips. Flowers white, green purplish or pink on short stocks and the 

fruit is round blue-black berry found in the temperate Himalayas at the altitudes of 1200- 

4200 m. Rhizomes are thick and fleshy. In Garhwal, NAITHANI (1984) reported it from 

Gulabkoti, Sitapur and Sutul while Gaur (1999) from Khirsu. 

Fig. 1. P. verticillatum: Leaf pattern 

Fig. 2. P. cirrhifolium: Leaf pattern 

162


About 'mahameda' and 'meda' it was documented in "Abhinav niguntu" that 'meda' 

initiate from the same place from where 'mahameda' originates, simply implying that both 

Polygonatum verticillatum and P. cirrhifolium grows together. The term 'meda' used in both 

the species symbolize the 'mucilage' present inside the rhizomes of these plant species. 

Several workers explore these two species of 'Asthaverga' either together or individually 

[VARIER, 1995; SINGH, 2006; HUSSAIN & HORE, 2008]. SZYBKA-HRYNKIEWICZ 

&JANECZKO (2004) studied the effect of plant growth regulators and steroidal hormone on 

a quantity of diosgenin in callus tissue of P. verticillatum. In another study they examined the 

effect of coconut water (CW), plant growth regulators, and steroidal hormones on callus of P. 

verticillatum. Despite underground parts recently above ground aerial parts of P. verticillatum 

are also tested for insecticidal and leishmanicidal properties [SAEED & al. 2010]. 

Polygonatum is a complex genus with a wide range of chromosome counts (2n = 

16, 18, 20, 21 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 36, 38, 40, 42, 46, 59, 56, 60, 62, 64, 66, 84, 86– 

91, 90) [LATOO & al. 2005]. In India, chromosome numbers reported for P. cirrhifolium 

are 2n = 38 (Shimla), 26 (North Sikkim), 28 (Northeast Sikkim) and 56 (China hills, 

Western Burma) [KUMAR, 1959b, 1959c, 1960, 1964–1965]. LATOO & al. (2005) 

established a new chromosome number in P. cirrhifolium i.e. 2n = 32. The most common 

chromosome number for P. verticillatum is n = 28. Although, one tetraploid strain with 2n 

= 60 chromosomes and two hexaploid strains with 2n = 90 chromosomes have been 

encountered [THERMAN, 1953]. 

Curative assets of the plants 

Collectively, meda and mahameda are used as tonic and promotes body heat, dries 

up serious fluids, carminative and antitussive. Both species are used against loss of vigor, 

pain in the kidney and hips, swelling and fullness in the abdominal region, accumulation of 

fluids in bone joints, skin eruptions and cough [NAUTIYAL & NAUTIYAL, 2004]. 

Individually, Polygonatum verticillatum is eaten raw or cooked, the powder is 

given for gastric complaints, and the paste applied to wounds [NAUTIYAL & al. 1998; 

GAUR, 1999]. The rhizome is valued as salep, a strength giving food. The plants possess 

diuretic properties and the rhizome of this species is eaten as food in the Kurram valley 

[ANONYMOUS, 1969]. It contains digitalis glucoside, saponosides A, B, C and D, lysine, 

serine, aspartic acid and threonine [ANONYMOUS, 1969]. SOOD & al. (2005) mentioned 

rhizomes contain diosgenin. 

Similarly, P. cirrhifolium is reported to be used as a tonic and vulnerary. A root 

infusion with milk is used as an aphrodisiac and blood purifier for tumors and piles. 

According to report of ANONYMOUS (2003), it is useful in burning sensation, skin 

diseases wounds, ulcers, tuberculosis, fever, cough, bronchitis and general debility. 

Investigations in China have reported hypoglycemic, hypotensive, antibacterial and 

antifungal effects of P. cirrhifolium [SINGH, 2006]. Rhizomes contain starch, protein, 

pectin and aspargin [NAUTIYAL & NAUTIYAL, 2004]. It was also reported to be used in 

major ayurvedic formulations like Asoka Ghrta, Sivagutika, Amrtaprasa Ghrta, Dasam, 

ularista, Dhanvantara Taila, Brhatmasa Taila, Mahanarayana Taila, Vasacandanadi Taila. 

In the survey it was found that people included in category I were less aware about 

the plant and its uses while the category II was a combination of people who recognize the 

plant or were familiar about the uses of plants or the parts used for making formulations. 

The participants included in category III were least aware about the plant and its uses. 

Although, how to prepare formulations was unknown by most of the participants. 

163


The vaidyas of both of the districts however recognize the habitat, uses, parts of 

plant used and how to prepare various formulations. These vaidyas were the local healers 

which cure the people from diseases. In olden times they were the only people to cure the 

inhabitants later medicinal facilities were provided by the Government, so now doctors 

were there for treatment of the inhabitants. But these vaidyas still heal the residents in far 

flung areas. Since earlier only vaidyas were aware about the distribution and methods of 

preparation therefore they limit the knowledge to themselves for the sake of their profession 

and to protect the plants from overexploitation by the villagers. Only the son or student who 

takeover the profession after the existing vaidyas was given the information regarding the 

distribution, identification, plant and part used, formulations and doses. 

Threat of Extinction 

It is accountable that Garhwal Himalaya is enriched by both the Polygonatum 

species which are potential future drugs and can be a milestone in the drift from allopathy 

to herbal heath care system. P. verticillatum was found vulnerable in Uttarakhand, 

Himanchal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh while P. cirrhifolium is 

endangered in Himanchal Pradesh and vulnerable in Uttarakhand (Fig. 3) [VED & al. 

2003]. This status is assigned by IUCN through FRLHT (Foundation for Revitalization of 

Local Health Traditions) which utilized the CAMP (Conservation Assessment and 

Management Prioritization) process to undertake rapid assessment of prioritized medicinal 

plant species of conservation concern in different states/regions of India. Through this 

evaluation taxa have been assigned Red List status of “threatened” category i.e. critically 

endangered, endangered and vulnerable. The reason behind there threatened status is their 

exploitation for their medicinal value. In addition habitat specificity, narrow range of 

distribution, land-use disturbances, introduction of non-natives, habitat alteration, climatic 

changes, heavy livestock grazing, explosion of human density, fragmentation and 

degradation of plant density, population bottleneck and genetic drift [KALA & al. 2006; 

KALA, 2007] are the potential causes of rarity in medicinal plant species. The women of 

these areas carry all the activities of domestication of cattle. They collect the food and 

fodder from the nearby forests and due to lack of identification cut the Polygonatum species 

along with the fodder grasses. This is therefore one of the reasons of threatened status of 

these plant species. 

Conclusions 

The present study concludes that the distribution and ethnobotanical uses 

documented were correct but the knowledge was limited to only local healers and 

inhabitants were unknown towards the identification of plant species studied. This is 

although beneficial for protecting the plant from overexploitation and thereby illegal trade 

but this unfamiliarity is also posing threat for the existence of these species. Therefore 

immediate steps were needed for educating local residents about the plants in vigilance of 

Government so that plants can be protected from both overexploitation and negligence. 

The study also emphasize that these two plant are suffering from negligence of 

people both common man and researchers and to revitalize these two magnificent species. 

Conservation initiatives are urgently required. The study also suggests that despite the so 

much work done there is still a dearth of research to prove the potential of the natural 

Himalayan habitats in terms of medicinal plant production. 

164


A: Distribution of Polygonatum verticillatum and P. cirrhifolium in India; B: Distribution of 

P. verticillatum in India; C: Districts of Uttarakhand where present study was undertaken; D: Hill 

areas of Uttarakhand; E: Plain areas of Uttarakhand. 

Fig. 3. Map of Uttarakhand showing the study areas in Garhwal Himalaya. 

Appendix 

Name of the participant 

Age of the participant 

What is the local name of the plant used? 

For which diseases do you use the plant? 

Which parts of the plant do you use? 

How do you prepare the plant for use? 

165 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E


Acknowledgement 

Authors are grateful to Prof. A. R. Nautiyal, Director, High Altitude Plant 

Physiology Research Centre, Uttarakhand, India for providing necessary facilities and 

encouragement. The corresponding author also likes to thanks Drs. Gunjan Sharma and 

Neelam Rawat for their assistance during the survey. 

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18(2011): 169-177 

169 

POP (BOANCĂ) PĂUNIŢA IULIANA & al. 

ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC ROLE OF SPONTANEOUS 

FLORA IN URBAN SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPES 

DEVELOPMENT 

POP (BOANCĂ) PĂUNIŢA IULIANA 1 , DUMITRAŞ ADELINA 1 , 

SINGUREANU VALENTIN 1 , CLAPA DOINA 2 , MAZĂRE GEORGEL 1 

Abstract: The aim of this scientific paper is to promote sustainable methods with beneficial effects on the 

environment, with aesthetic effect on urban and rural landscapes. This paper highlights and 

promotes ecological and aesthetic role of spontaneous flora in sustainable landscape planning. This 

method in which spontaneous flora is an important environmental factor is minimal valued in terms 

of landscape, even less implemented in Romania. By covering current bibliographic references, by 

analysing contemporary urban landscape in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, in the present study, are exposed 

principles, benefits, constraints and legitimate questions about sustainable landscapes by introducing 

spontaneous flora or, more simply, through its conservation, practical examples of successful 

integration in the contemporary landscape of ruderal landscapes. Conclusions from this study refer 

specifically to the role of spontaneous landscapes in urban ecology, to the management of these 

landscapes and exposure of minimum guidelines so that this method has a decent start in Romania. 

Key words: spontaneous flora, ruderal, landscaping, ecology, conservation 

Introduction 

Given the negative changes that occur in the natural environment due, in 

particular, to noxious anthropogenic factors, the main purpose of this paper is to highlight 

the ecological and aesthetic values of spontaneous vegetation and use/conservation of this 

type of vegetation in sustainable landscape. 

In this paper is treated particularly the spontaneous flora from urban and ruderal 

landscapes that can be successfully valued to greening cities. In most urban areas, a 

cosmopolitan range of wild plants provide important ecological services, services which, in 

light of the expected impact of climate change could become increasingly important in the 

future. Peter Del Tredici asserts that the management of spontaneous vegetation in urban 

areas to increase its ecological and social values is a sustainable strategy rather than an 

attempt to restore historical ecosystems existing before the establishment of current cities 

[DEL TREDICI, 2010]. 

European ecologists have been analysing the historical development and spatial 

distribution of spontaneous urban vegetation over several decades [CHOCHOLOUŠKOVA 

& PYŠEK, 2003; PYŠEK & al. 2004; SUKOPP, 2002] and recently began documenting the 

coverage in urban ecosystems using GIS technology [HERBST & HERBST, 2006; RINK, 

2009]. Peter Del Tredici make a comparison between European and North American 

ecologists showing that the last ones have been slow to adopt urban ecology and began to 

1 

University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca – România, e-mail: 

paunita_boanca@yahoo.com 

2 

Fruit Research Station Cluj, Cluj-Napoca – România

ECOLOGICAL AND AESTHETIC ROLE OF SPONTANEOUS FLORA IN URBAN SUSTAINABLE… 

focus seriously on the subject since the 1990's [ALBERTI & al. 2003; GRIMM & al. 2000; 

ZIPPERER & al. 1997; DEL TREDICI, 2010]. 

Applying the comparison, we see that in Romania the interest in the spontaneous 

landscape environmental values is recent and is not yet well defined. 

This paper supports the idea that spontaneous urban vegetation can effectively 

achieve many of the environmental objectives of traditional restoring with minimum 

financial investment and a greater chance of long-term success [CHOI, 2004; SAGOFF, 

2005]. The information presented urges ecologists, landscape architects, and other 

professionals interested, taking into account, without prejudice, all biological resources and 

to recognize that cities spontaneous flora has the ability to make significant contributions to 

urban ecological functionality. 


The paper is based on the study of scientific literature existing in Romania and 

internationally, and analysis and identification of Cluj-Napoca spontaneous landscape for 

application of sustainable methods in landscape planning. 

Using these research methods, the paper highlights the characteristics of the urban 

environment, urban spontaneous vegetation, its management, and examples of successful 

integration of ruderal urban landscape in Germany and the United States of America, and 

presents elements that differentiate new designed landscapes that used spontaneous flora 

from spontaneous landscapes preserved and managed for aesthetics and urban greening. 


From a strictly functional perspective, most vegetated urban lands can be 

classified into one of the three broad categories: remnant native landscapes, managed 

horticultural landscapes, and abandoned ruderal landscapes [KOWARIK, 2005; KÜHN, 

2006; WHITNEY, 1985; ZIPPERER & al. 1997]. These landscape types can be 

distinguished analysing: 1) their past land-use history; 2) the types of vegetation they 

contain; 3) the characteristics of their soils; 4) the levels of maintenance they require in 

order to preserve their integrity. All three types of landscapes are found in urban areas of 

Cluj-Napoca (Fig. 1). 

The least studied of these types is the abandoned ruderal landscape represented by 

marginal or degraded urban land that receives little or no maintenance, dominated by 

spontaneous vegetation - a mix of species that grow and reproduce without human care or intent. 

In Cluj-Napoca this type of landscape, ruderal, is common and we can clearly 

associate with the margins of transportation infrastructure, abandoned or vacant residential, 

commercial, and industrial property, and the interstitial spaces that separate one land-use 

function from another (Fig. 2, 3). While ruderal landscapes are often referred to as 

“wastelands” the progress of urban ecology place in a new light this neglected resource. 

Perhaps the most obvious aspect of the distinctive urban environments is the ubiquitous 

physical disturbance associated with the construction and/or maintenance of their 

infrastructure. 

Being a city with relatively well developed economy, in Cluj-Napoca, a significant 

part of the factories are always in a process of dismantling and reconstruction, which tends 

to generate a constantly shifting mosaic composed of opportunistic plant associations 

dominated by disturbance-tolerant, early successional species. An edifying example of 

170

171 


tolerance and adaptability to extreme conditions offered by the urban areas is the way that a 

fern manages to survive on the wall of a building in Cluj-Napoca (Fig. 4, 5). The images 

were captured in 2009 and 2011, demonstrating the resilience and adaptation of this species 

in adverse conditions. After analysing the urban landscape of Cluj-Napoca we find that in 

neighbourhoods with the highest property value - spontaneous vegetation is found in 

relatively small quantities, while in the poorer neighbourhoods and industrial areas this type 

of vegetation abounds (Fig. 6). The origin and global dispersal of the spontaneous 

vegetation that dominates abandoned urban land is both a cultural and a biological 

phenomenon [KOWARIK, 2003; KOWARIK & LANGER, 2005; MACK & ERNEBERG, 

2002]. This vegetation is represented by a cosmopolitan range of species, as follows: 1) 

native to the area; 2) formerly or currently cultivated for agricultural or horticultural 

purposes; 3) unintentionally introduced, disturbance adapted weeds. 

An exhaustive literature review of the vegetation of 54 cities in Central Europe 

indicates a “remarkable concentration of aliens in urban areas” [PYŠEK, 1998]. In recent 

years, a number of European researchers have gone so far as to propose that certain innercity 

areas with relatively old patches of spontaneous vegetation be actively conserved 

because of the role they play in generating and maintaining urban biodiversity 

[KOWARIK, 2005; MURATET & al. 2007; RINK, 2009]. 

PETER DEL TREDICI (2010) shows that the spontaneous vegetation of North 

American cities has not been studied as extensively as that of European cities. CLEMANTS 

& MOORE (2003) found that the non-native species richness of urban areas in the U.S. is 

probably more influenced by historical and socio-economic factors than by climate or 

latitude. Part of the spontaneous flora that dominates American urban landscapes is due to 

successive waves of immigrants, which along with their traditional cultures have introduced 

associated weeds [MACK, 2000; MACK, 2003; MACK & ERNBERG, 2002]. Also, Del 

Tredici notes that in contrast to the large number of European plants introduced in North 

America, few species native to this region were able to penetrate and be naturalized in 

Europe [WITTIG, 2004; DEL TREDICI, 2010]. The asymmetry of the biological exchange 

between the two continents is partly a reflection of the lopsided nature of the cultural 

exchange between the two continents and partly a result of the fact that Europe, for reasons 

relating to both cultural and evolutionary history, seems to be unusually rich in disturbanceadapted 

herbaceous species [WEBER, 1997]. 

The idea that self-sustaining, historically accurate plant associations can be 

restored to urban areas is an idea with little credibility in light of the facts that 1) the density 

of the human population and the infrastructure necessary to support it have led to the 

removal of the original vegetation; 2) the abiotic growing conditions of urban areas are 

completely different from what they were originally; and 3) the large numbers of nonnative 

species that have naturalized in cities provide intense competition for the native 

species that grew there prior to urbanization. [DEL TREDICI, 2010]. Ecosystem services 

provided by the urban spontaneous vegetation include: temperature reduction; food and/or 

habitat for wildlife; erosion control on slopes and disturbed ground; stream and river bank 

stabilization; excess nutrient absorption in wetlands (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus); soil 

building on degraded land; improved air and water quality; sound reduction; 

phytoremediation of contaminated soil [POREÇBSKA & OSTROWSKA, 1999]; and 

carbon sequestration. At the functional level, spontaneous urban vegetation can be 

considered sustainable in the sense that it is performing a wide range of quantifiable 

ecosystem services on marginal land with a minimal input of maintenance resources [DEL 

TREDICI, 2010; RINK, 2009].


While it is relatively easy to enumerate the ecological value of spontaneous 

vegetation, it is considerably more difficult to quantify its social and aesthetic value 

[KÖRNER, 2005]. Many of the people who live in cities tend to interpret the presence of 

spontaneous urban vegetation in their neighbourhood as a visible manifestation of 

dereliction and neglect, even though they may view the same plants growing in a suburban 

or rural context as “wildflowers” (Fig. 7). Unfortunately, the social and aesthetic values of 

spontaneous, ecologically functional urban landscapes often leave something to be desired. 

This raises the question of whether or not there is a way to harmonize the ecological 

functionality of spontaneous urban vegetation with people's desire to live in a safe and 

beautiful environment. 

Perhaps the most famous example of the successful integration of spontaneous 

vegetation into a designed landscape is Peter Latz's Landschaftspark in Duisburg-Nord, in 

the Ruhr area of Germany, which transformed the contaminated ruins of an abandoned steel 

mill into a dynamic, heavily visited cultural center (Fig. 8). Another worthy of being 

followed example, is the High Line Park in New York (Fig. 9). It is noted in recent years, 

an encouraging evolution, but not sufficient, of these types of sustainable landscapes, in 

which the spontaneous flora is an important factor, being preserved and ruderal and postindustrial 

urban landscapes are rehabilitated with minimum interventions in behalf of an 

ecological environment. 

Conclusions 

Environmental education in Romania, both of specialists and the general public, 

improves visible and continuously. Given the conditions - economic, political, social - from 

Romania we expect that concrete actions are needed for the increased interest on this issue 

will not remain at the “trend” scenario, projects, experiences and forecasts level but also to 

be applied in order to obtain tangible and extensive results of this type of sustainable 

landscape. 

We recommend therefore that all those involved to overcome the divisive 

arguments on the relative value of native species versus exotic species, and to focus on the 

ecological functionality of spontaneous urban vegetation. 

The task we face is not how to eliminate these plants, but rather how to manage 

them to increase their ecological, social, and aesthetic values. In the short term, after the 

scientific literature review and spontaneous landscape of Cluj-Napoca brief analysis, 

emerges a clear but not optimistic conclusion: due to simultaneous or separate action of 

several factors (economic, perceptual, political, social environmental, climatic, etc.) 

spontaneous vegetation is unlikely to play a significant role in future development of urban 

ecosystems in our country. 

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of Biogeography, 25: 155-163. 

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species diversity and composition of urban vegetation over three decades. Journal of Vegetation Science, 

15(6): 781-788. 

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in Eastern Germany. Nature and Culture, 4(3): 275-292. 

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Environmental Ethics, 18: 215-236. 

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Botanical Society, 74: 373-39. 

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23. WHITNEY, GORDON G. 1985. A quantitative analysis of the flora and plant communities of a representative 

Midwestern U.S. Town. Urban Ecology, 6: 143-160. 

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323-339. 

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perspective. Urban Ecosystems, 1: 229-246. 

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a b 

c 

Fig. 1. Remnant native landscape (a), abandoned ruderal landscape (b) and managed horticultural 

landscape (c) – also identified in Cluj-Napoca 

Fig. 2. Ruderale landscape – margins of transportation infrastructure – Cluj-Napoca 

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175 


a b 

Fig. 3. Ruderale landscape – abandoned industrial property (a), interstitial spaces (b) Cluj-Napoca 

Fig. 4. Fern development on the 

Cluj-Napoca building wall, May, 2009 

a 

Fig. 5. Fern development on the 

Cluj-Napoca building wall, August, 2011 

Fig. 6. Cluj-Napoca – spontaneous vegetation in zone with different values: (a) industrial areas 

and (b) in the poorer neighbourhoods, Cluj-Napoca 

b


b 

Fig. 7. Spontaneous vegetation in rural landscape and in urban landscape – different perceptions - 

(a) positive perception in rural landscape; (b) negative perception in urban landscape 

176 

a

Fig. 8. Landschaftspark-Duisburg 

Source: http://www.landschaftspark.de/architektur-natur 

177 


Fig. 9. High Line Park – New York 

Source: http://flolo.blogspot.com/2010/09/life-on-high-line.html


18(2011): 179-189 

AABID RASOOL ZARGAR, MEHRAJ A. SHEIKH, MUNESH KUMAR 

GLOBAL WARMING: IMPLICATIONS AND ANTICIPATORY 

ADAPTIVE MEASURES 

AABID RASOOL ZARGAR 1 , MEHRAJ A. SHEIKH 1 , MUNESH KUMAR 2 

Abstract: Our earth is warming up. There is no denying to this fact that the gradual heating up of our globe has 

a tremendous effect on the climate. It in turn has affected the biotic factors that make up our 

biosphere, eventually directing the course of our socio-economic development. Some workers are, 

however, optimistic about this natural phenomenon. Various ways have been suggested to mitigate 

the effects of global warming, but the damage already done cannot be revoked. Hence, the thing that 

we are left with is to go for anticipatory adaptive measures so as to tone down the intensity of future 

implications of global warming. 

Key words: global warming, anticipatory adaptive measures, climate change, biophysical impacts 

Introduction 

There is a sudden uproar all-round the world about the increasing global 

temperature. Atmospheric CO2 is accelerating upward from decade to decade. In the past 

decade, the average annual rate of increase was 1.91 parts per million (ppm). This rate of 

increase is more than double what it was during the first decade of CO2 instrument 

measurements at the Mauna Loa Observatory. The concentration of CO2 had gone from 350 

ppm in 1950 to 385 ppm in 2009 [ESRL, 2009]. Statistically, the scientists all round the 

globe agree on appoint that our earth is definitely warming up. The change on earth is 

defined as “a change in the climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human 

activities that alter the composition of the global atmosphere and which are in addition to 

natural climate variability observed over comparable time period” [UNFCCC, 1997]. In this 

definition human has been accounted as the sole reason for the changes in the climate, 

which is opposable if we take into account the solar activities. 

Global warming cannot be simply and wholly attributed to the increase in the 

green house gases (GHGs) due to human-activities. Solar activities and related aspects have 

to be given due consideration, at the same time. Since the solar activities are by the far, 

under-estimated and the activities of the human are more evident, we seem to direct all our 

attention and resources towards the “anthropogenic causes” of global warming. In this 

paper we have tried to sum up the impacts of the global warming and tried to take a holistic 

approach and discussed. The factors contributing largely to global warming have been dealt 

with in details to give a fair picture of the global scenario. 

1 Biodiversity and Climate Change Division, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun - India 

2 Department of Forestry, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal, 249161, Uttarakhand – India 

e-mail: munesh.hnbgu@gmail.com, tel/fax: +911370267529 

179

GLOBAL WARMING: IMPLICATIONS AND ANTICIPATORY ADAPTIVE MEASURES 


This paper is a compilation of a large number of works done on global warming 

both by Indian as well as foreign researchers. The paper has been prepared with a simple, 

yet necessary perspective of summing up the effects of climate change due to global 

warming on vegetation and other living organisms and the ultimate effect on the socioeconomic 

aspect. In due course, it is our belief that certain misconception and underestimation 

of certain facts can be overcome. All the factors that appear to be contributing to 

global warming have been discussed with examples from different parts of the world to 

give a crystal clear picture. 

Results and discussion 

1. Biophysical Impacts (Tab. 1) 

1.1. Climatic and Geological aspects 

Temperature has evidently increased all throughout the globe. There has been an 

increase in global temperature over the years [IPCC, 2007] report. With the increase in 

global temperature, the temperature of the sea water has risen, decreasing the solubility 

of carbon-dioxide on its surface which ultimately increases partial pressure of CO2. 

Consequently, uptake of CO2 by ocean water has reduced, thereby increasing greenhouse 

effect. RAWAT & RAWAT (1998) and NEGI & al. (2003) observed that monsoon rains 

have declined over the past seven decades, whereas, the local rains have substantially 

increased, while studying rainfall pattern in Doon valley. Also, precipitation is likely to 

increase in the mid and the high latitudinally placed regions in the northern hemisphere 

[LEGGETT, 1990]. With the increase in the evaporation the amount of water-vapour in 

the atmosphere is bound to increase which will consequently increase the humidity, 

affecting the overall precipitation regime. Clouds account for the cooling effect in the 

Earth’s atmosphere. But if more clouds are formed at the higher altitudes (which are 

cooler), they will emit less radiation, supplementing to greenhouse effect and thereby 

increasing the temperature [RAMANATHAN & al. 1989]. Also it has been suggested by 

CHARLSON & al. [1987] that emission of di-methyl sulphide (DMS) by marine 

planktons, which serve as condensation nuclei, might act as global thermostat. This will 

increase in cloudiness and lead to cooling of the ocean surface. But this might also affect 

the activity of the plankton, thereby closing the loop. 

According to the IPCC (2001), the pattern of wind is likely to change. The interdecadal 

Pacific Oscillation and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation bring about variability in the 

climate of Pacific Basin. Likewise, North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) accounts for the 

westerly over the Atlantic and the extra-tropical Eurasia, which are likely to become strong. 

A similar Antarctic Oscillation affects the westerly in the southern hemisphere which has 

shown an increase in the strength over the past 15 years. There would be a shutdown in the 

thermohaline and thermocline circulation. 

The increase in the percentage of the atmospheric will cause an increased amount 

of CO2 to dissolve in to the ocean. This leads to the formation of carbonic acid that lowers 

the pH of the ocean [UNEP, 2002]. In India, the Gangotri glacier has been receding at an 

average rate of 19m per year over the last 65 years [SHANKER & SRIVASTAVA, 1999]. 

Hence, melting of ice-caps and receding of glaciers will lead to increase in the level of the 

sea and submerge the low-lying coastal regions, consequently. 

180


Climatic models have shown that drought is likely to increase from 5% to 50% by 

the year 2050 A.D. The hardest hit regions would be north Africa, south Africa, western 

Arabia, south east Asia, Mexico, Central America, south west USA, and the Mediterranean 

belt [IPCC, 1990]. The frequency and intensity of drought have been observed to increase 

in the recent decades. Also, part of the Amazon rain forest will turn into desert by 2050. 

Another concern is the possibility of a positive feedback loop, i.e., global warming can 

cause further warming in a vicious circle. Melting ice-caps appears to be causing the release 

of large amount of CO2 and methane from decaying vegetation trapped beneath. It also 

could lead to increased heat absorption as ice reflects more because of its higher albedo 

than land and water. 

1. 2. Edaphic factors 

The decomposition of the soil depends upon the temperature of the soil, the 

presence/population of effective soil micro-flora and fauna, the type of litter (lignin: N 

ratio, carbon content etc.), availability of soil moisture in adequate amount, species 

composition and structure of plant community. It is an established fact that the colder 

biomes are much more sensitive and responsive towards global warming than the warmer 

ones. As a whole, litter decomposition in colder biomes is likely to increase, along with a 

steady influx of CO2 into the atmosphere. The Q10 value, which is taken to be 2 for 

biological processes, is found to be 3-4 in the arctic regions [ROBINSON & al. 1983]. The 

decomposition rate has been found to be more in the colder and wetter sites of higher 

altitudes than the warmer and drier sites of the lower altitudes [MURPHY & al. 1998]. 

IPCC (1990) states that it is not possible to predict reliably either the geographical 

distribution of changes in soil-water or the net effect of these changes on carbon fluxes and 

storage in different ecosystems’: with the increase in the temperature, summer monsoon 

rainfall has increased over the Indo-Gangetic plains between 1829 and 1999, whereas, it has 

been estimated that the Indian sub-continent is to experience a decline of 5-25% in the 

winter rainfall [BHARDWAJ & PANWAR, 2003], which would have a profound effect on 

the soil moisture status. 

Climate change impact on water quality is the result of precipitation above the 

infiltration capacity of the soil or the exceedance of the water holding capacity of the soil 

volume causing drainage of water through soil-profile. Increase in precipitation amount or 

frequency of storm even with decreased total amounts in each storm can have serious 

implications for surface run-off, drainage and water quality [HATFIELD & PRUEGER, 

2004]. Nitrogen and Phosphorus cannot be applied in the soil when the probability of 

rainfall immediately after application is high [EGHBALL & al. 2002]. 

1.3. Biological factors 

Species diversity will decline. Forests will be rapidly destroyed without their 

restoration or replacement. Species will be lost as climate and habitat migrate out from 

under them. Also the specific ecotypes- specific combination of genes accumulated for each 

locale by selection through many generations – will also be lost. Forests will be substituted 

by savannahs, shrub lands and grasslands. 

If we study the adaptation pattern in the world of fauna and flora we get to see 

the following: 

181


Swamp Adaptations in plants 

Stilt roots for support in swampy areas, breathing roots or pneumatophores in 

mangrove species (either seasonal or permanent) might be seen to fulfill the oxygen 

requirement of roots [CHANDRASHEKARA & SREEJITH, 2003]. This is in particular to 

the areas where the water table has increased and hence plants and trees exhibit such type 

of swamp adaptations. 

Phenological Adaptations 

Climate change has led to an advance in phenology in many species. Synchrony in 

phenology between different species within a food chain may be disrupted if an increase in 

temperature affects the phenology of the different species differently, as is the case in the 

winter moth egg hatch–oak bud burst system. Operophtera brumata L. (winter moth) egg 

hatch date has advanced more than Quercus robur L. (pedunculate oak) bud burst date over 

the past two decades. Disrupted synchrony will lead to selection, and a response in 

phenology to this selection may lead to species genetically adapting to their changing 

environment [MARGRIET & al. 2007]. BROWN (2003) reported the early flowering of 

meadow foxtail and coxfoot 7-10 days earlier in 2002 than in 2001. 

Seed dispersal 

Different palaeo-ecological records predict that a 2.5 °C warming equates to an 

altitudinal displacement of more than 400 m and a latitudinal displacement in northern 

Europe by more than 300 Km [HUNTLEY, 1991] which allows them to adapt to the long 

distance seed-dispersal mechanism. 

Other adaptations 

According to GRIME (1979), we should expect the competitive species that 

dominate many ecosystems to be replaced by more ruderal species which might show 

various adaptations, like shortening of life-span, greater commitment of resources to 

propagule production and exploiting disturbed situations. The reproductive phenology of 

the plants is likely to change like inbreeding depression, ovule abortion, non-viable pollen 

production, etc. [KHANDURI & al. 2003] Also the dates of cultivation are likely to change 

by + one month in the warmer world. It is observed that if moisture is available, an increase 

in the temperature commonly increases rate of respiration by 10-35% or more per 1°C rise 

in temperature. In the warmer world, both the temperature and the moisture is higher which 

would increase the respiration rates of the living organisms, consequently reducing both net 

primary production and net ecosystem production [WOODWELL & WHITTAKER, 1968]. 

There are two schools of thought regarding the effect of global warming on the 

rate of photosynthesis. One says that increased level of CO2 in the atmosphere with 

higher precipitation and temperature will increase photosynthetic rates in plants upto a 

certain limit. This will increase the net productivity or yield. For example, KELLOMAKI 

& al. (1997) reported that a combination of temperature increase of 0.4 °C per decade, 

10% increase in annual sum of precipitation and 33 µ mol per decade increase in 

atmospheric CO2 will increase timber yield by 30% in one rotation. Another group of 

scientists say that the warming in continental centers will increase the arid zones globally 

at the expense of currently forested areas which will lower the net production 

[WOODWELL & WHITTAKER, 1968]. 

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus), also known as the Great White Bear, Ice Bear, 

and Nanook, is the largest of the world’s bear species. Polar bears live only in the Arctic 

and are completely dependent upon the sea ice for survival. Scientists have already 

recorded thinner bears, lower female reproductive rates, and reduced juvenile survival in 

182


the Western Hudson Bay, polar bear population in Canada, which is at the southern edge of 

the species’ range and the first to suffer impacts from global warming. This mighty hunter 

now faces likely extinction by the end of this century because its sea ice habitat is literally 

melting away due to global warming [Centre for Biological Diversity, 2005]. Atalopedes 

campestris (skipper butterfly), a cold-intolerant species, has expanded its territory and now 

has a range edge between Yakima and Ellensburg as the winters have become warmer in 

the northern California [CROZIER, 2004]. 

Climate 

and 

Geological 

Edaphic 

factors 

Biological 

factors 

Tab. 1. Impacts of global warming on the biophysical aspects 

PARAMETERS POSSIBLE CHANGES 

Temperature Increase 

Precipitation Increase in local rains, decrease in monsoon rains in 

the tropics. Increase in the mid and high altitudes of 

the northern hemisphere 

Humidity Increase 

Cloudiness At high altitude it would be more, leading to positive 

GHE, in sea-surface it would show negative GHE 

Atmospheric and Oceanic 

circulation 

Wind direction to change, westerly to become 

stronger, in both north and south hemisphere, shut 

down of thermohaline and thermocline circulation 

Ice-cap and Glaciers Melting at steady pace, increase in sea level 

Ocean Acidification Acidity will increase 

Drought and 

5-50% increase by 2050 A.D. in the lower 

Desertification 

latitudinally placed regions in the north hemisphere 

Hurricanes, Storms and Will increase with time 

tsunamis 

Compounding Effects Further warming in vicious circle 

Litter Decomposition rate Likely to increase in the colder biomes; in the 

tropical regions, it is likely to increase unto a certain 

limit and then decrease 

Soil Fertility Decrease with increased run-off and high rate of 

erosion 

Soil Moisture Content Will increase in higher altitude and decrease in lower 

altitude (depending upon soil type) 

Species composition Change according to Location, Climatic and Edaphic 

conditions: a. extinction 

b. change in migratory habits and migration to 

suitable sites 

c. habitat fragmentation 

Adaptations in plant 

communities 

a. Phenological 

Stilt roots 

Adaptation 

b. Seed Dispersal Plants likely to adapt themselves to long distance 

Mechanism 

seed-dispersal mechanism. 

Other Adaptations Early blooming, fruiting, shortening of life-span, etc. 

Respiration Rate Increase 

Photosynthesis Rate Increase upto a certain level and then decrease 

183


2. Socio-economic Aspects (Tab. 2) 

Worldwide, hundreds of millions of people would be displaced by the inundation 

of low-lying coastal plains, deltas, and islands in this very century if efforts to reduce the 

GHGs are not successful (Tab. 3). The situation will be grave due to spread of aridity and 

eventually impoverishment [LEGGETT, 1990]. 

Taking into account the composite effect of climate, geology and edaphic factors, 

the agricultural production is likely to be highly affected. The summers of 1988 A.D. was 

recorded to be unusually hot the drought that followed caused a loss of 30% in the grain 

production in North America [IPCC, 1990). 

In many cases the amount of food available to the population at large may not be 

greatly reduced, but certain sectors of the population may be significantly affected in terms 

of entitlement to food, either by reduced income or lack of resources by subsistence 

agriculture [STRZEPEK & SMITH, 1995]. Cities, Hydro-power projects, irrigated 

agriculture, shipping, the various uses of waterways, fish and fisheries, the transport, 

dilution and treatment of sewage, and the circulation of coastal and oceanic water are all 

dependent upon the flow of fresh water from the land. As water resources go on 

diminishing, there is an increased risk of conflicts amongst and within Nations [IPCC, 

1990].With the increase in global warming; there will be a simultaneous increase in natural 

disasters. This, combined with the inter- and intra-national conflicts will cause extreme 

psychological disturbances to the survivors and the people involved in the conflicts 

[CHAMBERLIN, 1980]. 

Financial institutions, including the two largest insurance companies, Munich Re and 

Swiss Re warned that ‘the increasing frequency of severe climatic events, coupled with social 

trends could cost almost US$150 billion in the coming decades’ [UNEP, 2002]. Production of 

non-wood produce from forests will decrease due to insufficient accumulated winter chilling, 

thereby affecting the economy of the tribals severely in India [TEWARI, 1994]. 

During summers the need of the energy will heightened and in winter it is 

speculated to go down, affecting production of energy accordingly, if low and mid latitudes 

of northern hemisphere would become warmer [ROSENBERG & CROSSON, 1991]. 

Climate change will directly or indirectly affect the human health in various ways. 

The distribution of a range of diseases currently confine largely to the tropics, viz., malaria, 

trypanosomiasis, kalaazar, filariasis, and various worm-infestations are correlated to the 

temperature and could be affected by climate change as vectors of these pathogens would 

have an extended habitat range. Distribution of other non-parasitic communicable diseases 

yellow fever, dengue, plague and dysentery is also related to temperature [GILLETT, 

1981]. Development and multiplication of various parasites within their hosts depend on the 

mean ambient temperature [GARNHAM, 1964]. 

Tab. 2. Impacts of global warming on the socio-economic status of human beings 

PARAMETERS POSSIBLE CHANGE 

Human Settlement and Millions of people to become homeless due to inundation of low- 

Society 

lying coastal regions 

Agriculture and Food Production potential of mid and higher latitudes will increase and 

Production 

that of the lower latitudes will decrease in the northern hemisphere 

Food Entitlement Per capita will decrease 

Conflicts between Nations Will rise over sharing resources, particularly water 

Mental health Will deteriorate with increasing natural disasters and conflicts 

184


Tab. 3. Land and population at risk due to 1 meter sea level rise 

Country Land at risk Population at risk 

Sq. Km % Sq. Km % 

Bangladesh 25000 17.5 13 11.0 

Egypt 4200-5250 12-15 6.0 10.7 

Senegal 6042-6073 3.1 0.1-0.2 1.4-2.3 

Malayasia 7000 2.1 NA NA 

Nigeria 18398-18803 2.0 3.2 3.6 

China 125000 1.3 72.0 6.5 

Venezuela 5686-5730 0.6 0.06 0.3 

Uruguay 94 3430-3492 >0.1 NA NA 

TOTAL 194852-196498 - 94.4-94.5 - 

(Source: NICHOLLS & LEATHERMAN, 1995) 

Adaptations 

There are two types of responses to climate change and its consequences: Mitigation 

and Adaptation. Mitigation means retarding or limiting or eradicating the ‘causes’ 

completely; whereas, adaptation means acclimatization to the ‘effects’, rather than the 

causes. Broadly adaptations are of 2 types – ‘Autonomous’ i.e., biophysical adaptation to 

climate change by living organisms and ‘Fostered’ i.e., adaptations driven by policies 

[PARRY & CARTER, 1998]. Again fostered adaptations are of 2 types- ‘Reactive’ 

(policies taken as response to the changes) and ‘Anticipatory’ (policies taken in advance to 

anticipated climate change) [SMITH & al. 1996]. 

Amongst the said steps, anticipatory adaptations policies should be given priority 

as they give maximum assurance in minimizing potential negative impacts of climate 

change advance. 

Why should we go for adaptations? 

Mitigation and adaptation are complementary responses and both are needed to 

offset the effects of climate change on earth. But mitigating measures show many problems 

and have less feasibility during implementation, particularly in cases directly effecting 

economic development as adaptations deals with the impacts rather than the causes, it is 

more realistic. Again, anticipatory adaptations are preferred in case of uncertain and 

irreversible impacts, dependent on climate whose rate of change is very rapid, or threaten 

human health and safety and which may cause risk if we are to follow short term 

approaches depending upon sudden climate extremes (Tab. 4a). Anticipatory policies are to 

be examined before and after implementation to assess net benefit, flexibility, urgency, 

further research and equity and political feasibility (Tab. 4b). 

Anticipatory measures are to be preferred over reactive measures because reactive 

measures cannot offset the negative consequences of climate change, once they occur, 

thereby affecting both biophysical and socio-economic aspects. Besides these (Tab. 4c), 

anticipatory adaptations provide more time to living beings as well as the society to adapt 

themselves to the changing climate. 

185


Tab. 4a. Issues Involved in Determining the Need for Anticipatory Adaptation 

Issues and Concerns Characteristics 

Uncertainty Timing magnitude, direction of climatic change, impacts and their 

results are uncertain [SMIT, 1993] 

Irreversibility Certain impacts cause long term damages that require anticipatory 

adaptation 

Effective life of policy Long term decisions made today may need to be reduced down or 

toned down in future 

Importance of climatic trend Recent knowledge of storms or droughts should be taken into 

consideration to modify the long term anticipatory steps [GLANZ, 

1988] 

Rate of climate change Reactive adaptation to a rapidly changing climate will be more 

difficult than to a gradually changing climate 

Health and safety Anticipatory steps can be said to be effective only if it does not 

harm or affect the health and condition of the ecosystem as a 

whole and jeopardize the safety of its components 

(Source: SMITH & al. 1998) 

Tab. 4b. Criteria involved in Designing and Implementing Anticipatory Policies 

Criteria Properties/ Structures 

Benefit/ 

Cost Analysis 

Discounted benefits of adaptation measures should substantially exceed the 

discounted cost to get the highest priority. A newly designed policy may not 

be appropriate if it does not take into account the special needs, e.g., threat to 

spp. extinction 

Urgency If the rate of change of climate is rapid rather than gradual, then the 

anticipatory policies should be implemented quickly to draw maximum 

benefit from it 

Flexibility It should be flexible enough to enable a resource to adapt itself successfully 

to a wide range of future climatic pattern, since the direction and the 

magnitude of climate change is uncertain 

Use of Planning Small adaptation policies with marginal action on pre-determined policies 

should be used so as to enhance the reacting ability of a resource system to 

climate change, within a low cost range 

Mitigation Effect It should be designed in such a way that it has a dual effect, i.e., these should 

help to mitigate climate-change impact to some extent, simultaneously with 

adaptation to climate change 

Research Appropriate research should be incorporated in the designing of the policy, 

though in case of urgency, there is little scope as it takes years to develop a 

model based on sustained climatic effects on various factors 

Equity and Values Every sector of a society should be treated and considered equally during 

policy designing, irrespective of their economic status. Policies should 

conform to the needs and wants of the human within the limitation of 

resources 

(Source: STRZEPEK & SMITH, 1995) 

186


Tab. 4c. Possible Anticipatory Adaptation Policies in Different Sectors 

Sectors Parameters Possible anticipatory adaptation policies 

Coastal Zone Wetland Preservation Healthy Wetlands are to be preserved so as to store 

Management 

the water of excessive precipitation 

Integrated Development Identification of land areas to be affected by 

climate change and compilation of all data in an 

integrated form 

Improved Coastal Model New and improved model to be made based on the 

prior evaluation of responses 

Land Use Planning Perseverance of landscape, plans for shoreline 

development 

Water Conservation 

Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, etc. are to be 

Resources 

mass introduced by the government in agriculture 

Recycling of sewage water 

Market Allocation Market based allocation of water 

Pollution Control Assurance of quality and safety limits of water 

River Basin Planning Sediment sluicing, maintenance of proper height of 

dam, length of canal, etc. 

International demarcations and compromise on 

common water resources 

Environmental concerns and socio-economic 

factors are to be given due consideration 

Drought Contingency Conservation of wetlands, building of reservoirs, 

Planning 

ensuring efficient water use, prediction of drought 

years, etc. 

Human health Weather/ Health Watch/ Prediction of possible outbreaks of diseases related 

Warning Systems to weather change 

Public health 

Integrated pest management steps to combat large 

Improvement 

scale spread of contagious diseases 

Improvement of Compilation and computation of future outbreaks 

Surveillance System based on previously collected relevant data 

Ecosystem Biodiversity 

Ecological diversity and balance as well as the 

diverse gene pool are to be maintained 

Preservation of endangered spp. ex situ, 

preservation of their natural habitat, artificial 

regeneration 

Afforestation, reforestation and plantation (natural 

CO2 sink) 

Agriculture Protection and 

Enhancement of 

Migration Corridor 

Corridors and buffer-zones around the reserved 

areas should be protected 

Watershed Protection Reforestation of areas in watershed to prevent bank 

erosion, siltation and soil loss 

Irrigation Efficiency Improved irrigation methods are to be adopted to 

decrease water consumption, after computing cost 

benefit analysis 

Development of New Development of better heat and drought tolerant 

Crop-Types 

crops 

(Source: SMITH & TRIPAK, 1989) 

187


Conclusion 

Summing up what we have compiled in this work, we can conclude that it is a fact 

that climatic change due to global warming cannot be denied and already substantial losses 

have been faced with by the earth and its inhabitants. But again there remains extensive 

scope for further research and experimentations into the causes of global warming. Though 

certain impacts are positive, most of them that we see and can estimate are negative and 

pose to be threat to our very civilization on earth. Hence arises, the need to mitigate the 

same and adopt preventive measures. But, once the damage has been done, it becomes 

difficult to restore the situation. Therefore, it is advisable to adopt measures that are in 

anticipation to the changing climate, based on previous records and data of changes on 

earth. Anticipatory adaptive measures provide time and scope for better acclimatization and 

are more practical and feasible with respect to implementation. 

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189

191 

ANIVERSALIA 

PROFESSOR PhD TOADER CHIFU AT THE 75 TH ANNIVERSARY 

Professor PhD Toader CHIFU was born 

in Târnăuca, Jud. Dorohoi (nowadays the locality is 

in Ukraine Republic), on February 27, 1936. 

He started the primary school courses in 

1941 in his origin village Crihăneşti - Târnăuca, but 

because of the war he finished these studies in 1946 

at the Şendriceni Applications School. The 

Secondary School has been realized in Pomârla 

(exception the 7 th year followed in Bucecea). Also in 

Pomârla he followed the courses of the Technical 

Agronomical School (graduated in 1954). After the 

graduate of the secondary school he worked as 

agronomist technician (1954 - 1956). 

In 1956 he became a student in the Natural Sciences – Geography Faculty within 

“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University from Iaşi (graduated in 1960). 

After he graduated the academic studies, he held the assistant function (1960 - 

1965) in the Botany Department of the Biology - Geography - Geology Faculty and since 

1965 until 1968 he worked as a botanist in the Botanic Garden from Iaşi. Since 1968 he 

worked as a Scientifically Researcher in the Geobotany Laboratory within Iaşi Filial of the 

Romanian Academy, and since 1976 worked as a Scientifically Researcher in the 

Biological Research Center from Iaşi, where he was the Chief of the Terrestrial Ecology 

collective. As recognition of the value of his research he was invited to keep courses of 

lectures and research stages in the National Agronomical Institute from Alger (1976-1980) 

in Systematic Botany, Phytogeography, Vegetal Ecology, General and applied biocoenotics 

domains. In 1981 - 1989 periods he gave lectures of Systematic Botany, Tropical and 

Subtropical Flora, Vegetal taxonomy, Photosynthesis and productivity of ecosystems and 

Environment Protection Fundaments in the Faculty of Biology. In 1990 - 1992 he hold the 

Senior Researcher function in the Biological Research Institute from Iaşi, and in 1992 - 

1995 period he hold the Senior Lecturer function within the Vegetal Biology Department of 

the Faculty of Biology from “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University Iaşi. Starting with 1995 

year he is a Professor at the same institution. 

He holds a PhD diploma in Phytosociology - Mycology since 1971 at “Alexandru 

Ioan Cuza” University from Iaşi. Currently he is Consulting Professor and a PhD 

coordinator within the Faculty of Biology Iaşi. 

The research activity of Professor Chifu, as reflected by over than 150 published 

papers and 7 books covers five main directions: mycology and mycocoenology, systematic 

botany, phytosociology, structure and productivity of ecosystems and nature conservation. 

In all of these areas he obtained significant results as: 

• identification of 700 macromycetes taxa from Moldova and Dobrogea 

(approximately 50% from all taxa known in Romania);

• discovery of 20 new macromycetes taxa for Romania; 

• contributions to the chorology of 2.300 cormophytes taxa (1 new for Romania) 

and over 300 coenotaxa (47 new for science: Cembreto - Piceetum abietis Chifu et 

al. 1984; Medicagini - Festucetum valessiacae anthoxanthetosum Chifu et Ştefan 

1978 etc.); 

During field and laboratory research activities professor Chifu collected and 

identified a rich floristic material and initiated a herbarium including vascular plants at the 

Biological Research Institute. Also he contributed to the enrichment of the herbarium 

collections from the Biology Faculty Iaşi (approximate 500 mycological herbarium sheets 

and 400 vascular plants sheets, inclusive species from Algeria). 

He realized documentation trainings in Hungary (1974) and Switzerland (1991). 

Also, he participated to numerous international scientific meetings: Excursion International 

de Phytosociologie en Suisse, Geneva (1991); International Excursion of Phytosociology in 

Apuseni Mountains (1993); Colloque “Végétation et sols de montagnes”, Grenoble - France 

(1996); II-ème Congrè de la Fédération Internationale de Phytosociologie, Bailleul - France 

(1997); XXVIII-ème Colloque Phytosociologique, Camerino - Italy (1998) etc. He 

participated at numerous scientific and didactic excursions in Atlas Mountains (Algeria and 

Morocco), Sahara Dessert (Algeria), Swiss Alps and French Alps, French Central Massif, 

North Sea Shore (France), Pyrenees Mountains (Andorra and France), Apennines 

Mountains (Italy) etc. 

He has, also, received multiple grants for research – 50 research grants as 

responsible or coordinator. Professor Chifu is a distinguished member of the scientific 

board for journals like: Romanian Journal of Biology – Plant Biology (ex Révue Roumaine 

de Biologie, série Biologie végétale); Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii “Alexandru Ioan 

Cuza” Iaşi, s.II.a Biologie vegetală; Cercetări Agronomice din Moldova. 

Professor Chifu is a founder member of the Romanian Phytosociological Society, 

Romanian Mycological Society and Gh. Lupascu Foundation for Science and Culture. He is 

also member in the Ecology Society from Romania, Amicale Internationale de 

Phytosociologie Society (Bailleul – France) and Association pour l'étude de la végétation 

(Uppsala - Sweden). 

This is the didactic and scientific activity realized in his life by Professor Toader 

Chifu. Beyond all these important realizations, Professor Toader Chifu is a man with a high 

moral and professional conduit. All his achievements became possible due to his tenacity, 

perseverance and passion for botany and also due to his family understanding and support. 

The 75 th anniversary represents a jubilee moment both for professor Chifu, for his 

family and also for the entire academic community. On the behalf of all the colleagues from 

the Botanic Garden “Anastasie Fătu” of Iaşi, we wish Professor Toader Chifu a long life, 

good health and all the best for many years to come. 

192 

Happy Anniversary! 

Constantin MARDARI, Cătălin TĂNASE

193 

BOOK REVIEW 

Tatiana Eugenia Şesan & Cătălin Tănase, Phytopatogenic ascomycetes, 2011, Bucureşti University 

Publishing House 

Phytopathogenic Ascomycetes volume represents a new contribution to the updating of 

knowledge on this group of fungi, important both theoretically, but especially from the practical 

perspective, especially targeting those (asco) taxa that are pathogens on crops but also on the 

spontaneous species. This paper is addressing to all those who are training and specializing in 

Phytopathology and Plants Protection domains. 

Thus, the book is a continuation of the author’s project to update the knowledge of plant 

pathology, after the publication in 2007 of the book Anamorphic phytopathogenic fungi, published 

by the same team in the prestigious Publishing House of University from Bucharest. 

Ascomycetes taxonomy, published so far by the same authors [TĂNASE & ŞESAN, 2006; 

ŞESAN & TĂNASE, 2006] based on the Dictionary of the Fungi, IX th edition (2001), has been 

updated in this volume after the new edition of the Dictionary of the Fungi X th edition [KIRK & al. 

2008] and after the book Fungal Families in the world [CANNON & KIRK, 2007], published as an 

annex to the first dictionary. We mention that, besides the recognized difficulty of the taxonomy of 

fungi, in this area have recently been recorded many new results, modern, on which different authors 

have contributed to some changes, clarifications, evaluations and reevaluations that have made 

imperative the updating of the knowledge in this field, actualizations of which the authors of this 

paper wanted to align. In the future, the authors have also in preparation a volume dedicated to 

phytopathogenic basidiomycetes (2012) in order to complete the actualization of the most important 

taxonomic groups of fungi that cause damage to plants. 

The book is divided into eight chapters, starting with general data, fundamental data on the 

macromycetes diversity and on the variability of this group, on the organization and taxonomy of 

phytopathogenic ascomycetes. For each phytopathogenic species are presented the relevant symptoms 

on the host plants, the life cycle, but also elements necessary to prevent and combat the attack. Given 

the applicability of research results in plant protection domain, tables have been prepared with the 

synthetic products plant effective in the protection against every disease, especially useful for 

practitioners. 

Protection measures, prevention measures and control measures have been developed, for 

the diseases produced in crops, forestry, vine cultures, insisting on the un-polluting ones and on the 

biological control of plant diseases means. The paper includes unconventional elements of biological 

control of plant diseases, summarized from the current literature, but especially supported by the 

results obtained over a long career and experience of the authors in the field, confirmed by several 

works published in Romanian and international journals. 

The volume includes 111 figures and 32 tables prepared by the authors and 6 color plates 

with original photographs. The figures illustrates very well the scientific content, the wealth of 

information contained in the book and allow more accurate and more intuitive understanding of the 

knowledge presented. 

A glossary of scientific terms completes the book, to better explain the concepts, to 

understand, learn and use of these terms in the interpretation and evaluation of the achieved results. 

We recommend this book especially to biologists students (from the departments of 

Biology, Ecology and Environmental Protection and Biochemistry), but also to those of the Faculty of 

Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, and amateurs who want to know the main novelty about 

phytopathogenic ascomycetes and how diseases in plant crops can be eradicated. 

Prof. PhD. eng. Eugen ULEA 

“Ion Ionescu de la Brad” USAMV, Iaşi

) 

JOURNAL OF PLANT DEVELOPMENT 

GUIDE TO AUTHORS 

Types of contributions: Original research papers, as well as short communications. Review 

articles will be published following invitation or by the suggestion of authors. "Journal of 

Plant Development" also publishes book reviews, as well as conference reports. 

Submission of a paper implies that it has not been published previously (except in the form 

of an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis), that it is not under 

consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is approved by all authors, and 

that, if accepted, will not be published elsewhere in the same form, in English or in any 

other language, without the written consent of the publisher. 

Authors are requested to submit their original paper and figures in digital format, to the 

Editor-in-Chief. The corresponding author should be indicated with an asterisk. 

Manuscripts must be single-spaced, with wide margins. A font as Times New Roman, 

normal, is required. 

The mirror of the page would be as follows: 13 x 20 cm (top 4.85 cm, bottom 4.85 cm, 

right 4 cm, left 4 cm). 

The papers will be published only in a foreign language, structured as follows: title (the title 

would be also in the romanian language, if it is possible for the authors), authors, affiliation 

of the authors (including e-mails), abstract, keywords, introduction, material and method, 

results & discussions, conclusions, acknowledgements, references. 

Titles would be written with bold, capital letters, 12 points, centered. 

Names and Christian names of the authors would be written with capital letters, 10 points, 

centered. The names would not be abbreviated; each author name would be accompanied 

by a complete address, as a footnote on the first page. 

Abstract: A concise and factual abstract is required (about 100-150 words). The abstract 

should state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major conclusions. 

An abstract is often presented separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. 

References should therefore be avoided, but if essential, they must be cited in full, without 

reference to the reference list. Non-standard or uncommon abbreviations should be avoided 

but, if essential, they should be defined at their first mention in the abstract itself. 

Key Words: few words, the most important ones, after someone could discover your paper 

on the internet engines. 

195

Units: The SI system should be used for all scientific and laboratory data. In certain 

instances, it might be necessary to quote other units. These should be added in parentheses. 

Temperatures should be given in degrees Celsius. 

The main text would be written at a single space, on A4 format page, Times New Roman, 

of 10 points. 

The scientific names of taxa would be italicized. 

Tables should be numbered consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text 

and given suitable captions. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data 

presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. 

Illustrations: photographs, charts and diagrams are all to be referred to as “Figure(s)”, 

should be numbered consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. The 

mentions at the drawings, figures, pictures and tables will be placed inside the round 

brackets – for instance (Fig. 2); (Tab. 2); all illustrations should be clearly marked with the 

figure number and the author’s name. 

Obs.: all the schemes, drawings, etc. would be accompanied by a scale; the pictures must 

be very clear, being accompanied by the explanations. The diagrams should be made in 

Excel; pictures, ink drawings must be saved in JPG, JPEG, or BMP format, having a good 

resolution. 

Other than the cover page, every page of the manuscript, including the title page, 

references, tables etc. should be numbered; however, no reference should be made in the 

text to page numbers. 

All publications cited in the text should be presented in a list of references following the 

text of the manuscript. In the text, references are made using the author (s) name of a 

certain paper (e.g.: other authors [GÉHU, 2006] mentioned that…). The full reference 

should be given in a numerical list in the end of the paper. References should be given 

inside the square brackets. 

Obs.: if there are two authors only, there must be written down both names (ex. [BOX & 

MANTHEY, 2006]); if there are more authors, there would be written the first author 

followed by “& al.” (ex. [AMORFINI & al. 2006]). 

References 

For scientific papers: the name of the author (s) would be given in capital letters. The 

Christian name (s) would be abbreviated. Before the last but one and the last author you 

must insert the sign “&”. In the reference list you must mention all the authors of a certain 

paper. 

The year of a paper publication is put after the author (s). 

Title: it should be fully written. The title of a book is written in italics. Between the year 

and the title we recommend to be inserted a dot sign. Next to it is the town and the 

publishing house of it (for books) or the periodical for papers. For periodicals, the 

abbreviations would be according to the international standards (BRIDSON & SMITH, 

1991 or BROWN & STRATTON (eds), 1963-1965). Each periodical name is to be written 

196

in italics. A certain volume must be given in bolds. After it is placed the number of the 

issue, inserted between the round brackets; next to it would be inserted the page numbers of 

the paper. 

For books, after the title, is placed the name of the town, the publishing house and the 

number of pages. 

The chapter in books: author (s), year, title, pages, a dot sign, followed by “In”: author (s) 

of the book, city, publishing house, number of pages. 

Serial papers or chapters in serial papers: like the previous, but with the specification of 

the serial volume. 

Obs.: it is compulsory that all the papers from the reference list to be cited in the 

manuscript. The punctuation signs would not be in bold or italics. The references should be 

written in alphabetic order only. If a certain author has more papers with other contributors, 

the papers would be given also in alphabetic order (and not after the year of appearance). 

The number of a volume, the issue etc. would be given with Arabian numbers. 

Examples of papers quotation: 

References for papers in periodicals: 

CIOCÂRLAN V. 2008. Lathyrus linifolius (Reichard) Bässler in the Romanian flora. J. 

Plant Develop., 15: 3-6. 

MEHREGAN I. & KADEREIT J. W. 2008. Taxonomic revision of Cousinia sect. 

Cynaroideae (Asteraceae, Cardueae). Willdenowia. 38(2): 293-362. 

References for books: 

BOŞCAIU N. 1971. Flora şi Vegetaţia Munţilor Ţarcu, Godeanu şi Cernei. Bucureşti: 

Edit. Acad. Române, 494 pp. 

HILLIER J. & COOMBES A. 2004. The Hillier Manual of Trees & Shrubs. Newton 

Abbot, Devon, England: David & Charles, 512 pp. 

Serials: 

JALAS J. SUOMINEN J. LAMPINEN R. & KURTTO A. (eds). 1999. Atlas Florae 

Europaeae. Distribution of vascular plants in Europe. Vol. 12. Resedaceae to Platanaceae. 

Helsinki: Committee for Mapping the Flora of Europe and Societas Biologica Fennica 

Vanamo. Maps 2928-3270, 250 pp., ill (maps), ISBN 951-9108. 

TUTIN T. G., BURGES N. A., CHATER A. O., EDMONDSON J. R., HEYWOOD V. H., 

MOORE D. M., VALENTINE D. H., WALTERS S. M. & WEBB D. A. (eds, assist. by J. 

R. AKEROYD & M. E. NEWTON; appendices ed. by R. R. MILL). 1996. Flora 

Europaea. 2nd ed., 1993, reprinted 1996. Vol. 1. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae. Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press, xlvi, 581 pp., illus. ISBN 0-521-41007-X (HB). 

Chapters in books: 

†TUTIN T. G. 1996. Helleborus L. Pp. 249-251. In: †T. G. TUTIN et al. (eds). Flora 

Europaea. 2nd ed., 1993, reprinted 1996. Vol. 1. Psilotaceae to Platanaceae. Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press, xlvi, 581 pp., illus. ISBN 0-521-41007-X (HB). 

197

Short Communications: follow the same format as for the full papers, except that 

the Results and Discussion section (these should be combined). Manuscripts should not 

exceed 2000 words. 

Special Issues: Proposals for Special Issues of full research papers that focus on a 

specific topic or theme will be considered. 

Proofs will be sent to the corresponding author and should be returned within 48 

hours of receipt. Corrections should be restricted to typesetting errors. All queries should be 

answered. 

A review would not exceed an A4 format page. 

Manuscripts should be sent to: 

E-mail: gbot.is@uaic.ro 

or 

E-mail: ana.cojocariu@uaic.ro 

© Botanic Garden “Anastasie Fatu” Iasi, 2010 

All rights (including translation into foreign languages) reserved. Except for the 

abstracts and keywords, no part of this issue may be reproduced, without the prior written 

permission of the publisher. 

198

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