Partridges, Quails, Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys

Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004 

Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, 

Guineafowl, and Turkeys 

Edited by Richard A. Fuller, John P. Carroll, and 

Philip J.K. McGowan on behalf of WPA/BirdLife/SSC 

Partridge, Quail and Francolin Specialist Group

Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004 

Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, 


Edited by Richard A. Fuller, John P. Carroll, and 

Philip J.K. McGowan on behalf of WPA/BirdLife/SSC 

Partridge, Quail, and Francolin Specialist Group

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion 

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The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN. 

Published by: 

IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, and the World Pheasant Association, Reading, UK. 

Copyright: 

© 2000 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 

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Fuller, R.A., Carroll, J.P., and McGowan, P.J.K. (eds.). (2000). Partridges, Quails, Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and 

Turkeys. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004. WPA/BirdLife/SSC Partridge, Quail, and Francolin 

Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, and the World Pheasant Association, Reading, UK. vii + 

63 pp. 

2-8317-0538-X 

Bearded Wood-partridge. Found only at a few sites in Mexico, this species is under continuing threat from habitat clearance 

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ii

Contents 

Foreword .......................................................................v 

Acknowledgements .......................................................vi 

Executive Summary .....................................................vii 

Chapter 1. The Conservation of Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys ..........1 

1.1 Introduction ...........................................................1 

1.2 Information on partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys ......................1 

Species included in the Action Plan ........................1 

Distribution and general biology ............................ 1 

1.3 Relationship with humans ...................................... 2 

1.4 Other sources of information on partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys ..... 3 

1.5 Background to the second edition .......................... 3 

Who are we? – the PQF Specialist Group .............. 3 

Updating the Partridge, Quail, Francolin, 

Snowcock, Guineafowl, and Turkey Action Plan ... 4 

1.6 Threats to the survival of partridges, quails, 


Habitat loss and degradation .................................4 

Hunting .................................................................. 6 

Effect of agricultural chemicals .............................. 6 

Disturbance ............................................................6 

Threatened subspecies and populations ................. 6 

Summary of the threat status of partridges, quails, 


1.7 Actions for the conservation of partridges, quails, 


Clarifying taxonomic units ..................................... 7 

Gathering basic information ..................................7 

Making conservation recommendations................. 8 

Types of conservation recommendations ............... 9 

Implementing conservation recommendations ..... 12 

Monitoring effects of conservation action ............ 12 

Summary of conservation action .......................... 12 

Chapter 2. Summary of the Conservation Status of 

Partridges, Quails, Francolins, Snowcocks, 

Guineafowl, and Turkeys ............................................. 15 

2.1 Critically Endangered Species .............................. 15 

2.2 Endangered Species .............................................. 17 

2.3 Vulnerable Species ................................................ 18 

2.4 Lower Risk Species ............................................... 20 

Chapter 3. Species Accounts ........................................ 26 

3.1 Critically Endangered Species .............................. 26 

Djibouti francolin (Francolinus ochropectus) ........ 26 

Himalayan quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) .............. 27 

Gorgeted wood-quail 

(Odontophorus strophium) ..................................... 27 

3.2 Endangered Species .............................................. 28 

Nahan’s francolin (Francolinus nahani) ................ 28 

Mount Cameroon francolin 

(Francolinus camerunensis) ................................... 29 

Sichuan hill-partridge (Arborophila rufipectus) .... 29 

Orange-necked hill-partridge 

(Arborophila davidi) .............................................. 30 

Chestnut-headed hill-partridge 

(Arborophila cambodiana) ..................................... 30 

3.3 Vulnerable Species ................................................ 31 

Swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis) ................. 31 

Harwood’s francolin (Francolinus harwoodi) ........ 32 

Grey-striped francolin 

(Francolinus griseostriatus) ................................... 32 

Swierstra’s francolin (Francolinus swierstrai) ....... 33 

Black wood-partridge (Melanoperdix nigra) ......... 33 

Manipur bush-quail (Perdicula manipurensis) ...... 34 

Udzungwa forest-partridge 

(Xenoperdix udzungwensis) ................................... 34 

Chestnut-breasted hill-partridge 

(Arborophila mandellii) ......................................... 35 

White-necklaced hill-partridge 

(Arborophila gingica) ............................................ 36 

Hainan hill-partridge (Arborophila ardens) .......... 36 

White-faced hill-partridge 

(Arborophila orientalis) ......................................... 37 

Bearded wood-partridge 

(Dendrortyx barbatus)........................................... 37 

Black-fronted wood-quail 

(Odontophorus atrifrons) ....................................... 38 

Dark-backed wood-quail 

(Odontophorus melanonotus) ................................. 39 

Tacarcuna wood-quail 

(Odontophorus dialeucos) ...................................... 39 

White-breasted guineafowl 

(Agelastes meleagrides) ......................................... 39 

Chapter 4. Five-Year Plan of Action ............................ 41 

4.1 Global projects ..................................................... 41 

Project 1. Increasing the effectiveness of the 

PQF Specialist Group........................................... 41 

Project 2. Improving communication of 

research findings ................................................... 42 

4.2 Regional projects .................................................. 43 

Project 3. Maintaining the WPA Asian 

Galliformes sites database .................................... 43 

Project 4. Assessing the taxonomic and 

conservation status of the Andean 

wood-quails Odontophorus ................................... 43 

iii

Project 5. Assessing the conservation status of 

Neotropical quails in northern Central America ... 44 

Project 6. Assessing populations of Asian 

Galliformes within protected areas....................... 44 

Project 7. Review of information on 

IndoChinese partridges ........................................ 44 

Project 8. Surveys for threatened partridges 

in Sumatra ............................................................ 45 

Project 9. Surveys for threatened partridges 

in Borneo .............................................................. 45 

4.3 Strategic project .................................................... 46 

Project 10. Taxonomic reassessment of some 

partridges and New World quails ......................... 46 

4.4 Projects for Critically Endangered and 

Endangered species ............................................... 47 

Project 11. Djibouti Francolin 

(Francolinus ochropectus) ...................................... 47 

Project 12. Nahan’s francolin 

(Francolinus nahani) .............................................. 47 

Project 13. Mount Cameroon francolin 

(Francolinus camerunensis) ................................... 48 

Project 14. Sichuan hill-partridge 

(Arborophila rufipectus) ........................................ 48 

Project 15. Orange-necked hill-partridge 

(Arborophila davidi) .............................................. 49 

Project 16. Chestnut-headed hill-partridge 

(Arborophila cambodiana) ..................................... 49 

Project 17. Himalayan quail 

(Ophrysia superciliosa) .......................................... 50 

Project 18. Gorgeted wood-quail 

(Odontophorus strophium) ..................................... 50 

4.5 Projects for Vulnerable species ............................. 50 

Project 19. Swamp francolin 

(Francolinus gularis).............................................. 50 

Project 20. Manipur bush-quail 

(Perdicula manipurensis) ....................................... 51 

Project 21. Hainan hill-partridge 

(Arborophila ardens) ............................................. 51 

Project 22. Bearded wood-partridge 

(Dendrortyx barbatus)........................................... 52 

References ................................................................... 53 

Appendix 1. List of Contacts ....................................... 59 

Appendix 2. Captive Populations of Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys ........ 60 

iv

Foreword 

The WPA/BirdLife/SSC Partridge, Quail, and Francolin 

Specialist Group has been in existence since 1991 and has 

made phenomenal strides in understanding populations 

and threats to the 140+ species in this group. The Specialist 

Group (SG) has been involved with the World Pheasant 

Association and the Pheasant Specialist Group in two 

International Galliformes Conferences in Pakistan and 

Malaysia. A third is planned for the year 2000 in Nepal. In 

addition, the SG co-sponsored a workshop on Latin 

American Galliformes with the Cracid Specialist Group. 

We have undertaken some re-organisation of the SG to 

better reflect the diverse membership of the group, which 

presently represents 40+ countries. Most recently, the SG 

has added the Meleagridae (North American turkeys) to 

the rather eclectic group of species we already administer 

(partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, and guineafowl). 

One of the most important undertakings of this group 

was the publication of the first Action Plan in 1995. What 

many of us found in compiling that plan was that we knew 

very little about many of the species we were supposed to 

be helping. The effort also allowed members of the SG and 

others to focus on particular species or groups of species, 

or even regions for research and conservation efforts. 

Although many of our assessments were based on poor 

data and are probably off base, I believe that effort was 

worthwhile because we gave people a starting point and 

some frames of reference. 

Now, the first Action Plan has reached the end of its 

life. Holding to our desire to have the plan be a living 

document rather than something static, we developed the 

second five-year plan. This new effort has demonstrated 

how far we have come. A number of species, such as the 

bearded wood-partridge of Mexico and the Nahan’s 

francolin of Uganda, were virtually unknown in 1995. The 

latter has now been the subject of an intensive Ph.D. study 

and now probably ranks as one of the better-studied 

tropical species. The former was thought to be Critically 

Endangered in 1995, but has now been downgraded because 

a number of new populations has been found. 

The new Action Plan also reflects evolving philosophies. 

Our collaboration with BirdLife in the recent publication 

of Threatened Birds of the World and their forthcoming 

Threatened Birds of Asia, as well as our closer collaboration 

on production of the Action Plan has helped to eliminate 

redundancy in conservation assessments. In addition, this 

has helped use the resources available to the two groups 

more efficiently. Finally, the Action Plan effort has forced 

us to think about issues that are important for conservation 

of these species. Not all have been resolved but, hopefully, 

progress has been made. Questions, such as what to do 

about subspecies or how to approach sustainable harvest 

issues, and issues of species management versus ecosystem 

management still need more work. 

This Action Plan is meant to be used as a tool. I urge 

anyone who reads it to think about it in that way and 

consider how he or she might use it to accomplish its 

purpose, which is the conservation of partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys. Please 

use it to help focus research or conservation projects, use 

it to help obtain funding, and, most of all please use the 

knowledge that you obtain to help us produce an even 

better Action Plan in the future. 

Dr. John P. Carroll, Chair, IUCN-SSC/BirdLife/WPA 

Partridge, Quail, and Francolin Specialist Group, Daniel 

B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of 

Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. 

v

Acknowledgements 

This Action Plan is based on information, expertise, and 

advice contributed by many members of the Partridge, 

Quail, and Francolin (PQF) Specialist Group and others 

interested in the conservation of partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys. We are 

extremely grateful to BirdLife International for providing 

species accounts from their landmark publication 

Threatened Birds of the World and the forthcoming 

Threatened Birds of Asia, developed through an extensive 

review process involving the BirdLife Partnership, the 

PQF Specialist Group, the World Pheasant Association, 

and a worldwide network of ornithologists co-ordinated 

by the BirdLife Secretariat. We have benefited greatly 

from this fruitful collaboration with BirdLife and look 

forward to continuing our relationship. We thank everyone 

who contributed information and opinions during the 

process of reviewing the species accounts and, in particular, 

would like to thank the members of the BirdLife Secretariat 

team at Cambridge: Dave Capper, Nigel Collar, Mike 

Crosby, Pete Davidson, Isabel Isherwood, Malcolm 

Starkey, Sue Shutes, Alison Stattersfield, and Joe Tobias. 

In addition, Alison Stattersfield provided sensitive coordination 

and communication throughout the process. 

The World Pheasant Association provided logistical 

and financial support during the preparation of this Action 

Plan, including funds for the employment of Richard 

Fuller. 

We are particularly grateful to the following for 

contributing and reviewing text: Nicholas Aebischer, 

Robert Atkins, Leon Bennun, Simon Dowell, Christine 

Dranzoa, Jack Clinton Eitniear, Jonathan Eames, Steve 

Edwards, Luo Hong-Ren, Carol Inskipp, Salim Javed, 

Rahul Kaul, Guy Kirwan, Rab Nawaz, Roald Potapov, 

Gary Robbins, Alfred Simiyu, Manon Tentij, Xianji Wen, 

and Gao Yu-ren. 

To the following, we extend our thanks for advice and 

information received during the course of the compiling 

process: Martin Adamian, Ashfaque Ahmed, Han Assink, 

Donald Bruning, Françoise Burhenne, Keith Chalmers- 

Watson, Susie Ellis, Jon Fjeldså, Peter Flint, Peter Garson, 

Dipankar Ghose, Anne-Marie Gillesberg, Mariano 

Gimenez-Dixon, Jeff Gordon, Graham Hall, Alain 

Hennache, Derek Holmes, Keith Howman, Linette 

Humphrey, N. Krabbe, Suresh Kumar, Anni Lukács, 

Georgina Mace, L. Olarte, Derek Pomeroy, Asad Rahmani, 

Ettore Randi, L. Renfijo, Alison Rosser, Christine 

Sheppard, S. Sathyakumar, C. Sharpe, Pratap Singh, Pritpal 

Singh Soorae, Simon Tonge, Jack Tordoff, Bas van Balen, 

Roland van Bocxstaele, Carola von Conrad, Rebecca Webb, 

Geoff and Hilary Welch, Roger Wilkinson, Nurul Winarni, 

Mengistu Wondafrash, Lu Xin, and Zhang Zhengwang. 

We would also like to thank Lynx Edicions for granting 

us permission to use the fine illustrations from their 

Handbook of Birds of the World to accompany this 

document. We are also grateful to David Mead for other 

illustrations. 

Bearded wood-partridge. This Vulnerable species is confined to a 

few sites in eastern Mexico. 

Illustration: David Mead 

vi

Executive Summary 

This Action Plan covers the partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, a group of nearly 

150 ground-dwelling gamebirds found in every continent 

apart from Antarctica. They live in a wide variety of 

habitats from tropical forests, high-altitude alpine zones, 

temperate forests, and open country of various kinds, to 

desert environments. Although they are very widespread, 

little is known about the species occurring outside Europe 

and North America. Several species are considered to be 

at grave risk of extinction, while others are so poorly 

known that it is difficult to evaluate their conservation 

needs. In 1995, the first Action Plan for the conservation 

of partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, and 

guineafowl was published, and this document provides an 

update on the current situation. The objectives of this 

document are to identify the most threatened species 

within this group (Chapters 2 and 3), and prioritise the 

conservation action needed to protect them by outlining 

project briefs for the most urgent cases (Chapter 4). 

This plan of action will be distributed to biologists, 

conservationists, politicians, policy-makers, government 

officials, educators, planners, grant-awarding bodies, and 

commercial concerns that are in a position to help. The 

greatest threats to the future survival of these fascinating 

birds are habitat loss, hunting of wild populations, and 

disturbance. Much can be done at the local level, although 

national and international support will prove helpful in 

some cases. This means that the projects in Chapter 4 

should be considered by those with local influence in the 

areas concerned, as well as by national officials and 

politicians. The full co-operation and involvement of local 

people is fundamental to the success of any conservation 

project. 

Chapter 1 gives an overview of the partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, outlines 

the major threats they face, and suggests possible ways to 

help protect them. It is intended as a broad introduction, 

and will be particularly useful to those unfamiliar with the 

group and conservation methods in general. Chapter 2 

summarises the threat status of each species. The species 

identified as threatened are considered in more detail in 

Chapter 3, which gives information on distribution, threats, 

and possible conservation measures for each species. 

Chapter 4 is the most important part of the document 

and contains details of practical work that is most urgently 

required to help protect each of the threatened species. 

There is a great variety of work proposed, from smallscale 

surveys suitable for university students carrying out 

short-term fieldwork, to more in-depth research 

programmes requiring much greater financial and logistical 

resources. Governments and politicians can use these 

larger projects as a basis for high-profile conservation 

initiatives, either alone or in conjunction with other 

conservation projects in the region. In any case, we 

recommend that researchers wishing to undertake any of 

these projects should develop their ideas in consultation 

with policy-makers, government officials, grant-awarding 

bodies, and the PQF Specialist Group. 

The PQF Specialist Group is pleased to report a large 

increase in the amount and quality of conservation work 

since production of the first Action Plan in 1995, but many 

species remain highly threatened and little known in the 

wild. The PQF Specialist Group will continue to do its best 

to stimulate follow up of this Action Plan and will be 

pleased to advise on its implementation. We look forward 

to its continued success as a conservation tool. 

vii

Chapter 1 

The Conservation of Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys 

1.1 Introduction 

In 1995, the first Action Plan for the partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, and guineafowl was produced and 

provided a comprehensive review of status and outlines for 

conservation action. During the five-year implementation 

period of that Action Plan, a large volume of work on these 

species has been undertaken. The purposes of this update 

are: 

• to provide a new overview statement on the conservation 

of partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, 

and turkeys worldwide (Chapter 1); 

• to integrate this material into revised threat assessments 

(Chapter 2); 

• to justify why certain species are priorities for 

conservation effort through updated species accounts 

(Chapter 3); 

• to suggest a new set of conservation projects with 

international priority (Chapter 4). 

This document has been prepared on the basis of the most 

recent information available during 1999, and the projects 

listed are intended for implementation during 2000–2004. 

It, therefore, supersedes the 1995 Action Plan, although 

some general information is repeated for new readers. This 

document provides specific conservation assessments and 

interpretation of conservation-related information, and 

the reader should not expect it to be a full account of the 

biology of this group of birds. 

Every effort has been made to gather information and 

opinion that is up-to-date, from published and unpublished 

literature, and from correspondence and discussions with 

people currently involved worldwide in the conservation of 

partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and 

turkeys, and their habitats. Wherever possible, all 

substantive statements are supported with references to the 

literature. As in the first edition of the Action Plan, a large 

amount of information has been reviewed and the 

originators and others have checked all suggested plans for 

action. The PQF Specialist Group is, therefore, confident 

that this plan has the full backing of its international 

network of members and that many of the proposed actions 

will be initiated within the five-year implementation period. 

During 2004, the contents of this Action Plan will again 

be reviewed and updated, and a third edition drafted to 

cover the period 2005–2009. 

1.2 Information on partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys 

Species included in the Action Plan 

This Action Plan covers the partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys of the world. These 

birds belong to the avian order Galliformes, which contains 

all the birds often referred to as gamebirds: the megapodes 

(Megapodiidae), cracids (Cracidae), guineafowl 

(Numididae), New World quails (Odontophoridae), 

turkeys (Meleagrididae), grouse (Tetraonidae), and 

partridges, Old World quails, and pheasants (Phasianidae). 

Second edition Action Plans for megapodes (Dekker et al. 

2000) and pheasants (Fuller and Garson 2000) are being 

published, while Action Plans for Cracids (Strahl and 

Brooks 2000) and grouse (Storch 2000) have already come 

off the press. This means that all Galliformes species are 

now covered by Action Plans. 

For further details of the various taxonomic treatments 

of these species, see Peters (1934), Johnsgard (1973), Urban 

et al. (1986), Johnsgard (1988), Sibley and Ahlquist (1990), 

Crowe et al. (1992), del Hoyo et al. (1994), and Bloomer 

and Crowe (1998). A recent study tracing the evolutionary 

history of Phasianid birds using DNA analysis has 

concluded that the pheasants and partridges may not be 

separate natural groups (Kimball et al. 1999). With a few 

exceptions for the English names, the species taxonomy 

and names used in this Action Plan follow that of Sibley 

and Monroe (1990, 1993), which has also been adopted as 

standard by BirdLife International (BirdLife International, 

2000). There are 106 species of Old World partridges, 

quails, francolins, and snowcocks, 31 species of New 

World quail, six species of guineafowl, and two turkeys, 

for a total of 145 species. A complete list of the species 

considered in this Action Plan is given in Chapter 2, to 

which the reader should refer for scientific names. 

Distribution and general biology 

The partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, 

and turkeys are an ecologically diverse group of birds with 

a worldwide distribution, excluding the polar regions. The 

New World quails are distributed from southern Canada 

through Central America to central South America; the 

1

Isthmus of Panama contains the highest diversity of genera. 

The Old World partridges and quails are found throughout 

the Old World, except Saharan Africa, extreme northern 

Europe, northern Siberia, and the Australian interior. 

Many areas have two or more genera present. The northeast 

Indian Subcontinent contains five genera, and various 

major land masses in Southeast Asia are home to six or 

seven (del Hoyo et al. 1994). The six guineafowl species 

occur only in Africa and Arabia (Urban et al. 1986). 

Given their widespread distribution, it is not surprising 

that partridges and their allies can be found in virtually 

every terrestrial habitat. Only polar and boreal forest 

ecosystems lack representatives from the group. They 

occur in open country and in closed forest habitats. Open 

habitats in which these species are found include tropical 

open country (e.g., grey-breasted francolin), deserts (e.g., 

see-see partridge, Gambel’s quail), temperate open country 

(e.g., grey partridge), and high-altitude alpine zones (e.g., 

Tibetan snowcock). They are also found in forested 

habitats, such as lowland tropical rainforest (e.g., crested 

wood-partridge, white-breasted guineafowl), montane 

tropical forest (e.g., red-billed hill-partridge and 

Venezuelan wood-quail), subtropical forests (e.g., Sichuan 

hill-partridge), and temperate forests (e.g., wild turkey). 

Our level of knowledge and understanding of the vast 

majority of partridges and their allies is poor, although 

much work is being undertaken to address this issue. In 

contrast to most taxa, a few of the partridge and quail 

species have enjoyed high profiles as popular sporting and 

table birds, most notably the grey partridge and the redlegged 

partridge in Europe, and the northern bobwhite in 

North America. These species have been the subject of 

considerable research, initially on account of their 

economic importance, but more recently because of marked 

declines across much of their ranges. The northern 

bobwhite quail alone has been the subject of over 3000 

Tawny-faced quail. Although considered at Lower Risk, there is 

little information available on this species. 


publications (Church and Taylor 1992). This interest has 

led to significant gains in our knowledge of the ecology 

and population dynamics of certain temperate species that 

can occasionally (but not always) be usefully applied to 

other, less well-known species. Over the five-year 

implementation period of the first Action Plan, much 

excellent work has been undertaken on previously littleknown 

species in the form of surveys and other field 

projects, and there is now a need to consolidate this 

material for publication (see Project 2 in Section 4.1). 

However, other species, particularly those from remote 

mountain and tropical areas, remain very poorly known, 

and, in some cases, there is still virtually no information on 

any aspect of their biology in the wild (e.g., buff-throated 

partridge, Schlegel’s banded francolin). 

1.3 Relationship with humans 

Galliformes and humans have been closely associated 

throughout much of history. Chiefly terrestrial birds, they 

are easily trapped, and their meat and eggs provide rich 

sources of protein. Thirty-five species of partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys have been 

introduced to locations outside their natural range for 

purposes as diverse as ornamental collections, recreation, 

sport, and production of meat (Long 1981). 

Since the red-legged partridge was introduced in Britain 

in the 18th century, it has become a widespread and 

common species (Gibbons et al. 1993). Every year, of the 

nearly two million birds released in the UK, about 450,000 

are shot. In southwestern Europe, the overall annual bag 

may be as high as 10 million. Shooting is a very popular 

sport in Europe and, with over nine million hunters, it 

represents a major economic interest (Aebischer 1997a). 

Although not all species in this group have been 

introduced or domesticated, many are exploited to some 

degree in their native ranges, usually for meat consumption 

and sport. This can range from low-intensity, subsistence 

hunting to levels supporting local economies through 

sustainable use programmes. For example, sustainable 

hunting programmes of the grey-winged francolin in South 

Africa yield up to US$40 per bird to the farmer (Simiyu 

1998). 

Partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, 

and turkeys, therefore, yield significant material benefits 

to human populations (both locally and internationally), 

and this raises the possibility of harnessing these benefits 

for conservation purposes. If sufficient economic incentives 

can be gained through harvesting and managing these 

populations in a sustainable manner, these species may be 

safeguarded in the long term. In addition to material 

benefits, partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys also have impacted on human 

cultural and social life for centuries, and many species 

2

guineafowl held in Pakistan (1992) and Malaysia (1997). 

Proceedings have been produced following these symposia, 

as Jenkins (1993) and Carroll et al. (1998). The papers 

these proceedings contain provide original information 

on aspects of these species’ biology, and especially on their 

conservation status. 

Forktail (published by the Oriental Bird Club) and 

Bird Conservation International (published by BirdLife 

International) regularly carry papers with a regional 

emphasis. National Park checklists, etc. and other accounts 

of recent work can be found in the Annual Review of the 

World Pheasant Association (formerly the Journal of the 

World Pheasant Association). 

Northern bobwhite. A species of great economic importance, over 

20,000 are harvested anually in the U.S.A. 

have become intertwined with the arts, religion, customs, 

and folklore. In India, for example, grey and black 

francolins have been used in cock fighting for hundreds of 

years. The practice is still widespread, especially in rural 

areas, but becoming more uncommon (S. Javed in litt.). 

1.4 Other sources of information on 

partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys 

Information on natural history, ecology, and behaviour of 

the species covered in this Action Plan can be found in 

Johnsgard’s (1988) monograph, Potts (1986), and Hudson 

and Rands (1988), while a comprehensive account of the 

biology of all Galliformes can found in del Hoyo et al. 

(1994, pp. 412–567). Detailed regional, national, and other 

avifaunal accounts are also available, including those by 

Blake (1977), Fjeldså and Krabbe (1990), and Hilty and 

Brown (1986) for the Neotropics, the Birds of North America 

series (eds. Poole and Gill, series ongoing) for North 

America, Cramp and Simmons (1980) for the Western 

Palearctic, Urban et al. (1986) for Africa, Ali and Ripley 

(1983) for South Asia, Cheng Tso-hsin (1987) for China, 

Grimmett et al. (1998) for the Indian Subcontinent, Wells 

(1999) for the Thai-Malay Peninsula, van Marle and Voous 

(1988) for Sumatra, Smythies (1981) for Borneo, Smythies 

(1986) for Burma, Lekagul and Round (1991) for Thailand, 

and Marchant and Higgins (1993) for Australia. 

In addition, there have been two international symposia 

including partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, and 


1.5 Background to the second 

edition 

Who are we? – the PQF specialist Group 

In 1991, The Game Conservancy Trust, jointly with the 

World Pheasant Association (WPA), hosted a symposium 

on partridges, quails, and francolins at their headquarters 

in Fordingbridge, England. It culminated in a decision to 

form a Specialist Group, affiliated to the Species Survival 

Commission of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), 

the International Council for Bird Preservation (now 

BirdLife International), and WPA, to deal with these 

much-neglected species. The Partridge, Quail, and 

Francolin Specialist Group (PQF Specialist Group) 

initially comprised the symposium delegates, but by 1999 

had grown into an international network of nearly 200 

specialists from 43 countries. The PQF Specialist Group 

has an Exective Committee that discusses issues by e-mail. 

There is also a wider committee of regional co-ordinators 

around the world. 

The main purpose of the PQF Specialist Group is to 

promote the conservation of smaller Galliformes and 

encourage additional research into their sustainable use. 

The production and revision of the Action Plans has been 

a major manifestation of this role. Although the group has 

no funding directives, there is a proposal mechanism to 

allow researchers and conservationists to formally elicit 

support for specific projects. The Specialist Group has 

already assisted a number of principal investigators by 

making connections to funding organisations. Several 

funding bodies require PQF Specialist Group approval of 

projects before providing financial support. 

The PQF Specialist Group always welcomes new 

members, and is open to anyone with a professional or 

amateur interest in the conservation biology of the smaller 

Galliformes. The Specialist Group produces a newsletter 

twice yearly and has a web page at http://www.gameconservancy.org.uk/pqf/ 

(see Appendix 1 for contact 

details). 

3

Updating the Partridge, Quail, Francolin, 

Snowcock, Guineafowl, and Turkey 

Action Plan 

The content of this Action Plan has built on that assembled 

for the 1995 edition (McGowan et al. 1995, see also 

McGowan et al. 1998), and has been reviewed by active 

researchers across the world through the network 

maintained by the PQF Specialist Group and BirdLife 

International. Each species has been assigned to a threat 

category based on the IUCN Red List Categories (IUCN 

1994). This system of categorising threatened species, 

which has been adopted globally for expressing status 

information, was developed to provide a consistent 

and objective way of assessing threat levels. In order to 

provide a complete overview of the status of all partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, a 

section giving conservation assessments was produced 

(see Chapter 2). 

The species accounts in Chapter 3 were produced in 

close co-operation with BirdLife International to a 

standard format for Threatened Birds of the World (BirdLife 

International 2000), the latest global assessment of the 

status of threatened birds. Texts for Asian species have 

been derived from Threatened Birds of Asia (BirdLife 

International in prep.), a more detailed assessment of the 

status and conservation requirements of Asian birds. 

The accounts were designed to explain why each 

species has been placed in a particular threat category by 

reference to information on their past and present 

distributions, estimated population size and trend, and 

identified threats. Any work in progress is mentioned, and 

a set of explicit conservation targets has been developed 

for each species. 

The final and most important part of the action planning 

process involved the selection and preparation of a series 

of project briefs. Through an assessment of progress on all 

projects proposed in the 1995 Action Plan, we have 

investigated the effectiveness of the first document. The 

results of this assessment are given in Chapter 4. Based on 

that experience, we provide outlines for a new set of 

priority projects for execution within the period 2000– 

2004. These projects generally follow directly from those 

targets given in the species accounts in Chapter 3. We 

suggest a variety of project types involving status surveys, 

taxonomic clarification, intensive research, population 

monitoring, habitat protection and management, and 

conservation awareness programmes. Suggested projects 

for each species are written in a standard format stressing 

the aims, justification, and means of implementation. 

Each outline includes details of objectives, methods to be 

employed, and estimated timescale and resources required. 

They should be used in conjunction with the threatened 

species accounts in Chapter 3 to develop full project 

proposals. 

1.6 Threats to the survival of 



Threats to partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys are many and varied, and 

frequently a species is subject to two or more pressures 

simultaneously. This section provides background on the 

major types of threat faced by partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, an overview of the 

severity of different threats, and gives specific examples to 

illustrate how they are affecting particular species. 

Habitat loss and degradation 

Habitat loss is suspected to be causing a decline in the vast 

majority of the threatened species covered in this plan and 

is, by far, the most widespread and damaging threat to 

partridge, quail, francolin, snowcock, guineafowl, and 

turkey species. It takes many forms. Areas of habitat may 

be destroyed, for example, through deforestation. Habitats 

may be degraded through intensive livestock grazing, 

gradually encroached upon through urban or agricultural 

expansion, or modified through human activities such as 

selective removal of vegetation for firewood, commercial 

purposes, or for food. More than one of these forms of 

habitat disturbance may affect one area simultaneously, 

or they may act one after another. 

This section examines the most serious forms of habitat 

loss and change. These are complete habitat destruction 

and the fragmentation of a species’ geographic range that 

often results, and habitat degradation, where vegetation is 

not completely destroyed, but its quality is significantly 

reduced. 

Habitat destruction is characterised by complete 

removal of the existing vegetational structure. For species 

dependent on forests, the complete removal of all trees in 

an area (deforestation) causes a catastrophic decline. 

Timber extraction by logging operations is the primary 

reason for deforestation. Logging is especially common in 

areas with tropical forest over level ground, where 

commercially valuable trees can easily be extracted on a 

large scale. Logging operations are a major cause for 

concern in the lowlands of Indonesia, especially when 

combined with the expansion of human communities into 

the areas of cleared forest (van Balen and Holmes 1993). 

On Hainan Island, China, destructive logging is putting 

pressure on the endemic Hainan hill-partridge, although 

as a result of a ban on logging primary forest in January 

1994, habitat loss is less common now than formerly (Gao 

Yu-ren 1998, in litt.). In addition, it appears that Hainan 

hill-partridges are able to utilise some well-grown secondary 

forest in addition to primary forest. Habitat destruction 

through logging has been the primary cause of drastic 

4

eductions in numbers or even extirpation of the gorgeted 

wood-quail in Cundinamarca Department, Colombia 

(Wege and Long 1995). The species is now restricted to a 

small area of remaining forest in Santander and is in 

critical danger of extinction (del Hoyo et al. 1994). 

The clearance of habitat to make way for agriculture is 

another common reason for habitat destruction. Forests 

may be cleared for agricultural uses, such as plantations of 

coffee, rubber, and tobacco, or for the grazing of livestock. 

This is a particular problem where intensive farming 

methods are used subsequent to habitat clearance, as vast 

continuous tracts of land may become inhospitable. In 

India, reclamation and conversion of large tracts of the 

tall wet grassland in the Gangetic Plain has reduced the 

availability of such habitat and is a major concern for the 

conservation of the swamp francolin (Javed et al. 1999). 

The Tacarcuna wood-quail is a Vulnerable and littleknown 

species inhabiting humid forest within its tiny 

range in Panama and Colombia. Clearance of its habitat 

to make way for coca Erythroxylon coca plantations is a 

major threat at present, as is habitat degradation through 

mining activities and hunting for food (Alvarez-Cordero 

et al. 1994). Increasingly, habitats are cleared for urban 

settlement, road building, or reservoir construction. The 

Sichuan hill-partridge is an Endangered species, and recent 

survey work by Dai Bo et al. (1998) revealed that road 

construction within the tiny range of this species is making 

its forest habitat more accessible to logging operations 

and to hunters. Although road construction itself may not 

be severely detrimental to habitats, the opening up of 

previously inaccessible areas means that habitat loss and 

degradation may be accelerated. In Panama, completion 

of the Pan-American Highway link through Darién could 

lead to severe, long-term damage to the forest of the 

Tacarcuna Ridge, thereby destroying habitat of the already 

Vulnerable Tacarcuna wood-quail (Alvarez-Cordero et 

al. 1994, Wege 1996). 

Whatever the reason for habitat destruction, the 

inevitable result of the process is increased fragmentation 

in the distribution of a species. Habitat loss frequently 

leads to the disruption of all but small blocks of suitable 

habitat, which become separated from each other by large 

expanses of uninhabitable ground. These habitat “islands” 

contain populations that are often both small and isolated, 

making them particularly at risk of extinction through 

effects such as genetic drift, inbreeding depression, and 

local catastrophe (Primack 1998). For example, local 

populations normally able to recover from natural 

disasters, such as floods, may be rendered too small and 

isolated to withstand such devastating natural events. 

Several extinctions of isolated local populations through 

such episodes may rapidly add up to large-scale 

disappearances of a species. 

The swamp francolin, found in northeast India, 

Bangladesh, and Nepal, has become localised in its 

distribution through fragmentation of its wet grassland 

habitat. This fragmentation may have increased the 

vulnerability of this species to local extinction through 

random natural events (Javed and Rahmani 1998, Javed et 

al. 1999). 

Habitat degradation is a reduction in the quality of a 

habitat without the loss of all original vegetation. It can 

result from activities such as selective removal of forest 

products and grazing by domestic or feral animals. One 

example is selective logging, where only a proportion of 

trees (usually valuable species) is removed from the forest 

in an area. This can vary in impact from the removal of a 

small proportion of the standing trees, to the loss of all but 

a few trunks. The associated problems, such as damage to 

residual trunks and soil compaction, are discussed by 

Whitmore (1984), while Marshall and Swaine (1992) more 

fully discuss the effects of selective logging on tropical 

forest. The term ‘selective logging’ is often taken to imply 

that trees are harvested according to sustainable principles 

and that alterations to forest structure are as limited as 

possible. At its most extreme, however, the resulting forest 

is severely degraded, with few trees left undamaged, and 

with an unnaturally patchy and irregular canopy. 

The Nahan’s francolin, until recently a very littleknown 

species, is found in a few localities in the Democratic 

Republic of Congo and Uganda. It is a strict tropical 

rainforest specialist, and degradation of its habitat in the 

Mabira Forest in eastern Uganda through intensive 

agricultural encroachment appears to have led to a dramatic 

reduction in bird densities in the area (Dranzoa 1998). 

However, nearly half of the Mabira Forest has now been 

given protection as a nature reserve and buffer zone. Work 

is in progress to understand why this species was unrecorded 

during a recent survey in Kibale Forest in southwestern 

Uganda. Grazing within non-protected forests on Hainan 

Island, China is considered to be one of the reasons for 

reductions in the populations of the Hainan hill-partridge 

(Gao Yu-ren in litt.). 

Agricultural encroachment and habitat degradation are affecting 

populations of Nahan’s francolin in Uganda. 

© Lynx Edicions 

5

Hunting 

Although in many animal species, effects of direct 

exploitation are considered relatively minor, partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys are 

often subject to very high harvest rates. Almost all wild 

Galliformes have been, or still are being, extensively hunted 

for subsistence, sport, or trade (Aebischer 1997a). It can be 

very difficult to distinguish between the effects of direct 

exploitation and more general threats to habitats. Habitat 

loss and modification are considered the primary reasons 

for declines in several European bird species, despite the 

fact they are regularly hunted (Aebischer 1997b). The 

effects of hunting are indeed hard to quantify, but there are 

several species for which direct over-exploitation is 

considered to be having significant negative impacts. 

Recent meetings with local communities around Mabira 

and Bugoma Forests in Uganda, home to the Endangered 

Nahan’s francolin, indicated that hunting for food may be 

widespread there. Work is underway to examine the 

potential impact of hunting for food on this species, which 

is considered vulnerable to extinction and appears to have 

declined in several areas since the early part of this century 

(Dranzoa 1998). Hunting has also led to considerable and 

rapid declines in part of the Chinese range of the chukar 

(Naifa 1995). Khan and Chaudhry (1999) used multivariate 

statistical techniques to estimate the relative importance of 

several variables on densities of grey francolins and black 

francolins in Punjab, Pakistan. They found hunting pressure 

through shooting and netting, much of which was illegal, to 

be the best predictor of population densities in both species 

i.e., that increased levels of hunting were associated with 

lower levels of francolin populations. The grey francolin is 

also a popular gamebird in northern India. The bearded 

wood-partridge in Mexico has been subject to sport hunting, 

despite its small and fragmented populations and protected 

status (J. Carroll pers. obs.), and the ocellated turkey is 

heavily hunted for food throughout its range, even in 

protected areas (Gonzales et al. 1996). 

Effect of agricultural chemicals 

Little is known about the direct impact of many of the 

agricultural pesticides on partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys in most countries. It 

is known that many organochlorines and organophosphate 

pesticides that are now banned in North America and 

Europe are widely used in the tropics. How these pesticides 

might impact species inhabiting farmland in many 

developing nations is unknown, but potentially serious 

(e.g., crested bobwhite in Latin America). It is known that 

agricultural pesticides have been used deliberately to poison 

the Vulnerable bearded wood-partridge in Mexico to stop 

depredation of bean crops (J. Carroll pers. obs.). 

The increasing use of chemical herbicides in Southeast 

Asia is thought to be contributing to the decline of the bluebreasted 

quail in open agricultural land, a habitat in which 

they were formerly common (Wells 1999). However, recent 

work has indicated that pesticides do not present a major 

threat to black francolin and grey francolin populations in 

the intensely agricultural Punjab region in Pakistan (Khan 

and Chaudhry 1999). Still, this study did point out that 

investigations into the effects of pesticides can be hampered 

by the reluctance of farmers to provide information on types 

of chemicals used and rates of application. 

There is also the possibility of a link between pesticide 

contamination and contraction of diseases in some species 

that use agricultural habitats. Along with habitat destruction 

and poaching, this may be an important area for future 

research. The effects of organochlorines and organophosphates 

are well established and their deleterious impact 

on birds through breeding failure is also reasonably well 

documented, at least in raptors. It remains to be seen, however, 

whether the same impacts occur in Galliformes, owing to 

their different position in the food chain (S. Javed in litt.). 

A potentially bigger problem, wherever agriculture has 

become chemical-dependent, lies in the indirect effects of 

herbicides and pesticides. Many of the common agricultural 

weeds support insects and produce seeds that are important 

to species found in farmed areas. When these weeds and 

associated insects are controlled, bird populations are 

negatively impacted. This was well described for the grey 

partridge by Potts (1986), but effects on many less wellknown 

species have not been investigated. 

Disturbance 

Bamboo shoots are collected in the spring and autumn in 

habitats favoured by the Endangered Sichuan hill-partridge. 

This creates substantial and regular disturbance during the 

breeding season of the birds, when many people are based 

temporarily in areas such as Daxuecao. There could be as 

many as 3,000 people collecting bamboo shoots in this 91km 2 

area of forest in late April and early May, most of them 

concentrated near the road that bisects the area and along 

adjacent paths (Dowell et al. 1997). There is also evidence for 

bamboo collecting within the Dafengding Nature Reserve 

(Dai Bo et al. 1998). Although the Sichuan hill-partridge is 

negatively affected by disturbance, other species, such as the 

orange-necked hill-partridge are apparently able to tolerate 

some human disturbance, being found regularly in secondary 

and degraded habitats (Atkins and Tentij 1999). 

Threatened subspecies and populations 

This Action Plan provides a status survey and 

recommendations for future conservation action for species. 

6

The Species Survival Commission of IUCN works primarily 

at a species level, and our desire has been to produce a 

document entirely compatible with their past and future 

publications. On a practical level, there is very little 

information on which to make judgements on the 

conservation status of many subspecies and populations of 


turkeys, and in view of the worldwide push for increasing 

rigour in conservation assessments through strict 

application of the IUCN Red List criteria (IUCN 1994), 

such an exercise would be unjustified. However, there are 

several instances where certain subspecies and isolated 

populations of various species are known to be under 

threat in their own right and, in some cases, taxonomic 

opinion is divided as to whether particular forms represent 

subspecies or should be given full species status. Taxa of 

concern include the Moroccan subspecies (sabyi) of the 

helmeted guineafowl, the race ridgwayi of the northern 

bobwhite, the Sri Lankan race (watsoni) of the painted 

francolin, and several of the subspecies of the chestnutnecklaced 

hill-partridge. 

Summary of the threat status of 



Of the 145 species assessed for extinction risk, three are 

judged to be Critically Endangered, five are Endangered, 

and 16 are Vulnerable. The remaining 121 species are 

considered Lower Risk (see Chapters 2 and 3), although 

11 of these are considered Near Threatened. 

Urgent attention must focus on the three Critically 

Endangered species (Djibouti francolin, Himalayan quail, 

and gorgeted wood-quail) and the five Endangered species 

(Nahan’s francolin, Mount Cameroon francolin, Sichuan 

hill-partridge, orange-necked hill-partridge, and chestnutheaded 

hill-partridge), and detailed species-specific 

proposals for all these have been produced (see projects in 

Section 4.4, Projects for Critically Endangered and 

Endangered Species). The status of all species, including 

those currently placed in the Lower Risk category, will be 

monitored at appropriate intervals through future editions 

of the Action Plan. 

1.7 Actions for the conservation of 



Incorporating experience gained from work carried out 

during the five-year implementation period of the first 

Action Plan, this section outlines the different forms of 

conservation action that have proved effective. They have 

been divided into five areas to emphasise the sequence of 

actions that must be undertaken to ensure long-term 

conservation of species. 

Clarifying taxonomic units 

In order to promote the conservation of all partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, it 

is important that the species are clearly defined. Only 

when populations or groups of populations have been 

identified as separate entities can they be studied and 

practical conservation measures proposed. In this Action 

Plan, conservation recommendations are made at the level 

of the species because it is important that the amount of 

biological diversity conserved be maximised, while keeping 

the list of threatened species from becoming too 

overwhelming. If too many populations are treated 

separately, conservation effort may be diluted. Conversely, 

if too few are treated separately, important biological 

diversity may be lost. This, in turn, means that specieslevel 

taxonomy remains an important basis for setting 

priorities in conservation. 

Gathering basic information 

Surveys: These are the first steps toward understanding a 

species’ requirements and potential threats to its survival. 

Extensive surveys begin with the collection of basic 

information on the presence or absence of a species at 

various sites. Once the distribution of a species has been 

documented, then data on relative abundance and, if 

possible, absolute abundance should be obtained. 

Conservation action cannot be proposed without such 

basic knowledge. Surveys of one sort or another are 

proposed for many threatened species that sometimes lack 

the most basic field information on distribution and 

abundance in parts of their range. To generate comparable 

results to allow detection of long-term changes in 

abundance, it is important that surveys are designed to 

leave the possibility open of repeating exactly the same 

work at a later date. It is particularly important that 

methods are clearly described (including seasonal and 

daily timings) and survey areas are accurately located. 

This last point cannot be overstated. Formal techniques 

must be used and data collection should be standardised. 

Basic biological research: Research with conservation 

objectives should be designed to provide detailed 

information on the biology of a threatened species (e.g., 

relating directly to its habitat requirements, its tolerance 

of disturbance, or its use of secondary or marginal habitats). 

Collecting sufficient data of the type required on individuals 

or populations will always be physically demanding, labour 

intensive, and expensive in comparison with extensive 

7

survey techniques such as those described above. Thus, 

research projects need to be designed carefully to tackle 

important but feasible objectives that are of immediate use 

in specifying conservation efforts for the species concerned. 

Data useful for conservation can also be a by-product of 

“pure” research projects. Research with conservation 

outputs is recommended here for nine threatened species. 

At the time of the first Action Plan’s publication, the 

Nahan’s francolin was virtually unknown, but over the 

last few years, researchers from Makerere University in 

Uganda have undertaken a series of intensive studies on 

this species (Dranzoa 1998, Dranzoa et al. 1999, Sande in 

press). This work has demonstrated that Nahan’s francolin 

is a forest specialist that clearly needs conservation 

attention. The team discovered that, although the species 

occurs in reasonable numbers, it is being hunted for food 

and cultural uses (the extent and severity of which are still 

to be investigated). It is also being adversely affected by 

forest degradation and its distribution within the tropical 

forests of Uganda remains to be clarified. 

Had this research programme not been initiated, the 

breeding ecology, ranging patterns, group sizes, and activity 

patterns of Nahan’s francolin would have remained a 

mystery. This research programme is ongoing and, subject 

to funding, further studies will investigate the taxonomic 

position of the species through DNA analysis. These 

studies have provided large quantities of new information 

and show well how much can be achieved in a relatively 

short period of time. 

Making conservation recommendations 

Identifying priority areas for conservation: Once adequate 

data from surveys and basic biological research have been 

collected, the information must be synthesised and largescale 

patterns described. It is at this stage that threat 

categorisations can effectively be applied and conservation 

priorities set in a global context. This is necessary before 

local and specific conservation recommendations can be 

made. 

Wherever possible, conservation recommendations 

should be based on existing structures and frameworks 

(e.g., Dai Bo et al. 1998). One of the longest standing 

conservation actions is the creation of protected areas. 

Although it is true that enforcement is often weak in 

protected areas, the fact remains that there is some impetus 

behind them and they do have legal standing. Although we 

now see these places as being set aside specifically for the 

conservation of species or habitats, it is important to 

realise that there is a variety of reasons why protected 

areas were first designated (Pressey et al. 1994) — many of 

these areas were not, strictly speaking, set aside for species 

or habitat conservation. It is, therefore, advisable to assess 

how far protected areas are succeeding in conserving 


turkeys. This sounds simple, but is, in fact, a challenging 

task, both scientifically and in practice. The first step 

involves assessing how well the current system of protected 

areas covers the species and identifying species poorly 

represented by, or even completely absent from, the current 

network. We can then provide recommendations for 

embarking on the difficult challenge of trying to fill in 

these gaps. 

In practice, these steps are difficult because data are 

required at a large scale; the need is for information on 

localities across entire species’ ranges. Although difficult, 

this is possible and has been attempted for the Galliformes 

of eastern Asia (McGowan et al. 1999). This analysis 

identified 37 species, of which 20 are threatened, that are 

not included in at least three protected areas in IUCN 

management categories I–IV (see IUCN 1998b), and 

involved the establishment of locality databases in four 

countries. More than 5,000 records were collected for over 

100 species. Such work can provide a valuable context for 

specific field projects. For example, the Sichuan hillpartridge 

of south-central China is one of six threatened 

Asian endemics not known from any of the protected areas 

considered. Dai Bo et al. (1998) made recommendations 

for the sympathetic management of two proposed forest 

parks, extension of an existing national nature reserve to 

suitable altitudes, and the establishment of a new nature 

reserve in the largest remaining forest block. A second 

example, which indicates the problems of data collection, 

involves the orange-necked hill-partridge from southern 

Vietnam. This species was known only from Cat Tien 

National Park until surveys were directed towards the 

adjacent proposed Cat Loc Reserve, where Atkins and 

Tentij (1999) recently recorded the species. 

The critical feature of this interaction between desktop 

analysis and fieldwork is that analysis can help direct 

fieldwork to where it can make the most impact. In turn, 

the results of the fieldwork feed back to help the largescale 

assessment of how well the protected area network is 

covering the region’s species. 

A further benefit of large scale analyses of this nature 

is that they can identify specific protected areas that are 

irreplaceable within the context of a group of species. This 

means, for example, that scarce conservation resources 

can be directed to the smallest number of protected areas 

that will cover the greatest number of threatened species. 

McGowan et al. (1999) used the principle of 

complementarity to identify 82 protected areas in eastern 

Asia that provide one way of ensuring that all species 

occur in at least three protected areas. Of course, some 

species are not known from any, let alone three protected 

areas, and those demand special attention. The set of 82 

protected areas should, in theory, be at the centre of efforts 

to ensure sound management of habitats in which these 

species occur (see Project 6 in Section 4.2 for ideas on how 

8

this work could be developed over the implementation 

period of this Action Plan). 

Population dynamics of individual species: once set in the 

context of large-scale patterns and priorities, it is often 

desirable to understand the dynamics of populations 

(changes in numbers over time), and how particular threats 

and proposed management strategies are likely to affect 

them. 

One way of looking at the population dynamics of a 

single species is to perform a Population Viability Analysis 

(PVA). The basic aim is to use information on the life 

history, ecology, and distribution of the species to assess 

how population sizes might change in the future as a 

consequence of alternative management strategies, such 

as habitat improvement, controlled hunting, and captive 

breeding. The process allows combinations of actions to 

be identified that reduce the risk of extinction to a minimum, 

at least in theory (Clark et al. 1991). Various computer 

programs that simulate the behaviour of populations 

under different conditions have been developed (Lacy 

1993), but data input into these programs must be carefully 

checked to avoid misleading results. Major constraints on 

population modelling are the adequacy and reliability of 

available data. The amount and extent of information 

needed to run a simulation providing meaningful and 

feasible models is enormous; hence, there is a need for 

great caution when attempting such an exercise with limited 

data. 

For many threatened species, much of the information 

required for this analysis is not published, so a popular 

and useful approach has been to hold internationally 

attended meetings, where researchers familiar with a 

particular species exchange information and ideas while 

conducting the PVA. These meetings are also useful to 

discuss the feasibility of implementing different 

management strategies, and ideally result in the production 

of a comprehensive and achievable set of actions for the 

conservation of a species. The Conservation Breeding 

Specialist Group of IUCN regularly oversees meetings of 

this type, which are termed Population and Habitat 

Viability Assessments (PHVAs). They are held, wherever 

possible, within a range country of the species in question. 

Although few comprehensive PHVAs have been held 

for the species considered here, it is a process that could 

clearly benefit several species. Anyone considering holding 

a meeting of this type should arrange it in close consultation 

with the PQF Specialist Group and the Conservation 

Breeding Specialist Group – the latter now provides training 

courses around the world (see Appendix 1 for contact 

details). Twenty people from 10 institutions attended the 

masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi) PHVA 

workshop in southeastern Arizona. The bird’s distribution 

is currently restricted to two locations in Arizona and 

Mexico, and the U.S. Government is currently maintaining 

a propagation and release programme (Sheppard and 

Bruning 1999). 

Types of conservation recommendation 

Protecting habitat: Given that habitat loss and degradation 

are major threats to partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, establishing (and 

maintaining) areas of suitable habitat is usually the best 

way of ensuring their long-term survival. Thus, even in the 

absence of detailed recommendations of the type emerging 

from a PVA, large-scale distribution and habitat 

information can be used to recommend the designation 

and expansion of important protected areas as described 

above. This may either occur formally or result from the 

development of a local partnership. Such action is proposed 

for 17 of the threatened species covered in this plan. It is 

necessary that recommendations for protected area 

designation are based on sound science, and effectively 

promoted through lobbying of governments, local groups, 

and other parties involved in the decision-making process 

(see below). 

Designation of protected areas, often in addition to 

those already in existence, is considered to be an important 

next step for numerous threatened species, as is the 

protection and management of critical habitats within 

these areas. Conflicts can occur in managing protected 

areas, however, an example of which may be found among 

the 600+ national parks and sanctuaries in India, many of 

which were created to protect large mammalian species 

such as tigers and rhinos. Much of the management work 

in these areas is directed towards this mammalian 

megafauna, and its impact on non-target species remains 

unknown in the majority of cases. For example, terai 

grasslands are burnt annually from December to April in 

large areas (Javed et al. 1999), an activity aimed at providing 

suitable habitat for ungulates such as swamp deer Cervus 

duvauceli. The impact of this management strategy on 

swamp francolins and other small Galliformes should be 

investigated as a matter of urgency (Javed 1999). 

Regulating hunting and encouraging sustainable use: 

Humans have always had a close relationship with 


turkeys, and most species are regularly hunted for economic 

gain, sustenance, and other purposes. It may seem obvious 

that as hunting results in the death of birds, it must cause 

reduction in populations and should, therefore, be 

restricted, particularly where threatened species are 

concerned. However, intensive quantitative work on 

Galliformes in Europe and North America over the past 

few years has shown that many species that are regularly 

hunted can increase their reproductive output or suffer 

reduced mortality, compensating for losses caused by 

9

hunting (Aebischer 1997b). This is a density-dependent 

process—the birds respond to the lowering of population 

density with increased reproductive output and improved 

rates of survival. Under natural conditions, this process 

ensures that populations can recover quickly from 

catastrophes or limit their maximum density to match the 

capacity of the environment to support them. It is likely 

that most, if not all, Galliformes exhibit this densitydependent 

response, although for species with low 

reproductive rates and high annual survival, pilot studies 

should be conducted to estimate viable offtake rates 

assuming no density-dependent response (N. Aebischer in 

litt.). 

If harvesting is kept to a reasonable level, populations 

may not be harmed in the long term and humans can 

continue to derive economic gain, sustenance, and other 

benefits from the birds. This depends on many factors, 

however, so the implementation of sustainable use 

programmes must always be accompanied by population 

monitoring. In some cases, partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys may actually benefit 

from sustainable harvesting (the “paradox of wise use”) 

because the economic incentive may encourage habitat 

improvement through targeted management to increase 

population levels and allow an even greater sustainable 

yield (Aebischer 1997b, Simiyu 1998). However, 

modification of habitat is a complex issue and anyone 

considering such action should investigate the possible 

effects on other species in the ecosystem. 

The relationship between sustainable harvesting 

programmes and protected areas needs to be investigated 

over the coming five years. Allowing controlled hunting 

within protected areas already affected by illegal hunting 

may mean that the whole process can be more tightly 

monitored and controlled, and may provide reliable data 

to understand further the dynamics of hunted populations. 

There should always be parts of protected areas set aside 

as hunting-free zones, to act as reservoirs for the hunted 

species. Such programmes should involve wide consultation 

between local people, conservation NGOs, species experts, 

and government departments. Sustainable hunting may 

not be applicable for all species and, where poaching/ 

illegal harvesting pressure is already intense, any kind of 

harvesting concept has to be treated with caution. However, 

as a sustainable use approach is possibly more applicable 

to partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, 

and turkeys than any other group of birds, some examples 

of its implementation will be considered in detail. 

Since the gamebird hunting ban in Kenya was lifted in 

1984, management of the process has been centralised, 

with all monies being directed to the Kenya Wildlife 

Service, a governmental, parastatal body. This has provided 

little incentive for local communities to manage gamebird 

habitats sympathetically. However, recent work at the 

African Wildlife Foundation has developed and 

implemented a model system for the sustainable 

management of gamebird hunting (primarily of yellownecked 

francolin and helmeted guineafowl) (Simiyu 1998). 

Legal responsibility for managing local hunting around 

the Mbirikani Group Ranch has been transferred to a 

local committee, which monitors gamebird populations 

and offtake rates, collects revenue, and supervises hunters. 

Carefully designed monitoring programmes and habitat 

studies have provided basic biological information leading 

to calculation of sustainable offtake rates, and the ranch 

has employed several staff to continue the monitoring 

procedures and oversee the hunting process. Staff at the 

African Wildlife Foundation have provided long-term 

training to ranch members and have assisted, wherever 

possible, in setting up the necessary management structures. 

Within the last year, management of the Mbirikani system 

has become almost entirely autonomous. 

Hunting revenues have almost tripled since the 

programme was implemented and monitoring data indicate 

that there remains scope for increasing offtake rates further. 

This project has provided substantial economic benefits to 

the Mbirikani Group Ranch community, as well as a 

conservation incentive to effectively manage the birds and 

their habitats. The system has been replicated at the Kuku 

Group Ranch, and there are plans to do so at several other 

ranches that have expressed an interest in the scheme. The 

success of this system suggests that sustainable gamebird 

hunting can generate significant income for local 

communities. 

In 1990, legislation in Cyprus for the first time required 

that funds from hunting licences be spent directly on the 

protection of game and other wildlife. This means that 

about US$3 million is spent every year on improving 

habitat, rearing game species (chukar and black francolin) 

for release, and further research on sustainable 

management regimes. About 100,000 chukars are released 

every year on the island and a captive breeding and release 

programme is underway for black francolins, although it 

is too early to evaluate the effectiveness of the latter 

programme. Such co-operation between biologists, 

policymakers, and hunters provides an admirable model 

for the development and implementation of similar 

programmes (Cyprus Homepage Website 1999). 

In North America, sustainable hunting programmes 

are effective in populations of northern bobwhite, mountain 

quail, scaled quail, California quail, and Gambel’s quail. 

While the North American management system has been 

a model for sustainable hunting and restoration of a 

number of species (e.g., wild turkey), it has failed to 

mitigate the impacts of major changes in land use on other 

species, such as the northern bobwhite in the southeastern 

United States. However, when the connection is made 

between a desired game species and habitat protection, 

then not only is the species protected, but also its critical 

native habitats. For example, small parts of southern 

10

Georgia and northern Florida in the southeastern US have 

been maintained in native long-leaf pine ecosystems, which 

have been generally lost elsewhere because landowners in 

these two areas have an interest in hunting quail. The same 

is true in Britain, where landowners interested in hunting 

the grey partridge will modify their farming practices to 

accommodate the birds. 

Managing captive populations: The value of captive 

populations has long been a subject of debate, and this 

debate is at its most vigorous among keepers of the many 

Galliformes species held in captivity. Traditionally, captive 

populations have been viewed as a safety net. In the event 

of extinction of wild populations or species, captive birds 

can be re-introduced into the species’ native range or, in the 

face of heavy declines in wild populations, captive stock 

can be released to supplement those still extant but at low 

density. For this reason, effective genetic management of 

captive populations, both in terms of minimising excessive 

inbreeding and interpopulation hybridisation events, and 

maximising genetic diversity, has been a priority. 

The process of re-introduction is extremely complex 

and expensive and the IUCN Guidelines for Re-introductions 

(IUCN 1998a) should be closely adhered to when designing 

such a re-introduction programme. In managing captive 

stocks, the critical issue is the maintenance of birds that 

resemble wild birds as much as possible genetically, 

morphologically, and behaviourally. There have been efforts 

to assess the genetic status of the closely related Vietnamese 

lowland Lophura pheasants by WPA/CBAC (Conservation 

Breeding Advisory Committee). Subsequent to this, a wider 

project involving DNA studies materialised, and the 

Museum of Natural History (Cleres, France) joined as a 

partner and contracted the Insitutuo Nazionale per la 

Fauna Selvatica (Bologna, Italy) to carry out the work (H. 

Assink in litt.). Through pioneering use of genetic 

techniques, researchers have estimated genetic variability 

of captive stocks and compared it with wild populations. 

Preliminary results on the Edwards’ pheasant Lophura 

edwardsi indicate that variability in captive stocks is indeed 

low. Genetic techniques have also been developed to identify 

and remove hybrids from captive stocks (Hennache et al. 

1998). This project will be extended to other Galliformes 

species over the coming years, and will provide an excellent 

foundation on which to build future management 

recommendations for captive stocks (Rietkerk et al. 1999). 

Studies such as this do indicate that we are a long way from 

being able to confidently mount re-introduction 

programmes for most species, but continuing work may 

change this situation in the future (A. Hennache in litt.). 

It is now becoming clear that captive populations have 

much wider roles to play than as potential safety nets for 

declining species. In recent years, WPA/CBAC has begun 

to re-assess these roles. Their private breeders started the 

first regional Galliformes studbooks in 1992, joining the 

zoo community to form the joint GalliTAG (Galliformes 

Taxon Advisory Group) in 1994. That joint arrangement 

continues today within the European Endangered Species 

Programme Galliformes TAG, with both private breeders 

and institutions working together to maintain Galliformes 

populations in captivity. Captive populations provide 

material for morphological, genetic, and behavioural 

research, and can raise public conservation awareness 

through zoo exhibits, particularly when these are within 

the range of threatened species. The Malaysian Department 

of Wildlife and National Parks formed the Pheasant 

Breeding Centre at Sungkai in the early 1980s, and has 

used this establishment to retain gene pools of endemic 

species and set up breeding groups in the UK and USA. A 

further centre is under construction in Johore State, which 

will provide stock for re-introduction programmes. 

Finding and studying wild populations of some 

threatened partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys is extremely difficult and time 

consuming, and providing researchers are mindful of the 

limitations that are borne, captive birds can supply useful 

information (e.g., study of phylogenetic relationships, 

developing experimental protocols, etc.). Results from the 

captive breeding of Malaysian species in the UK indicate 

that new and valuable data are being obtained on behaviour 

and breeding biology (G. Robbins in litt.). Captive breeding 

may also limit the market for poached birds to supply zoos 

and parks, thereby reducing pressure on wild populations 

(Tonge and Wilkinson 1998). 

It must be emphasised that effective management of 

captive populations remains extremely important. Firstly, 

ensuring genetic integrity and physical health of captive 

birds is important for maintaining populations in captivity 

over the long term for all of the purposes mentioned 

above. Secondly, other candidates and techniques for reintroduction 

or supplementation programmes may be 

identified in the future, and there must be vigorous captive 

stock available. This means that subspecies and distinct 

geographical forms should be managed separately 

wherever possible, particularly where there are 

disagreements over taxonomic rank. 

The European GalliTAG hopes to develop a regional 

collection plan for Europe over the next few years (see 

Sheppard and Bruning 1999 for the American regional 

collection plan), and improve co-ordination and 

communication between zoos and private breeders (A. 

Hennache, in litt.). See Appendix 2 for information on 

global captive populations of threatened partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys. 

Conducting conservation awareness programmes: Because 

of the close relationship between humans and partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, 

there is great potential for conservation awareness 

programmes to highlight the plight of individual species, 

11

and raise awareness of general principles of environmental 

stewardship and sustainable use. In many situations, 

especially where direct human causes have been implicated 

in the decline of a species, effective long-term conservation 

measures cannot be put in place without a rigorous and 

well-audited conservation awareness programme amongst 

local communities. Very few project proposals with a 

significant education component are received by the 

Specialist Group each year, but we nevertheless continue 

to urge that such initiatives are put together, and here 

present some guidelines on submitting funding proposals. 

Specific conservation awareness programmes are most 

appropriate at the local community level where a species of 

concern occurs. Initiatives may include, for example, 

workshops involving stakeholders to discuss problems and 

possible solutions, and the establishment of mechanisms 

for distributing information in communities such as 

construction of an information centre, creating a nature 

trail, holding nature clubs at local schools with regular 

events (e.g., slide/video shows, field trips, and talks), and 

funding a field camp for schoolchildren or teachers. 

More generalised awareness programmes could involve 

funding publications, visual education material, or 

exhibitions (travelling or static) to provide background 

information on the birds, why their conservation is 

important, and what people can contribute as individuals 

and as members of their communities. Material needs to 

be carefully designed for the target audience. 

All conservation awareness programmes must be 

evaluated to reveal how people benefited from the initiative, 

and what conservation goals have been achieved. The 

latter may not be specific, but the former can be tested 

using questionnaires and feedback workshops, depending 

on the situation. Once again, such evaluation exercises 

must be carefully thought through and details submitted 

with the project proposal. 

Although captive birds can provide the means with 

which to raise awareness among the general public of 

specific and general conservation issues, it is essential that 

such programmes are carefully thought through and that 

conservation benefits logically flow from the programme. 

Harwood’s francolin. A conservation awareness programme is 

recommended to highlight the uniqueness of this Ethiopian endemic. 


For example, it is important to know who will be visiting 

the birds. The type of visitor will affect the conservation 

awareness outcomes – will visitors be local people, tourists, 

school children, teachers, or influential national officials? 

How will these different groups of people assimilate 

information? School children will need well-prepared 

activity sheets and thoughtfully laid out exhibits. How will 

information on the birds be presented? Details of 

distribution, ecology, threats, and conservation action 

should be provided in a clear and simple format—samples 

of labelling must be included with project proposals. 

The overall message is that conservation awareness 

programmes should not just be added on to a biological 

conservation project because it seems the right thing to do. 

If they are to be effective for conservation, these important 

initiatives must be carefully planned, executed, and 

evaluated. All conservation awareness programmes must 

be evaluated to reveal how people benefited from the 

initiative, and what conservation goals have been achieved. 

Ideally, experiences and evaluations should be published 

both locally and internationally to aid the designing of 

further projects. 

In North America a long history of conservation training 

has resulted in some changes in human perceptions of 

smaller Galliformes species. Hunters now generally view 

gamebird management and harvest as sustainable activities, 

and most areas in North America require some hunter 

education that includes basic components of sustainable 

management of harvested species (J. Carroll pers. obs.). 

Implementing conservation 

recommendations 

There are a great many global, regional, and national 

conservation initiatives that deal with issues other than the 

single species or species group that are covered in this 

Action Plan. Many of these initiatives involve either 

incorporating conservation concerns into governmental 

policy, or issues relating to limiting the damaging impacts 

of development programmes. In these broad-scale 

programmes and others, such as protected area 

management, the kind of species information presented in 

these plans and arising from work suggested here can play 

a key role, particularly with respect to the objective of 

maintaining and enhancing biodiversity. Therefore, there 

is a need to ensure that reliable data on species are utilised 

when preparing conservation policy and assessing 

development needs. 

One prime example of a global initiative that is 

having increasingly local impact is the Convention on 

Biological Diversity, which was framed during the United 

Nations Convention on Environment and Development 

(popularly known as the ‘Earth Summit’) at Rio de Janeiro 

in Brazil during 1992. The objectives of the Convention on 

12

Box 1.1. The Convention on Biological Diversity. 

Key articles relating to the conservation of 

biodiversity. 

• Article 6: General measures of conservation and 

sustainable use 

Requires the development of national strategies, plans, or 

programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of 

biodiversity. 

• Article 7: Identification and monitoring 

Requires the identification and monitoring of biodiversity 

and of impacts upon it. It also considers the knowledge 

necessary for conservation and sustainable use. 

• Article 8: In situ conservation (i.e., conservation of 

biological diversity within natural habitats and 

ecosystems) 

Requires the management of biodiversity where it occurs 

naturally, and includes the need for protected areas and the 

needs of threatened species. 

• Article 9: Ex situ conservation (i.e., conservation of 

biological diversity outside natural habitats) 

Requires the management of biodiversity in places such as 

zoos and botanical gardens. It also deals with collection 

from the wild. 

Biological Diversity are to ensure the conservation of 

biodiversity, its sustainable use, and the equal sharing of 

benefits from its use. There are four key articles that are 

relevant to the activities of the PQF Specialist Group (see 

Box 1.1). 

In order to convert species information and conservation 

recommendations that flow from the activities outlined 

above into action, there is a need to identify which 

administrative level is most appropriate for implementation. 

The global importance of this convention is demonstrated 

in several ways. The first is the degree to which many 

countries are developing or have developed national 

biodiversity strategies and action plans as required under 

Article 6. The first step in this process is the production of 

a biodiversity assessment for a country. 

In concert with the rest of the Galliformes Specialist 

Groups there is a clear need to ensure that accurate 

information on partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys is made available to such national 

biodiversity assessments. This Action Plan, and all the 

supporting data used to produce it, should contain this. 

Subsequently, we must bring all available expertise to bear 

on the resulting national conservation recommendations 

as they affect threatened species. 

Monitoring effects of conservation action 

Systematic monitoring of populations is an essential tool 

for detecting changes in the status of a species at particular 

sites over long periods of time, and should always be used 

to assess the effectiveness of conservation actions. Careful 

thought must be given to the design of monitoring 

programmes, ideally through initial assessments of count 

reliability that include correlating results of index counts 

with detailed counts at appropriate times of year. 

Call counts have proved to be appropriate for deriving 

relative abundance indices of vocal Galliformes even 

though the results may be of limited general utility 

(Khaling et al. 1998). Such a study by Khan and Chaudhry 

(1999) on two francolin species in Pakistan showed 

a significant relationship between call counts and 

attempted absolute counts using line drives. Indices 

generated through call counts (during breeding seasons) 

and transect walks (outside breeding seasons) also showed 

close agreement in painted francolin in Gujarat, India 

(Kaul and Howman 1992), suggesting the utility of both 

methods in designing monitoring protocols for other 

Galliformes. Difficulties in using line transects may be 

experienced, especially in hilly terrain where assumptions 

of line transect theory are violated. In such situations, use 

of encounter rates has been suggested as an alternative 

index of abundance. 

In Pipar, Nepal, populations of Galliformes have been 

monitored for about 20 years (Howman and Garson 

1993). Although counts at regular intervals have provided 

data to monitor changes in populations of these birds, it 

is suspected that lack of consistent methodology and 

observer bias (different teams or individuals on each 

survey) may have made the figures less reliable 

for comparisons between years (R. Kaul in litt.). Such 

problems illustrate how difficult and labour intensive 

this work can be, but the potential benefits of longterm 

and well-designed monitoring programmes are 

immense. Study sites established in Asia are amenable to 

long-term monitoring mainly because protocols are 

established and areas are demarcated. Some form of 

population monitoring has been recommended for five 

species in this Action Plan. 

Summary of conservation action 

The PQF Specialist Group has concluded that of the 

different actions considered, the most urgent in terms of 

assisting threatened species conservation are surveys (23 

of the 24 threatened species), habitat protection (17 species), 

large-scale assessments (10 species), basic biological 

research (nine species), and conservation awareness 

programmes (six species). 

Although, at present, the remaining 121 species are not 

considered in need of conservation action on a global 

scale, action may already be needed locally to prevent 

them from becoming extinct in certain parts of their 

ranges. As the vast majority of partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys are very 

poorly known in the wild, these species at lower risk 

present an ideal opportunity for research training. For 

13

example, they may be suitable subjects for research into 

wise use through sustainable harvesting, which could 

provide an economic incentive to conserve both the birds 

and their habitats (Hudson and Rands 1988, Aebischer 

1991). Such studies may also lead to the development of 

techniques beneficial in the context of conservation of 

threatened partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys. 

14

Chapter 2 

Summary of the Conservation Status of 

Partridges, Quails, Francolins, Snowcocks, 


In order to prioritise species for conservation, it is 

desirable to place them in different categories 

representing the severity of threats they face and the 

likelihood of them becoming extinct. This allows 

conservation actions to be targeted at species and areas 

most in need of attention in a global or regional context. 

In November 1994, the IUCN Council approved a 

new set of such threatened species categories (IUCN 

1994) designed to provide an objective system that can 

be applied consistently by different people and across 

different groups of organisms, although this only became 

widely available in 1996. The new system also allows the 

user of threatened species lists to see exactly how and 

why each species has been placed in a certain threat 

category. The three categories indicating threatened 

status are Critically Endangered, Endangered, and 

Vulnerable. Species not considered under threat are 

placed in the Lower Risk category, subdivided into 

conservation dependent, near threatened, and least 

concern. All judgements of threat status should be 

reviewed on a regular basis. 

Certain criteria must be met to qualify a species for 

inclusion in a particular threat category. For example, 

Box 2.1 The IUCN Red List Categories (from 

IUCN 1994). 

Critically Endangered (CR) 

A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an 

extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate 

future. 

Endangered (EN) 

A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered, 

but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the 

near future. 

Vulnerable (VU) 

A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered 

or Endangered, but is facing a high risk of extinction in the 

wild in the medium-term future. 

Lower Risk (LR) 

A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, but does 

not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically 

Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable. 

a species represented by fewer than 2,500 mature 

individuals and with an estimated continuing decline of 

at least 20% within five years qualifies as Endangered 

(criterion C1), and one with fewer than 250 mature 

individuals and a 25% rate of decline within three years 

is considered Critically Endangered (criterion C1). These 

criteria have to be stated clearly and justified whenever 

a new threat categorisation is made. In this chapter, we 

present the results of an assessment conducted by experts 

in each species, through a process co-ordinated by the 

BirdLife Secretariat and using all relevant information 

available. The criteria for each threat category are 

reproduced from IUCN (1994), and presented together 

with the categorisations of each partridge, quail, 

francolin, snowcock, guineafowl, and turkey species. 

Full justifications as to why each species has been 

placed in a particular threat category are given in the 

following chapter. 

NOTE 

In the first Action Plan, the conservation status of species 

was assessed using the criteria proposed by Mace and 

Lande (1991). These criteria were widely known as the 

Mace-Lande Criteria, and have now been given the version 

number 1.0 in the process to revise the IUCN Red List 

categories and criteria (IUCN 1994). Because the criteria 

for assigning species to the categories have been revised, the 

present categorisations cannot be directly compared with 

those given in the first Action Plan. 

2.1 Critically Endangered species 

The following three species meet criteria for classification 

as Critically Endangered: 

Djibouti francolin 

(Francolinus ochropectus) 

Distribution: Djibouti 

Threat status/criteria: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED/ 

A1a,c,d; A2b,c,d 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, promote 

effective habitat management, large-scale assessment of 

conservation status (see Project 11 in Section 4.4) 

15

Box 2.2 Criteria for Critically Endangered (CR) 

A taxon is Critically Endangered when it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future, as 

defined by any of the following criteria (A to E): 

A. Population reduction in the form of either of the following: 

1. An observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected reduction of at least 80% over the last 10 years or three generations, 

whichever is the longer, based on (and specifying) any of the following: 

a) direct observation 

b) an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon 

c) a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence, and/or quality of habitat 

d) actual or potential levels of exploitation 

e) the effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation, pathogens, pollutants, competitors, or parasites. 

2. A reduction of at least 80%, projected or suspected to be met within the next 10 years or three generations, whichever is 

the longer, based on (and specifying) any of (b), (c), (d), or (e) above. 

B. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 100km 2 or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 10km 2 , 

and estimates indicating any two of the following: 

1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at only a single location. 

2. Continuing decline, observed, inferred, or projected, in any of the following: 

a) extent of occurrence 

b) area of occupancy 

c) area, extent, and/or quality of habitat 

d) number of locations or subpopulations 

e) number of mature individuals. 

3. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following: 



c) number of locations or subpopulations 

d) number of mature individuals. 

C. Population estimated to number less than 250 mature individuals and either: 

1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 25% within three years or one generation, whichever is longer, or 

2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals and population structure in the form 

of either: 

a) severely fragmented (i.e., no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 50 mature individuals) or 

b) all individuals are in a single subpopulation. 

D. Population estimated to number less than 50 mature individuals. 

E. Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within 10 years or three 

generations, whichever is the longer. 

Himalayan quail 

(Ophrysia superciliosa) 

The Critically Endangered gorgeted wood-quail is now known 

only from the Cachalu Wildlife Sanctuary in Colombia. 

Distribution: Uttar Pradesh, India 


D1 

Priority conservation actions: surveys to locate the species 

(see Project 17 in Section 4.4) 


(Odontophorus strophium) 

Distribution: eastern Andes in Colombia 


B1+2a,b,c,e 

Priority conservation actions: clarify taxonomic units, 

surveys, protect habitat, monitoring programme (see 

Project 18 in Section 4.4) 


16

2.2 Endangered species 

The following five species meet criteria for classification as 

Endangered: 

Nahan’s francolin (Francolinus nahani) 

Distribution: Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda 

Threat status/criteria: ENDANGERED/B1+2b,c,e 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, protect 

habitat, promote effective habitat management, 

monitoring programme (see Project 12 in Section 4.4) 


(Francolinus camerunensis) 

Distribution: Mount Cameroon 

Threat status/criteria: ENDANGERED/B1+2a,b,c,e 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, large-scale 

assessment of conservation status, promote effective 

habitat management, monitoring programme (see Project 

13 in Section 4.4) 

Sichuan hill-partridge 

(Arborophila rufipectus) 

Distribution: Sichuan, China 

Threat status/criteria: ENDANGERED/C2a 


habitat, promote effective habitat management (see Project 

14 in Section 4.4) 


(Arborophila davidi) 

Distribution: Conchinchina, southern Vietnam 

Box 2.3 Criteria for Endangered (EN) 

A taxon is Endangered when it is not Critically Endangered, but is facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near 

future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E): 











B. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000km 2 or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 

500km 2 , and estimates indicating any two of the following: 

1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations. 












C. Population estimated to number less than 2,500 mature individuals and either: 

1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 20% within five years or two generations, whichever is longer, or 


of either: 

a) severely fragmented (i.e., no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 250 mature individuals) or 


D. Population estimated to number less than 250 mature individuals. 

E. Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five 

generations, whichever is the longer. 

17

The orange-necked hill-partridge is known only from three sites in 

southern Vietnam. 



(Francolinus griseostriatus) 

Distribution: western Angola 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/B1+2a,b,c,e; C2a 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, protect habitat, largescale 

assessment of conservation status 

Swierstra’s francolin 

(Francolinus swierstrai) 

Distribution: western Angola 


Priority conservation actions: surveys, protect habitat, largescale 

assessment of conservation status 

Black wood-partridge 

(Melanoperdix nigra) 

Threat status/criteria: ENDANGERED/B1+2b,c,d,e; 

C1; C2a 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, protect habitat, 

monitoring programme (see Project 15 in Section 4.4) 

Chestnut-headed hill-partridge 

(Arborophila cambodiana) 

Distribution: southeast Thailand and southwest Cambodia 

Threat status/criteria: ENDANGERED/C1; C2a; D1 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, monitoring 

programme, clarify taxonomic units, conservation 

awareness programme (see Project 16 in Section 4.4) 

2.3 Vulnerable species 

The following 16 species meet criteria for classification as 

Vulnerable: 

Swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis) 

Distribution: Nepal, India, Bangladesh 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/A1c,d; A2c,d 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, promote 

effective habitat management, large-scale assessment of 

conservation status (see Project 19 in Section 4.5) 

Harwood’s francolin 

(Francolinus harwoodi) 

Distribution: central Ethiopia 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/B1+2c,e 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, protect habitat, 

encourage sustainable use, conservation awareness 

programme 

Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia, East Malaysia, and 

Sumatra 


Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, large-scale 

assessment of conservation status, protect habitat (see 


Manipur bush-quail 

(Perdicula manipurensis) 

Distribution: northeast India and apparently Bangladesh 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/A1c,d; A2c,d; C1; C2a 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, protect habitat (see 



(Xenoperdix udzungwensis) 

Distribution: Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/D2 

Priority conservation actions: study habitat requirements, 

study effects of human disturbance (see species account in 

Section 3.3) 


(Arborophila mandellii) 

Distribution: Bhutan, India, and Tibet 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/C1; C2a 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, large-scale 

assessment of conservation status, protect habitat 


(Arborophila gingica) 

Distribution: southeast China 

18

Box 2.4 Criteria for Vulnerable (VU) 

A taxon is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in 

the medium-term future, as defined by any of the following criteria (A to E): 











B. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 20,000km 2 or area of occupancy estimated to be less than 

2,000km 2 , and estimates indicating any two of the following: 

1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations. 












C. Population estimated to number less than 10,000 mature individuals and either: 

1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 10% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer, or 


of either: 

a) severely fragmented (i.e., no subpopulation estimated to contain more than 1,000 mature individuals) or 


D. Population very small or restricted in the form of either of the following: 

1. Population estimated to number less than 1,000 mature individuals. 

2. Population is characterised by an acute restriction in its area of occupancy (typically less than 100km 2 ) or in the number 

of locations (typically less than five). Such a taxon would thus be prone to the effects of human activities (or stochastic 

events whose impact is increased by human activities) within a very short period of time in an unforeseeable future, and 

is thus capable of becoming Critically Endangered or even Extinct in a very short period. 

E. Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years. 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/C1; C2a 


habitat, promote effective habitat management 

Hainan hill-partridge 

(Arborophila ardens) 

Distribution: Hainan Island, China 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/A1c,d; B1+2b,c,d,e; 

C1; C2a 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, large-scale assessment 

of conservation status, protect habitat, conservation 

awareness programme, encourage sustainable use (see 



(Arborophila orientalis) 

Distribution: eastern Java, Indonesia 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/A1c; A2c; B1+2b,c,e 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, large-scale 

assessment of conservation status, protect habitat 


(Dendrortyx barbatus) 

Distribution: eastern Mexico 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/A1c,d; A2c,d; 

B1+2a,b,c,e; C1; C2a 

19


(Odontophorus dialeucos) 

Distribution: eastern Panama and northwest Colombia 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/D2 


Project 4 in Section 4.2 and Project 10 in Section 4.3) 


(Agelastes meleagrides) 


Distribution: Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone 


Priority conservation actions: surveys, promote effective 

habitat management, regulate hunting, conservation 

awareness programme 

The white-breasted guineafowl of West Africa has undergone a 

rapid population decline over the past 10 years. 

Priority conservation actions: surveys, research, conservation 

awareness programme (see Project 22 in Section 4.5) 


(Odontophorus atrifrons) 

Distribution: Colombia and Venezuela 





(Odontophorus melanonotus) 

Distribution: northwest Ecuador, southwest Colombia 

Threat status/criteria: VULNERABLE/B1+2a,b,c,e 



2.4 Lower Risk species 

Box 2.5 Criteria for Lower Risk (LR) 

A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, but does 

not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically 

Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable. Taxa included in 

the Lower Risk category can be separated into three 

subcategories: 

1. Conservation Dependent (cd). 

Taxa which are the focus of a continuing taxon-specific 

or habitat-specific conservation programme targeted 

towards the taxon in question, the cessation of which 

would result in the taxon qualifying for one of the 

threatened categories above within a period of five years. 

2. Near Threatened (nt). 

Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, 

but which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. 

3. Least Concern (lc). 

Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent or 

Near Threatened. 

The Tibetan snowcock is found 

on open slopes above 3,700m 

in central Asia. Although not 

threatened, little is known of its 

ecology. 


20

The following 121 species are considered to be at Lower 

Risk (either Near Threatened or Least Concern). The Near 

Threatened subcategory is given in brackets after each such 

justification; all other species are considered Least Concern. 

Species Distribution Justification for Lower Risk 1 

Snow partridge Himalayas from Afghanistan to widespread, population in hundreds of thousands 

Lerwa lerwa 

central China 

See-see partridge southeast Turkey to Pakistan widespread with little human disturbance 

Ammoperdix griseogularis 

Sand partridge Egypt and Arabian Peninsula widespread and common, only local persecution 

Ammoperdix heyi 

Caucasian snowcock Caucasus despite small range, population numbers hundreds 

Tetraogallus caucasicus 

of thousands 

Caspian snowcock south and east Turkey, Armenia, global population estimated between 8,400 and 

Tetraogallus caspius Iran into Transcaspia 11,200; situation needs to be monitored 

Tibetan snowcock Tadjikistan to NW Sichuan range over 500,000km 2 

Tetraogallus tibetanus 

Altai snowcock southern Siberia and Mongolia range over 100,000km 2 , population estimated at 

Tetraogallus altaicus 50,000–100,000 

Himalayan snowcock Tadjikistan to west-central China range over 1,000,000km 2 

Tetraogallus himalayensis 

Chestnut-throated partridge western China little known, although reasonably large range and 

Tetraophasis obscurus 

very low human influence (nt) 

Buff-throated partridge eastern Himalayas little known, although very low human influence; 

Tetraophasis szechenyii 

situation needs to be monitored (nt) 

Rock partridge southeastern Europe despite human pressures, population still reasonable 

Alectoris graeca 

and widespread 

Chukar southeastern Europe to very large global range 

Alectoris chukar 

eastern China 

Philby’s partridge Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen restricted range, but locally common and subject to 

Alectoris philbyi 

little human influence (nt) 

Rusty-necklaced partridge north-central China restricted range, and human pressures possibly 

Alectoris magna 

causing decline; situation needs to be monitored (nt) 

Barbary partridge Morocco to Egypt common to abundant across much of range 

Alectoris barbara 

Red-legged partridge southwestern Europe although declining, still common over much of range, 

Alectoris rufa 

and widely introduced 

Arabian partridge Arabian Peninsula locally common, but in view of restricted range and 

Alectoris melanocephala 

possible dependence on juniper, situation should be 

monitored 

Black francolin Asia Minor to Bangladesh still common across much of large range 

Francolinus francolinus 

Painted francolin Indian Subcontinent reasonably common across much of large range 

Francolinus pictus 

Chinese francolin northeast India, IndoChina to global range over 1,000,000km 2 

Francolinus pintadeanus southeastern China 

Grey francolin Arabian Peninsula to Indian global range over 1,000,000km 2 

Francolinus pondicerianus Subcontinent 

Coqui francolin parts of central and southern Africa global range over 4,500,000km 2 

Francolinus coqui 

White-throated francolin western and central Africa global range over 1,000,000km 2 

Francolinus albogularis 

Schlegel’s francolin western Cameroon to little known, but undisturbed in much of range; 

Francolinus schlegelii southwestern Sudan situation should be monitored 

Forest francolin western and central Africa global range over 2,000,000km 2 

Francolinus lathami 

Crested francolin eastern Africa global range nearly 4,500,000km 2 

Francolinus sephaena 

Ring-necked francolin parts of central Africa range about 150,000km 2 ; locally common although 

Francolinus streptophorus 

situation should be monitored 

21


Finsch’s francolin Democratic Republic of Congo range about 180,000km 2 ; little known and situation 

Francolinus finschi and Angola should be monitored 

Grey-winged francolin South Africa range about 180,000km 2 , common in optimal habitat 

Francolinus africanus 

Red-winged francolin parts of central and southern Africa patchy global range over 1,000,000km 2 , within which 

Francolinus levaillantii 

locally common 

Moorland francolin Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya range about 180,000km 2 , some human pressures so 

Francolinus psilolaemus 


Shelley’s francolin southeastern Africa patchy global range over 1,300,000km 2 , within which 

Francolinus shelleyi 

generally common 

Orange River francolin southern and eastern Africa patchy global range over 1,400,000km 2 , within which 

Francolinus levaillantoides in two disjunct populations generally common 

Hartlaub’s francolin Angola to Namibia range about 300,000km 2 , rare in places so situation 

Francolinus hartlaubi 

should be monitored 

Double-spurred francolin western Africa nominate race very common, although race ayesha is 

Francolinus bicalcaratus 

declining within tiny range in Morocco 

Clapperton’s francolin central and eastern Africa global range over 2,000,000km 2 , within which 

Francolinus clappertoni 

generally common 

Heuglin’s francolin central Africa global range over 1,400,000km 2 , within which 

Francolinus icterorhynchus 

common to abundant 

Red-billed francolin Namibia to Botswana global range over 700,000km 2 , within which generally 

Francolinus adspersus 

common 

Cape francolin South Africa global range about 185,000km 2 , numbers believed to 

Francolinus capensis 

be stable 

Hildebrandt’s francolin eastern Africa global range about 1,200,000km 2 , locally rare so 

Francolinus hildebrandti 


Natal francolin southeastern Africa global range about 1,000,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus natalensis 

Ahanta francolin western Africa coastal belt global range about 200,000km 2 , in view of potential 

Francolinus ahantensis 

threats, situation should be monitored 

Scaly francolin central Africa global range about 2,300,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus squamatus 

Yellow-necked francolin eastern Africa global range about 1,300,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus leucoscepus 

Grey-breasted francolin northwestern Tanzania restricted global range of about 30,000km 2 ; generally 

Francolinus rufopictus 

common, although situation should be monitored 

Red-necked francolin southern Africa global range about 5,000,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus afer 

Swainson’s francolin southern Africa global range about 1,500,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus swainsonii 

Erckel’s francolin northern Ethiopia and Sudan global range about 220,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus erckelii 

Chestnut-naped francolin Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya global range about 270,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus castaneicollis 

Handsome francolin southwestern Uganda, Rwanda, global range about 130,000km 2 , generally common 

Francolinus nobilis and Burundi to Democratic but little known and situation should be monitored 

Republic of Congo 

Jackson’s francolin west-central Kenya global range about 50,000–60,000km 2 , locally 

Francolinus jacksoni 

common but situation should be monitored 

Grey partridge Britain to northwestern China very large range and still numbers in the millions 

Perdix perdix 

Daurian partridge China very large global range 

Perdix dauurica 

Tibetan partridge Himalayas widely distributed and fairly common 

Perdix hodgsoniae 

Long-billed wood-partridge Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, probably common in suitable habitat, but in view of 

Rhizothera longirostris and Borneo rapidly disappearing forests, situation should be 

closely monitored (nt) 

22


Madagascar partridge Madagascar population in the tens of thousands, although in view 

Margaroperdix madagascarensis 

of habitat loss, situation should be monitored 

Common quail Britain to central China, wintering very large global range and still generally common 

Coturnix coturnix 

in Africa, where also a resident 

population 

Japanese quail eastern China widespread and fairly common 

Coturnix japonica 

Stubble quail southern Australia expanding range and healthy population numbers 

Coturnix pectoralis 

Rain quail Indian Subcontinent very large range and generally common 

Coturnix coromandelica 

Harlequin quail southern Africa very large range and generally common 

Coturnix delegorguei 

Brown quail Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, large range and generally common 

Coturnix ypsilophora 

and Australia 

Blue quail southern Africa large range, although generally uncommon 

Coturnix adansonii 

Blue-breasted quail India to southeastern Australia large range, although locally uncommon 

Coturnix chinensis 

Snow mountain quail Irian Jaya very restricted range, but safe from human 

Anurophasis monorthonyx 

interference; very little known so surveys are needed 

to assess status (nt) 

Jungle bush-quail Indian Subcontinent large range and generally common 

Perdicula asiatica 

Rock bush-quail Indian Subcontinent large range and generally common 

Perdicula argoondah 

Painted bush-quail Indian Subcontinent large range and generally catholic habitat requirements 

Perdicula erythrorhyncha 

Common hill-partridge 

western Himalayas to 

Arborophila torqueola northwestern Vietnam fairly large range and generally common 

Rufous-throated hill-partridge northern India to central Vietnam large range, but scarce in places; situation should be 

Arborophila rufogularis 

monitored 

White-cheeked hill-partridge northeastern India to 

Arborophila atrogularis south-central China large range and locally common (nt) 

Taiwan hill-partridge Taiwan population about 10,000 birds, stable within protected 

Arborophila crudigularis 

areas; situation should be monitored (nt) 

Brown-breasted hill-partridge western Thailand to Vietnam fairly large range, but habitat loss continuing, so 

Arborophila brunneopectus 


Grey-breasted hill-partridge central Peninsular Malaysia, overall reasonably healthy populations, although races 

Arborophila orientalis Sumatra, and eastern Java campbelli and orientalis probably threatened 

Chestnut-bellied hill-partridge western Java reasonably common, although little information; 

Arborophila javanica 


Red-breasted hill-partridge northern Borneo locally common, although little information; situation 

Arborophila hyperythra 

should be monitored 

Red-billed hill-partridge Sumatra montane habitat at relatively little risk, so populations 

Arborophila rubrirostris 

should be stable 

Scaly-breasted hill-partridge IndoChina large range and apparently stable populations 

Arborophila chloropus 

Chestnut-necklaced hill-partridge Vietnam, Thai-Malay Peninsula, common in parts of its range, but nearly meets 

Aborophila charltonii Borneo, and Sumatra criteria for Vulnerable and situation should be carefully 

monitored (nt) 

Ferruginous wood-partridge Thai-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, widespread, but large scale habitat loss means that 

Caloperdix oculea and Borneo situation should be monitored (nt) 

Crimson-headed partridge Borneo possibly less than 10,000 birds, so situation should 

Haematortyx sanguiniceps 

be monitored 

Crested wood-partridge Thai-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, widespread and locally common, but large scale 

Rollulus rouloul and Borneo habitat loss means that situation should be 


23


Stone partridge central Africa very large range and generally common 

Ptilopachus petrosus 

Mountain bamboo-partridge northeast India to northern Vietnam large range, but fragmented populations mean that 

Bambusicola fytchii 


Chinese bamboo-partridge southeastern China fairly large range and generally common 

Bambusicola thoracica 

Red spurfowl Indian Subcontinent large range and generally catholic habitat requirements 

Galloperdix spadicea 

Painted spurfowl Indian Subcontinent large range and generally catholic habitat requirements 

Galloperdix lunulata 

Ceylon spurfowl Sri Lanka still locally common, but in view of restricted range 

Galloperdix bicalcarata 

and habitat loss, situation should be monitored 

Black guineafowl Nigeria to northeastern Democratic global population estimated at 100,000–500,000 birds 

Agelastes niger 

Republic of Congo 

Helmeted guineafowl central and southern Africa global population estimated at over 1,000,000 birds 

Numida meleagris 

and common over much of range 

Plumed guineafowl Cameroon to Lake Tanganyika population estimated at 10,000–100,000 birds and 

Guttera plumifera 

generally uncommon, so situation should be monitored 

Crested guineafowl parts of western and southern population estimated at about 100,000 birds and 

Guttera pucherani Africa generally stable 

Vulturine guineafowl Ethiopia to Kenya global population estimated at over 1,000,000 birds 

Acryllium vulturinum 


Ocellated turkey southeast Mexico, north locally abundant in protected areas, although range 

Meleagris ocellata Guatemala, and northwest and and population declining so situation should be 

west-central Belize 


Wild turkey U.S.A. global population estimated at about 3,500,000 birds 

Meleagris gallopavo 


Long-tailed wood-partridge southern Mexico global population estimated at 20,000–200,000, but 

Dendrortyx macroura 

possibly some hunting pressure, so situation should 

be monitored 

Buffy-crowned wood-partridge southern Central America global population estimated at 20,000–200,000, but 

Dendrortyx leucophrys 

possibly some hunting pressure, so situation should 

be monitored 

Mountain quail western U.S.A. and northwestern global population estimated at about 1,000,000 birds 

Oreortyx pictus Mexico and stable over much of range 

Scaled quail southern U.S.A. and Mexico global population estimated at about 1,000,000, 

Callipepla squamata 

possibly declining slightly 

Elegant quail western Mexico global population estimated at about 50,000–100,000 

Callipepla douglasii 

birds and locally common 

California quail western U.S.A., Baja California over 2,000,000 harvested annually in U.S.A., possibly 

Callipepla californica 

declining slightly 

Gambel’s quail southwestern U.S.A., global population estimated at about 1,000,000 birds 

Callipepla gambelii northwestern Mexico and stable over much of range 

Barred quail west-central Mexico global population estimated at under 100,000 birds, 

Philortyx fasciatus 

but apparently stable 

Northern bobwhite southeastern U.S.A., southern over 20,000,000 harvested annually in U.S.A., possibly 

Colinus virginianus and eastern Mexico declining slightly 

Black-throated bobwhite southern Central America global population estimated at about 100,000– 

Colinus nigrogularis 

1,000,000 birds and apparently stable 

Crested bobwhite northern South America global population estimated at over 1,000,000 birds 

Colinus cristatus 

and generally common 

Marbled wood-quail northern South America global population estimated at over 1,000,000 birds, 

Odontophorus gujanensis 

but possibly declining 

Spot-winged wood-quail eastern South America global population may number less than 50,000 birds 

Odontophorus capueira 

and possibly declining, so situation should be 

monitored 

Black-eared wood-quail southern Central America global population may number less than 50,000 birds 

Odontophorus melanotis 


monitored 

24


Rufous-fronted wood-quail northeastern South America global population may number less than 500,000 

Odontophorus erythrops 

birds, but locally common 

Chestnut wood-quail central and western Andes global population may number less than 10,000 birds 

Odontophorus hyperythrus of Colombia and declining, so situation must be monitored (nt) 

Rufous-breasted wood-quail western South America global population may number over 500,000 birds, 

Odontophorus speciosus 

and possibly stable 

Venezuelan wood-quail north-central Venezuela global population may number less than 10,000 birds 

Odontophorus columbianus 

and declining, so situation must be monitored (nt) 

Black-breasted wood-quail Costa Rica to western Panama global population may number less than 50,000 birds 

Odontophorus leucolaemus 


monitored 

Stripe-faced wood-quail Andes of southeastern Peru, global population may number less than 50,000 birds 

Odontophorus balliviani and northern and western Bolivia and possibly declining, so situation should be 

monitored 

Starred wood-quail western South America global population may number over 750,000 birds, 

Odontophorus stellatus 

and locally common 

Spotted wood-quail Central America global population may number over 500,000 birds, 

Odontophorus guttatus 

and generally common 

Singing quail Central America global population may number 100,000–500,000 

Dactylortyx thoracicus 

birds, and locally common 

Montezuma quail southern U.S.A. and Mexico global population may number over 500,000 birds, 

Cyrtonyx montezumae 

but declining slightly 

Ocellated quail southern Central America global population may number less than 50,000 birds 

Cyrtonyx ocellatus 



Tawny-faced quail Honduras to Ecuador global population may number over 500,000 birds, 

Rhynchortyx cinctus 

but declining slightly 

1 

from del Hoyo et al. (1994). Most of the information therein was collected during preparation for the 1995 Action Plan (see McGowan et al. (1994), 

McGowan et al. (1995), and World Pheasant Association (unpub. data)). 

25

Chapter 3 

Species Accounts 

The previous chapter presented an overview of the 

conservation status of all partridges, quails, francolins, 

snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys, and assigned each 

to a threat category. This chapter expands on this 

information and provides a detailed justification as to 

why each threatened species has been placed in that 

particular category. Species considered at Lower Risk 

are not treated here, as our aim is to draw attention to 

the species most in need of conservation action. These 

species accounts have been developed through an 

extensive review process involving the BirdLife 

Partnership, the PQF Specialist Group, the World 

Pheasant Association, and a worldwide network of 

ornithologists, co-ordinated by the BirdLife Secretariat. 

This means that the information presented here has 

been developed and reviewed by a wide range of active 

researchers. 

Each species is treated in a standard format. After 

detailing the criteria supporting inclusion in each of the 

three categories of threat and supplying a summary 

justification, the following information is provided: 

Range and Population: The full geographic distribution 

of the species is given, together with any available 

partial or complete estimates of population numbers or 

density. If any inferences can be made, or data exist on 

trends in population numbers and geographic range, 

these are given here. Facts are always distinguished 

from inferences. 

Ecology: Brief details of habitat use, diet, and breeding 

biology are provided in this section. 

Threats: The major known threats facing the species are 

described, together with some indication as to the relative 

importance of the different types. 

Conservation: This section outlines whether the species 

is protected by legal instruments or occurs in existing 

protected areas. It also gives details of recent 

conservation research and action that has been carried 

out to help protect the species. 

Targets: These are the recommendations supplied by 

various experts on each species, and endorsed by 

BirdLife International and the PQF Specialist Group. 

These targets outline the work most urgently required 

to help prevent the species from becoming more 

threatened or even extinct. 

3.1 Critically Endangered species 

Djibouti francolin 


Critically Endangered A1a,c,d; A2b,c,d 

An extremely rapid population decline has been observed 

exceeding 90% over the last 20 years. Assuming that this 

period is equivalent to no more than three generations, 

the species is classified as Critically Endangered. It is 

suspected that this decline could continue into the future 

(unless proposed conservation targets are urgently 

addressed), based on hunting levels and a continuing 

deterioration in habitat quality. 

Range and population: The Djibouti francolin is endemic 

to Djibouti, where it is known from only two sites: Forêt 

du Day (about 14–15km 2 (McGowan et al. 1995) and 

probably the only viable site) and the nearby Mabla 

Mountains. Available habitat at Forêt du Day was 

halved between 1977 and 1983 (del Hoyo et al. 1994) 

with a corresponding decline in the population from 

5,600 to 1,500 birds between 1978 and 1985 (McGowan 

et al. 1995). The population at Forêt du Day was 

estimated at about 500–1,000 in 1998 (G. Welch and H. 

Welch in litt.). The size of the population at Mabla is 

unknown. 

Ecology: It inhabits juniper woodland, with records 

occurring between 700 and 1,500m, but forest at Forêt du 

Day now only occurs above about 950m (Magin in prep.). 

It has been found in secondary forest and may occur in 

degraded woodlands. It feeds on seeds, berries, and 

termites, and also figs from the forest edge. The breeding 

season is December to February (del Hoyo et al. 1994). 

Threats: At Forêt du Day, the forest is in poor condition 

with a high proportion of trees either dead or dying. The 

reasons for this are unclear, but a combination of 

factors, including high levels of grazing by cattle, camels, 

and goats, acid rain, climate change, and fungal disease 

have all been proposed as possible causes (Magin in 

prep.). Other concerns include collection of firewood 

on lower slopes (Magin in prep.), hunting, and human 

disturbance (G. Welch and H. Welch in litt.). At Mabla, 

there are signs of significant human disturbance in 

remaining stands of forest which have been heavily used 

for firewood and grazing (Magin in prep.). 

26

Conservation: Part of Forêt du Day was apparently declared 

a national park in 1939, but the designation is no longer 

valid (Magin in prep.). Projects examining environmental 

and socio-economic issues in the Forêt du Day area have 

been carried out by the government and international 

agencies, but recommended measures have never been 

implemented, partly due to internal unrest since the early 

1990s (Magin in prep.). 

Targets: 

• Map suitable habitat and determine home ranges to 

determine the current population size and distribution. 

• Conduct ecological studies to determine habitat limits 

and reproductive ecology. 

• Develop a long-term integrated management project for 

the Goda Massif involving socio-economic and agropastoral 

surveys, and a conservation education 

programme (also applicable to Mabla, but work there 

considered unrealistic at present). 

Himalayan quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) 

Critically Endangered D1 

The threatened status of this enigmatic quail is extremely 

difficult to judge given the paucity of information. If not 

extinct, its population is likely to be tiny and inference, 

therefore, points to its classification as Critically Endangered. 

Range and population: The Himalayan quail is known only 

from the western Himalayas in north Uttar Pradesh, 

northwest India, where about a dozen specimens were 

collected near Mussooree and Naini Tal prior to 1877 

(Blyth 1867, Hume and Marshall 1879–1881). Field 

observations during the mid-19th century indicate that it 

may have been relatively common, but it was certainly rare 

by the late 1800s, potentially indicating a population 

decline (Comber 1905). The lack of records for over a 

century suggests that the species may now be extinct, 

although there have been few well-organised searches (Ali 

1977a,b; see Rieger and Walzthöny 1990 and Sankaran 

1990 for details on recent searches). The chances that a 

small population survives in some remote area in the lower 

or middle Himalayan range, however, seem slim. 

Ecology: It was recorded in long grass and scrub on steep 

hillsides, particularly south-facing slope crests, between 

1,650m and 2,400m. Generally encountered in covies of 6– 

12 birds, it was extremely elusive, never flying except when 

almost stepped on. It is unclear whether it was sedentary or 

a short-distance migrant. It was only recorded around 

Mussoorie and Naini Tal hill stations during the winter 

months, suggesting it may breed at higher altitudes (Hume 

and Marshall 1879–1881, Talwar 1995). 

Threats: The species was last seen 60 years before 

independence, indicating hunting levels during the colonial 

period contributed significantly to its decline (Talwar 1995). 

Widespread land-use changes thereafter, particularly opencast 

mining for limestone and related disturbance, are 

other likely contributing factors. Its contact call was 

apparently heard frequently in November and appears to 

have aided hunters in locating them (Ali 1977a,b). It has 

also been hypothesised that habitat changes at lower 

elevations during the post-Pleistocene glaciation might 

have pushed subpopulations to suboptimal higher 

elevations, causing local extinctions (Rieger and Walzthöny 

1990). 

Conservation: There has been a number of official and 

unofficial attempts to rediscover the species, covering most 

areas around Mussoorie and Naini Tal. However, none 

has yet been successful. 

Targets: 

• Conduct interviews with local hunters, involving the state 

Forest Department, about possible locations for the species. 

• Continue a comprehensive series of field surveys over 

several seasons based on these interviews, including the 

vicinity of old sites (Budraj, Benog, Jharipani, and Sherka-danda). 

• Conduct further surveys in areas supporting cheer pheasant 

Catreus wallichi, another west Himalayan endemic with 

similar habitat requirements. 

• Produce and distribute a poster-mediated information 

plea about the species within potential areas of occurrence. 



Critically Endangered B1+2a,b,c,e 

This species is Critically Endangered because it has an 

extremely small range, with recent records from only one 

location where logging and hunting are probably causing 

some declines in range and population. However, it may 

occur more widely and surveys are urgently required to 

elucidate its status. 

Range and population: The gorgeted wood-quail occurs on 

the west slope of the East Andes of Colombia. It was 

formerly known only from Cundinamarca, where it has 

not been reported since 1954 (Wege and Long 1995). It has 

since been recorded in Santander on the Cuchilla del Ramo 

in 1970, and Guaneta-Alto Rio Fonce Flora and Fauna 

Sanctuary from 1979 onwards. 

Ecology: It inhabits humid subtropical and temperate 

forests dominated by oak and laurel. It is only known to 

27

occur at 1,750–2,050m, but may range from 1,500–2,500m. 

Although probably dependent on primary forest for at 

least part of its life-cycle, it has been recorded in degraded 

habitats and secondary forest. It forages for fruits, seeds, 

and arthropods. The breeding season appears to coincide 

with peaks in annual rainfall in March–May and 

September–November. 

Threats: Since the 17th century, the west slope of the East 

Andes has been extensively logged and converted to 

agriculture, including pastures and, at lower altitudes, 

coffee, plantain, and sugar cane plantations (Stiles et al. 

1999). Forest loss below 2,500m has been almost complete 

(Stattersfield et al. 1998), with habitat in many areas 

reduced to tiny, isolated relics on steep slopes and along 

streams (Stiles et al. 1999). These landscape changes 

accelerated during the 20th century, especially after 1960, 

although in some areas habitat regeneration is beginning 

following the abandonment of marginal land (Stiles et al. 

1999). Selective logging and hunting affect birds in the 

lower part of the Guanenta-Alto Rio Fonce, but the forest 

is largely intact above 1,950–2,200m. The small remnants 

of subtropical forest in Cundinamarca are unlikely to 

support the species, but less disturbed and ornithologically 

unknown forests in west Boyaca and Santander (P. Salaman 

in litt., Stiles et al. 1999) might retain populations. 

Conservation: The Guanenta-Alto Rio Fauna and Flora 

Sanctuary, protecting 100km 2 of forest extending from 

1,950–2,200m to 3,000–3,900m, was gazetted in November 

1993 (Andrade and Repizzo 1994, Wege and Long 1995). 

Targets: 

• Identify and survey remnant forests outside Guaneta- 

Alto Rio Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, including on 

the Cuchilla del Ramo and in national parks such as 

Sumapaz in southern East Andes. 

• Develop initiatives to protect any additional sites 

discovered. 

• Estimate and monitor the population in Guanenta-Alto 

Rio Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary. 

3.2 Endangered species 

Nahan’s francolin (Francolinus nahani) 

Endangered B1+2b,c,e 

This species is listed as Endangered because its very small, 

severely fragmented range is undergoing a continuing decline 

in area of occupancy, and in the extent and quality of habitat 

due to deforestation and forest degradation. However, the 

species may be discovered at new locations in the future, now 

that its distinctive calls are known (Rossouw in press). 

Range and population: The Nahan’s francolin is known 

from a few localities in the eastern Democratic Republic of 

Congo (DRC) from Yangambi eastwards, and in central 

and western Uganda in Budongo, Bugoma (401km 2 ) and 

Mabira (320km 2 ) Forests (del Hoyo et al. 1994, Dranzoa et 

al. 1999). Its reported presence in Bwamba (=Semliki) and 

Kibale (560km 2 ) Forests (Uganda) has never been confirmed 

and is best discounted (Dranzoa et al. 1999, D. Pomeroy in 

litt., M. Carswell in litt.). It is known to be uncommon in the 

still extensive Ituri Forest, DRC, and fairly common in 

Budongo Forest, Uganda (Plumptre 1996). 

Ecology: It is found in lowland primary forest up to 

1,400m, preferring riverine or swampy areas (del Hoyo et 

al. 1994, Dranzoa et al. 1999). In Uganda, it occurs in both 

unlogged and logged forest (Sande in press), including 

mixed forest subject to moderate logging and/or 

disturbance, or where natural gaps occur, but is not 

recorded from forest edge or plantations (Dranzoa et al. 

1999). It prefers to forage in areas of dense understorey 

(Sande in press), searching the leaf litter for invertebrates, 

shoots, seeds, and bulbs (del Hoyo et al. 1994) and probably 

picking invertebrates from low vegetation (Sande in press). 

It is highly territorial and breeds throughout the year, 

though mainly towards the beginning of the rainy season 

(Sande in press). Most nests are placed on the ground 

between the butresses of large trees (Sande in press). 

Threats: Its habitat in Mabira Forest is highly degraded 

(Dranzoa et al. 1999). While logging in Bugoma Forest 

may not directly threaten the species, increased disturbance 

and poaching by pitsawyers may reduce its population (J. 

Lindsell in litt.). Both forests are surrounded by agricultural 

settlements, industrial development, and urban areas 

(Dranzoa et al. 1999). In Uganda, it is hunted for food and 

eggs are collected and eaten or used in traditional practices 

(Dranzoa et al. 1999). 

Conservation: In the DRC, the population in the Semliki 

Valley is within the Virunga National Park (del Hoyo et al. 

1994). In Uganda, it occurs in the Bugoma and Mabira 

Forest Reserves, as well as the Budongo Forest Reserve, 

which has been sustainably managed for timber since the 

1920s (Plumptre 1996). 

Targets: 

• Study its distribution in forest remnants, dispersal, and 

predation rates, and effects of selective logging in 

Budongo. 

• Assess population densities in Mabira and Bugoma. 

• Monitor the population in Uganda (Bugoma, Mabira, 

Budongo). 

• Research levels, extent, and effects of hunting. 

• Assess status in the DRC and other forests in Uganda 

where the species may occur. 

28

• Extend the Virunga National Park in DRC to include 

the east Ituri Forest. 



Endangered B1+2a,b,c,e 

This species qualifies as Endangered because it has a very 

small range being found on only one mountain, where it now 

faces increasing threats from human-induced burning of its 

habitat and the retreat of the forest/savanna boundary in 

some places. 

Range and population: The Mount Cameroon francolin is 

found on Mt Cameroon, Cameroon, where it is restricted 

to the southeast and northeast slopes (Urban et al. 1986). 

During survey work in 1984, it was found to be common, 

especially on the southern slopes of the mountain. Recent 

sightings have been irregular and are usually of single 

pairs (J. Acworth in litt.). 

Ecology: It inhabits dense undergrowth in primary forest 

and clearings between 850 and 2,100m. It appears able to 

tolerate secondary forest and has been observed in savannascrub 

habitat following forest burning (J. Acworth in litt.). 

It feeds on berries, grass seeds, and insects, and breeds 

during the dry season with birds laying between October 

and December. 

Threats: While fire is a natural phenomenon on Mount 

Cameroon, and lava flows occur about every 20 years, 

regular burning of grassland by hunters is probably the 

greatest threat to the species, causing the destruction of 

both eggs and young birds (J. Acworth in litt.). Recurrent 

bush fires destroy forest, particularly on the southeast 

slopes (F. Dowsett-Lemaire in litt.). Clearance is an 

additional problem, notably on the east side of the 

mountain, where it is extensive and could become more 

serious, with hunting posing a relatively insignificant (but 

continuing) threat. 

Conservation: There is an internationally funded 

conservation and development project on Mt Cameroon, 

though efforts to date have mainly concentrated on lowland 

areas threatened with clearance for plantation agriculture 

(J. Acworth in litt.). 

Targets: 

• Collect detailed distribution information, including any 

evidence of fragmentation. 

• Determine its habitat use more precisely. 

• Determine, if possible, how the species can be monitored. 

• Control/regulate human-induced burning of grasslands. 

Sichuan hill-partridge 


Endangered C2a 

This species is listed as Endangered because its population 

is very small, and severely fragmented, and it is continuing 

to decline because of ongoing habitat loss. 

Range and population: The Sichuan hill-partridge is 

endemic to China, where it is known from south-central 

Sichuan, with probable records from northeast Yunnan. 

Surveys in 1996 and 1997 estimated densities of 0.48 

and 0.24 calling males per km 2 respectively (Dowell et 

al. 1997, Dai Bo et al. 1998). The total area of suitable 

habitat within its known range was then estimated at 

1,793km 2 , and on the basis of the densities recorded, 

and on the (untested) assumption that each calling male 

represents one pair, the total population was very 

approximately estimated at 860–1,722 birds (Dai Bo et 

al. 1998). However, it was recorded at a new site in 1998 

and 1999, so this population estimate may prove to be 

too low. 

Ecology: It is found in subtropical broadleaf forest, mainly 

mixed evergreen and deciduous, at 1,100–2,250m (Dai Bo 

et al. 1998). When foraging, it appears to favour closedcanopy 

forest with an open forest floor, sparse bamboo 

growth, and damp leaf litter. It occurs in disturbed and 

secondary forest, but usually within 0.5km of primary 

forest (Dowell et al. 1997, Dai Bo et al. 1998). 

Threats: The main threat is habitat destruction through 

commercial clear-felling of primary forest (King 1989), 

as most remaining primary broadleaf forest within its 

known range is at risk from logging in the next 20–25 

years. In some areas, forest is being cleared for 

agriculture or illegally logged. Many people enter its 

forest habitat to collect bamboo shoots in spring and 

early autumn, which creates substantial disturbance 

during the breeding season. Additional disturbance is 

caused by livestock either grazing in or moving through 

the forest. It is also illegally hunted (Dowell et al. 1997, 

Dai Bo et al. 1998). 

Conservation: It is a nationally protected species in 

China. In 1998, it was recorded in Mabian Dafengding 

Nature Reserve, where there was estimated to be 192km 2 

of potentially suitable habitat (Dai Bo et al. 1998). 

Several recent surveys have greatly improved knowledge 

of its distribution, population density, and ecological 

and conservation requirements. Some forestry practices 

may be of benefit to its conservation, notably leaving 

strips of primary forest along ridge tops and replanting 

with native broadleaf trees (Dowell et al. 1997). 

29

Targets: 

• Establish a network of four protected areas, including an 

extension to Mabian Dafengding Nature Reserve. 

• Promote beneficial forestry practices. 

• Conduct surveys to establish its presence and population 

densities to the west and south of its known range. 

• Conduct a radio-telemetry study to establish the 

details of its habitat requirements and breeding biology 

to help develop the most appropriate management 

recommendations. 



Endangered B1+2b,c,d,e; C1; C2a 

This partridge qualifies for Endangered because it has a very 

small population and a very small range, both of which are 

declining and undergoing severe fragmentation owing to 

habitat loss. High levels of hunting are an additional pressure. 

Range and population: The orange-necked hill-partridge is 

endemic to southern Vietnam. It is known from just three 

sites, with recent records from just two (Eames et al. 1992, 

McGowan 1992, Robson 1996, J. Eames in litt., Nguyen 

Cu in litt., Nguyen Tran Vy in litt.): Cat Tien National 

Park, where it occurs on at least three isolated hills in the 

eastern half and is described as being quite common 

(Robson 1997), and Bu Kroai. It may be widespread in 

southern Lam Dong, Dong Nai, Binh Duong, and Bunh 

Phuoc Provinces, where suitable habitat remains. In 1994, 

its global population was estimated at

population is estimated at 100–1,000 individuals 

(McGowan et al. 1995, P. Round in litt.). 

Ecology: It is presumed resident in evergreen forest on 

slopes and plateaux, and has also been recorded in open 

areas (Delacour 1928, Engelbach 1938). It is generally 

found in mountains from 700–1,400m in Thailand and on 

plateaux up to 1,000m in Cambodia, although it has been 

recorded down to 300–400m in the two countries, 

respectively. 

Threats: Large-scale, military-controlled logging is the 

major threat in Cambodia, compounded by widespread, 

uncontrolled hunting. Both Bokor and Kirirom National 

Parks are subject to heavy logging, much of it clandestine, 

which has affected an estimated 80% of Bokor (Poole 

1999). Selective logging and small-scale forest encroachment 

are the main threats in Thailand. Disturbance through 

occasional dry season fires and perhaps the local avicultural 

trade may be additional threats. Levels of hunting are high 

in areas where the species occurs (Round 1988, P. Round 

in litt.). 

Conservation: The species is afforded full legal protection 

in both Thailand and Cambodia. It occurs within Namtok 

Phliu National Park and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, 

Thailand and Bokor, and probably Kirirom National 

Parks in Cambodia, However, protected area status at the 

latter two sites conveys very little effective protection. 

Political instability and uncleared landmines have 

precluded any conservation action within its range in 

Cambodia (Poole 1999). 

Targets: 

• Conduct extensive surveys to establish its distribution, 

status, and habitat requirements, especially along the 

Cardomom chain north of Bokor in Cambodia. 

• Monitor the Khao Soi Dao population. 

• Establish the taxonomic relationship between A. c. diversa 

and A. c. cambodiana. 

• Promote public awareness of the its conservation status 

and legislation pertaining to the species in Thailand and 

Cambodia. 

• Lobby for a moratorium on logging in Bokor and Kirirom 

National Parks, Cambodia. 

3.3 Vulnerable species 

Swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis) 

Vulnerable A1c,d; A2c,d 

This species is classified as Vulnerable because it has undergone 

a rapid population decline, which is projected to continue, 

concurrent with the rapid decline in extent and quality of its 

specialised habitat. Hunting is an additional pressure. 

Range and population: The swamp francolin is endemic to 

the Ganges and Brahmaputra River Basins, from the terai 

of western Nepal through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West 

Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, northern 

India, to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the 

Sundarbans, Bangladesh (Ripley 1982). In India, 

populations have been found in all well-protected terai 

grasslands, suggesting it exists in greater numbers than 

previously thought. In Nepal, where its range covers 

about 2,400km 2 with a 330km 2 area of occupancy, the 

population is estimated at

• Identify the most important conservation sites for the 

species and make management recommendations for 

these localities. 

• Study trade-related aspects of the species. 

Harwood’s francolin 

(Francolinus harwoodi) 

Vulnerable B1+2c,e 

This species qualifies as Vulnerable because hillside habitat 

is being lost within its small, possibly fragmented range. 

However, it is unclear what its essential habitat requirements 

are and thus suitable habitat could be more extensive than is 

currently believed. 

Range and population: Harwood’s francolin is restricted to 

the highlands of central Ethiopia around the Blue Nile 

River and its tributaries (del Hoyo et al. 1994). According 

to local reports, its range extends northwards into Southern 

Wello and northwest into Eastern Gojam Administrative 

Zones (Wondafrash 1998). Research in 1996 found it 

locally abundant in the Jemma and Jara Valleys and the 

adjacent valleys and river catchment systems of North 

Showa Zone, with an estimated maximum density of 92 

birds per km 2 at Jemma Valley (del Hoyo et al. 1994, 

Wondafrash 1998). It is not known if birds move between 

adjacent valleys, but it is probable that some populations 

number more than 1,000 individuals (P. Robertson in 

litt.). Surveys in 1998 found it at a number of new sites 

within its known range (A. Shimelis in litt.). 

Ecology: The species was believed to be almost entirely 

restricted to Typha (bulrush) beds growing along small, 

shallow watercourses and Acacia woodland (EWNHS 

1996). However, studies in 1996 found it at a site with no 

permanent river or Typha and evidence of birds roosting 

in extensive thorn scrub on hillsides (Robertson et al. 

1997). The breeding season is reported to be from 

September to December and clutch-size between four and 

seven. It may be polygamous (Robertson et al. 1997, 

Wondafrash 1998). 

Threats: There is intense pressure on resources within the 

species’ range and, consequently, even marginal scrub 

land (favoured by the species for cover) is being cleared for 

agriculture (EWNHS 1996, Wondafrash 1998). Land is 

also cleared to provide wood for fuel and construction 

(EWNHS 1996). Surveys in 1998 found areas between 

localities to have thin and patchy vegetation (A. Shimelis 

in litt.). Typha beds are burnt annually so that farmers can 

plant cotton and are also cut for thatching (EWNHS 1996, 

Robertson et al. 1997). The species is heavily hunted for 

food and is sometimes also caught for sale at local markets 

(EWNHS 1996, Wondafrash 1998). Eggs are taken for 

food (Robertson et al. 1997, A. Shimelis in litt.). 

Conservation: Although four or five game reserves in the 

Blue Nile Basin have been proposed, none has been 

established (EWNHS 1996). 

Targets: 

• Carry out population surveys to the north and northwest 

of the species’ currently known range. 

• Conduct further surveys to assess the distribution, habitat 

requirements, and importance of different threats. 

• Develop and implement a community-orientated action 

plan for the conservation of the species and its habitat, 

based on this research. 

• Protect key areas in collaboration with local communities. 


(Francolinus griseostriatus) 

Vulnerable B1+2a,b,c,e; C2a 

This species qualifies as Vulnerable due to an inferred 

continuing decline in its small, severely fragmented range and 

population. However, there is little information and it may 

prove to be more evenly distributed along the Angolan scarp. 

Range and population: The grey-striped francolin is 

restricted to the escarpment zone of western Angola, 

occurring in two populations separated by 400km, in 

Cuanza Sul and southern Benguela Provinces. It was first 

collected in 1957 and, as far as is known, has been recorded 

on only a few occasions since (W. Dean in litt.). 

Ecology: It is found in secondary and gallery forest, 

occurring in thickets and weed-covered areas in the north 

of its range. It feeds in grassland and abandoned cotton 

fields adjacent to the forest in the early morning and late 

afternoon, on small arthropods, shoots, and seeds (del 

Hoyo et al. 1994). 

Threats: A review in 1992 suggested that the forest on the 

escarpment was slowly but steadily decreasing. At one 

known site, Chongoroi in Benguela Province, clearance of 

vegetation for subsistence farming may threaten the species, 

though the steepness of the escarpment may provide some 

protection (Dean in prep.). It is almost certainly very 

heavily hunted. Civil unrest is widespread throughout its 

known range and the situation may have deteriorated 

further with the movement of displaced people into the 

Luanda area (Dean in prep.). 

Conservation: It occurs in the Quicama National Park 

(Dean in prep.). A protected area of about 20km 2 at 

32

Chongoroi was recommended in the early 1970s, but has 

not yet been established (Huntley 1974a, Huntley and 

Matos 1994). 

Targets: 

• Conduct extensive surveys to assess the species’ status 

and recommend future action (though the military 

situation in the country currently precludes this). 

• Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of 

forest cover and identify potential areas of suitable 

habitat (so that surveys can start once civil unrest abates). 

Swierstra’s francolin 

(Francolinus swierstrai) 


This species qualifies as Vulnerable owing to its small, 

highly fragmented range and population. It is inferred that 

there is a continuing decline in the area, extent, and quality 

of forest within its range and consequently in overall numbers. 

Range and population: Swierstra’s francolin is found in 

western Angola, from Tundavala in Huila District north 

to Cariango in Cuanza Sul District, on inselbergs in 

Huambo District, and the Bailundu Highlands (Dean in 

press). On Mt Moco in the Bailundu Highlands, the area 

with the most forest remaining, only 15 forest patches (1– 

15ha) survive and all are located in deep ravines (Dean in 

prep.). 

Ecology: It is found in montane areas, where it is known 

mainly from forest and forest edge, but also recorded from 

rocky and grassy mountainsides, tall grass savannas on 

mountain-tops, and gullies. In forests, it stays within 

dense undergrowth of bushes, shrubs, grasses, and large 

ferns. It feeds on grasses, legume seeds, and insects picked 

from leaf litter. Its breeding ecology is virtually unknown, 

but specimens collected in August suggest a breeding 

season in May or June. 

Threats: On Mt Moco, it is threatened by logging, clearing, 

and burning, and the remaining forest patches are 

disappearing rapidly (Dean in prep., Huntley 1974b). 

Hunting may also be a serious problem. 

Conservation: A protected area of about 60km 2 at Mt 

Moco was proposed in the 1970s, but has not yet been 

established (Huntley 1974a, Huntley and Matos 1994). 

Targets: 

• Conduct surveys to determine distribution, population 

size, and habitat requirements (though the military 

situation in the country currently precludes this). 

• Use satellite imagery to assess the current extent of 

forest cover and, if possible, identify potential areas of 

suitable habitat (so that surveys can start once civil 

unrest abates). 

Black wood-partridge 

(Melanoperdix nigra) 


The continuing rapid reduction in extent and quality of 

habitat across much of this partridge’s range implies that its 

population is undergoing a rapid decline, qualifying it as 

Vulnerable. 

Range and population: The black wood-partridge is known 

from Peninsular and East Malaysia (including both 

Sabah and Sarawak), and Kalimantan and Sumatra, 

Indonesia (Smythies 1981, van Marle and Voous 1988, 

Wells 1999). It is described as local and sparse to uncommon 

in Peninsular Malaysia, and there are recent records from 

at least three sites in Kalimantan and one in Sumatra 

(Dutson 1990, Wells 1999). However, its distribution and 

population status are generally very poorly known, and 

lack of information on vocalisations has hampered the 

success of searches. It is presumably declining because of 

dramatic ongoing reductions in its habitat (D. Holmes 

in litt.). 

Ecology: In Peninsular Malaysia, it is judged to be a 

lowland specialist, where it has a proclivity for primary or 

mature, regenerated, closed-canopy evergreen forest on 

alluvial soils (Wells 1999). In Indonesia, it has been recorded 

in peatswamp forest, and historically was described as 

inhabiting brushwood and high bamboo-jungle (van Marle 

and Voous 1988). Recent evidence from Borneo suggests 

that it probably ranges up to at least 900m, perhaps 

1,200m (Wilkinson et al. 1991). 

Threats: The overriding threats are habitat loss, 

degradation, and fragmentation as a result of large-scale 

commercial logging (even within protected areas) and 

widespread clearance for plantations of rubber and oil 

palm (Wells 1999, D. Holmes and G. Davison in litt.). In 

Indonesia, the full impact of the major fires of 1997-1998 

has still to be fully assessed, but drought fires appear to be 

increasing in frequency and severity on Sumatra and 

Borneo (Legg and Laumonier 1999, D. Holmes in litt.). At 

current rates of habitat loss, given no change in current 

forest management policy, dryland lowland rainforest 

could disappear completely by 2005 on Sumatra, and 2010 

in Kalimantan (D. Holmes in litt.). Hunting for food may 

pose an additional, more localised threat (McGowan et al. 

1995). 

33

Conservation: It is known to occur in at least six protected 

areas: Taman Negara and Krau Wildlife Reserve 

(Peninsular Malaysia), Kinabalu National Park (Sabah), 

Gunung Mulu National Park (Sarawak), Tanjung Puting 

National Park and Gunung Palung Nature Reserve 

(Kalimantan), and Berbak Game Reserve (Sumatra). It 

also occurs in Pasoh Reserve Forest in Peninsular Malaysia 

(McGowan et al. 1995). 

Targets: 

• Identify and record its vocalisations to aid field 

surveys. 

• Identify remaining suitable habitat tracts, and conduct 

extensive field surveys and village interviews within 

these areas to clarify its current distribution and 

population status. 

• Conduct research into its ecological and habitat 

requirements. 

• Advocate protection of further areas following surveys, 

if necessary. 

• Afford the species full protection under Indonesian and 

Malaysian law. 

Manipur bush-quail 


Vulnerable A1c,d; A2c,d; C1; C2a 

This poorly known species’ specialised habitat is undergoing 

a continuing rapid decline and severe fragmentation. In 

addition, there have been no confirmed records of the bird 

since 1932, indicating it may have a small population. These 

factors, combined with ongoing hunting pressures across its 

range, qualify it as Vulnerable. 

Range and population: The Manipur bush-quail is endemic 

to northern West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, 

and Meghalaya, northeast India, its range apparently 

previously extending into Chittagong, Chittagong Hill 

Tracts, and Sylhet Districts, Bangladesh (Karim 1982, 

Khan 1982). Described historically as local but not very 

rare, the species was documented as declining in Manipur 

by the 1930s (Higgins 1933-1934). There are no recent 

records, just one unconfirmed report from Dibru-Saikhowa 

Wildlife Sanctuary, India, in March 1998 (Allen 1998). If 

it does occur in Bangladesh, any remaining populations 

must be small. 

Ecology: A probable resident, it inhabits damp grassland, 

particularly stands of tall grass, and sometimes bogs and 

swamps, from the foothills up to about 1,000m (Ripley 

1982). Historical records indicate that it was generally 

encountered in small groups of 4–12, and was shy, reluctant 

to fly and extremely difficult to observe, although covies 

were occasionally seen feeding in the open on recently 

burnt ground (Turner 1899, Wood 1899). The few available 

data indicate that it breeds between January and May. 

Threats: Drainage and destruction of tall grasslands to 

meet the demands of an exploding human population has 

been extensive in Manipur and Bangladesh, presumably 

greatly reducing and fragmenting available habitat. Any 

extensive patches of elephant grass that might remain in 

Bangladesh are inundated for two-thirds of the year and 

thus unlikely to support significant populations. Its habit 

of running in tightly knit groups when fleeing disturbance 

makes it easy to kill several birds with a single shot, a 

factor that likely contributed to its decline during the 20th 

century (R. Kaul in litt.). A dramatic rise in hunting levels 

across its range, particularly in Bangladesh, probably also 

contributed. 

Conservation: No conservation measures are known to 

have been taken. It is not known to occur in any protected 

areas, and surveys for it in the border regions of Manipur, 

Nagaland, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts have been 

precluded due to security problems (P. Thompson in litt.). 

Targets: 

• Identify and survey any remaining suitable habitat in or 

near known localities in Manipur and Assam. 

• Investigate its occurrence in Bangladesh. 

• Afford protection to any areas of grassland found to 

support populations at the earliest opportunity. 


(Xenoperdix udzungwensis) 

Vulnerable D2 

This species qualifies as vulnerable because, although it is 

known from only four locations, its small population is 

inferred to be stable as three of the locations lie within 

protected areas, and, currently, no major factors appear to 

threaten it. Nevertheless, any indication of a continuing 

decline would result in its immediate classification as 

Endangered. 

Range and population: The Udzungwa forest-partridge is 

endemic to Tanzania, being known only from the eastern 

Udzungwa Highlands (Mt. Luhombero (T. Butynski in 

litt.), and the Ndundulu and Nyamanitu Mountains 

(Dinesen et al. 1994)) and the northern Rubeho Mountains 

(Mafwemiro Forest) (Fjeldså in prep.), about 150km to 

the north. It seems genuinely absent from the rest of the 

Udzungwa Highlands and from Image Forest, but may 

occur in the unexplored Gologolo Mountains (Fjeldså in 

prep., D. Moyer and E.A. Mulungu in litt.). Its area of 

34

occupancy has been estimated at 160–300km 2 , suggesting 

a total population of about 3,500 individuals (Dinesen et 

al. in prep.). However, a recent study in Luhombero 

Forest indicated that the density there was probably lower 

(T. Butynski in litt.), so this may be an overestimate. A 

decline has been “observed” at one locality visited at 

different times of the year, but this may be explained by 

seasonal altitudinal movements (D. Moyer and E.A. 

Mulungu in litt.). 

Ecology: It inhabits montane and sub-montane evergreen 

forest, occurring on ridges, steep rocky slopes, and flatter 

ground, especially where the understorey is open. It may 

occur below 1,350m in the Udzungwa Highlands (Dinesen 

et al. in prep). It feeds on invertebrates and seeds found in 

the leaf litter on the forest floor (del Hoyo et al. 1994). 

Breeding possibly starts with the onset of the rains. Adults 

have been seen with chicks in late November and in early 

December. 

Threats: Snaring of ground-dwelling birds and mammals 

at Nyumbanitu may have affected the population locally. 

However, throughout the Udzungwa Highlands there is 

no evidence that hunting is a threat (D. Moyer and E.A. 

Mulungu in litt.). 

Conservation: Ndundulu and Nymbanitu Mountains lie 

within the West Kilombero Forest Reserve and Luhombero 

is in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (D. Moyer 

and E.A. Mulungu in litt.). The latter protected area is 

supported by an ongoing conservation project that includes 

a community outreach component. 

Targets: 

• Establish the precise altitudinal range and breadth of 

habitat types used. 

• Evaluate the effects of human disturbance by comparing 

population densities, habitat use, and breeding success in 

undisturbed parts of the forest with areas where there is 

logging, pole cutting, and subsistence hunting. 


(Arborophila mandellii) 

Vulnerable C1; C2a 

It is inferred from limited available data that this partridge 

has a small population, which is declining and becoming 

increasingly fragmented. It is, therefore, classified as 

Vulnerable. 

Range and population: The chestnut-breasted hill-partridge 

is endemic to the eastern Himalayas north of the 

Brahmaputra, known from Bhutan, West Bengal 

(Darjeeling only), Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, 

northeast India, and southeast Tibet, China. There are 

recent records from several sites in Bhutan, including the 

ThrumsingLa National Park and Shemgang Dzongkhag 

(Grimmett et al. 1998). It is locally common in the remaining 

forests of Arunachal Pradesh and perhaps also parts of 

West Bengal, suggesting it may be evenly distributed right 

across its range wherever suitable habitat occurs (Kaul et 

al. 1995, R. Kaul in litt.). 

Ecology: It is resident in undergrowth of evergreen forest, 

including bamboo. Often found close to streams, the 

species ranges from perhaps as low as 350m up to 2,500m 

(McGowan et al. 1995), but invariably 1,700–2,000m 

based on recent records. 

Threats: Forest degradation and fragmentation, as a result 

of shifting cultivation, timber harvesting, and clearance 

for tea plantations, are increasing problems in northeast 

India (McGowan et al. 1995). Hunting in the Mishmi 

Hills (including within protected areas) is apparently 

rampant, with snares set for mammals also responsible for 

the deaths of many Galliformes (Kaul 1994). Singalila 

National Park suffers high incursion rates from visitors 

coming to hunt, collect forest products, and graze livestock 

(R. Kaul in litt.). Extensive grazing across much of its 

range presents a further threat. As Bhutan’s population 

increases, shifting agriculture and grazing are likely to 

become problems, despite the country’s admirable forestry 

policy. 

Conservation: It is known from at least two protected 

areas, Singalila National Park (West Bengal) and 

Thrumsing La National Park (Bhutan), and has been 

reported recently from Mehao and Dibang Valley Wildlife 

Sanctuaries, Arunachal Pradesh (Kaul 1994, Kaul et al. 

1995). A recent ban has been placed on timber export from 

forests in Arunachal Pradesh. Bhutan’s national policy of 

maintaining forests over 60% of the country potentially 

goes a long way toward ensuring a safe long-term future 

for this species there (Adams 1989). 

Targets: 

• Verify all recent records based on vocalisations, and 

distribute recordings of the species to assist fieldworkers. 

• Conduct extensive surveys to clarify distribution, status, 

altitudinal preference, and habitat requirements 

throughout its suspected range. 

• Conduct ecological studies, focusing on habitat selection, 

population status, and threats. 

• Promote effective enforcement of the ban on timber 

export from Arunachal Pradesh and control of timber 

supplies to plywood industries operating within the state, 

and campaign for further protection of natural habitats 

within its core range. 

35


(Arborophila gingica) 

Vulnerable C1; C2a 

This species is listed as Vulnerable because its severely 

fragmented population is assumed to be small, and it is 

continuing to decline because of on-going habitat loss. 

Range and population: The white-necklaced hillpartridge 

is endemic to China, where it is known from 

scattered localities in the mountain ranges in the 

southeast, in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, and 

Guangdong. There have been few studies of its 

population size and distribution, but it is now considered 

to be rare in many parts of its range, and no longer 

found in some areas, with a total population of probably 

less than 10,000 individuals (Li Xiangtao 1996). 

However, it is still locally common in some regions, for 

example in northern Guangdong (Mell 1922, Lewthwaite 

1995), and its population may prove to be larger than 

the recent estimates. 

Ecology: Its typical habitats are broadleaf and 

mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, bamboo, and scrub 

at 500 to 1,900m in the higher mountains of southeast 

China (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987, Li Xiaoliu et al. 1990, 

P. Alström in litt.). It is confined to densely forested 

areas, where it stays on the ground in thick undergrowth 

all day but roosts communally in trees, and is very noisy 

before going to roost (Rickett 1900, Caldwell and Caldwell 

1931). 

Threats: This species is threatened mainly by the continuing 

loss and fragmentation of its habitat, as most forest has 

been cleared or modified as a result of the demands for 

agricultural land and timber (Smil 1984). Hunting for 

food and market trading is also a threat (King 1987, Zheng 

Guangmei and Wang Qishan 1998). 

Conservation: There are many protected areas in or 

close to its range, but most of these reserves are relatively 

small and isolated, and it is not clear how many of them 

contain large enough areas of suitable forest to support 

viable populations. The large Wuyi Mountains Nature 

Reserve (565km 2 ) in Fujian is likely to be especially 

important for its long-term survival (Stattersfield et al. 

1998). 

Targets: 

• Advocate listing as a nationally protected species in 

China. 

• Conduct surveys in protected areas throughout its range 

to determine which of them support significant 

populations. 

• Conduct studies of its habitat requirements to help 

develop appropriate management practices in protected 

areas for the conservation of this species. 

• Manage existing protected areas where it occurs to 

better protect closed-canopy forest. 

• Propose the designation of new protected areas, if 

required. 

Hainan hill-partridge 


Vulnerable A1c,d; B1+2b,c,d,e; C1; C2a 

This species is listed as Vulnerable because it has a small 

population, it has a small, severely fragmented range, and it 

is continuing to decline because of ongoing habitat loss. In 

addition, it is thought to have undergone a rapid population 

reduction. 

Range and population: The Hainan hill-partridge is endemic 

to Hainan Island, off the south coast of China. A preliminary 

survey of the core area of Bawangling Nature Reserve in 

1997 tentatively estimated a population density of 6–8 

birds per km 2 . The total area of suitable habitat on Hainan 

is estimated at about 660km 2 , and extrapolating this density 

estimate to the extent of remaining forest gives a possible 

population of 3,900–5,200 birds (Gao Yu-ren 1998). 

Ecology: It may be mainly restricted to primary tropical 

evergreen forest, both broadleaf and mixed coniferous 

and broadleaf, usually between 600m and 1,200m. It is 

also found in some evergreen forests, which have been 

logged but are now well recovered. It is never found in 

young secondary forest that has not fully regrown (Gao 

Yu-ren 1998, Gao Yu-ren in litt.). 

Threats: Forest cover has been lost and fragmented very 

rapidly on Hainan in the past 50 years. In the 1940s, the 

area of natural forest was estimated at up to 17,000km 2 but 

this had declined to below 3,000km 2 by the 1990s, mainly 

as a result of excessive timber extraction, the replacement 

of forest by rubber plantations, shifting agriculture, and 

the unrestricted cutting of wood (Zhou Guang-yi 1994). 

Illegal hunting for food is also a threat (McGowan et al. 

1995, Gao Yu-ren 1998, Zheng Guangmei and Wang 

Qishan 1998; see King and Liao 1989). 

Conservation: It is a nationally protected species in China. 

Suitable forest habitat is estimated to cover a total of 

about 660km 2 , of which about 410km 2 is in reserves (Gao 

Yu-ren 1998). There are populations in Bawangling, 

Jianfengling, Wuzhishan, and Nanwei Ling Nature 

Reserves. The Hainan Government has enforced a ban on 

the logging of primary forest since January 1994, which 

36

should have lessened the pressure on its habitats, and is 

currently considering extensions to Bawangling and other 

existing reserves (Gao Yu-ren in litt.). 

Targets: 

• Conduct further surveys to determine its distribution and 

habitat use throughout the island, and especially to 

identify which protected areas support significant 

populations. 

• Assess whether the existing protected areas network is 

adequate and, if necessary, establish more protected 

areas for this species, or link together areas of protected 

and unprotected forest in parts of Hainan. 

• Upgrade Nanwei Ling from county to provincial level 

nature reserve. 

• Conduct public awareness programmes on the plight of 

the threatened and endemic forest wildlife of Hainan. 

• Attempt to reduce hunting through public education and 

the enforcement of relevant legislation. 


(Arborophila orientalis) 

Vulnerable A1c; A2c; B1+2b,c,e 

This species is thought to be undergoing a continuing rapid 

decline and severe fragmentation in range and population 

owing to habitat loss and degradation. It is, therefore, 

classified as Vulnerable. 

Taxonomy: This form is separated from the remaining 

races of grey-breasted hill-partridge A. sumatrana with 

which it has previously been lumped, namely sumatrana, 

rolli, and campbelli, owing to substantial morphological 

differences and its isolation (with chestnut-bellied hillpartridge 

A. javanica interposing in West and Central 

Java) (Mees 1996, BirdLife International in prep., V. 

Nijman in litt.). 

Range and population: The white-faced hill-partridge is 

apparently restricted to the eastern part of East Java, 

Indonesia, from the Yang Highlands eastwards. Its habitat 

requirements suggest that its range, which historically 

covered only about 7,000km 2 , today covers less than 

2,500km 2 (V. Nijman in litt.). Its population was initially 

estimated at 1,000–10,000 individuals (McGowan et al. 

1995), but it has been subsequently found at several more 

sites and may exceed this upper limit. 

Ecology: While data on this species are extremely scant, 

current information suggests that it is similar to its close 

congeners in that it frequents the interior of montane 

evergreen forest (from 500m, but usually above 1,000m) 

on mountains whose summits tend to be higher than 

1,700m (V. Nijman in litt.). It is also probably relatively 

resilient to habitat degradation and hunting pressure, 

although this remains to be confirmed. 

Threats: Most forest in the Yang Highlands has been 

cleared. Degradation in other areas occurs along the 

edges of remaining blocks and clearance of fragments due 

to logging and agricultural encroachment remains 

commonplace (V. Nijman in litt.). Furthermore, partridges 

are frequently caught and eaten or traded by local 

people on Java (van Balen 1992). The combination of 

these factors is likely to be rapidly reducing its population. 

Conservation: A game reserve, perhaps embracing 15km 2 

of forest, has existed in the Yang Highlands since 1962. 

However, this has proved an ineffective designation in 

terms of protection (van Balen et al. 1995). The species 

also occurs in Meru Betiri National Park and the Kawah 

Ijen Ungup-ungup Nature Reserve. A small captive 

population of about 20 birds exists in Belgium (R Sozer 

pers. comm.). 

Targets: 

• Conduct fieldwork to determine the range, altitudinal 

distribution, population density, and ecological 

requirements of the species so that an effective 

conservation strategy may be formulated. 

• Examine 450km 2 of forest remaining on the Yang 

Highlands and establish its protection, if possible. 

• Survey the estimated 1,300km 2 of forest in the Gunung 

Raung and Gunung Maelang complexes, and implement 

conservation action where necessary. 



Vulnerable A1c,d; A2c,d; B1+2a,b,c,e; C1; C2a 

This species has a small range and population that 

continue to decline rapidly. Therefore, it qualifies as 

Vulnerable. 

Range and population: The bearded wood-partridge is 

confined to the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre 

de Oaxaca in east Mexico. Surveys in 1994–1998 found the 

species in Hidalgo (north of Tlanchinal, from where it was 

known previously (Howell and Webb 1995, Gómez de 

Silva and Aguilar Rodríguez 1994) and Veracruz (11 

sites), and provided the first records for Oaxaca (Sierra 

Mazateca (Aquilar Rodríguez 1999), Querétaro (Sierra 

Gorda and adjacent areas (Clinton-Eitniear et al. 1999, 

Rojas-Soto et al. in press)) and the only record for San 

Luis Potosi since 1951 (also Sierra Gorda (J. Clinton- 

Eitniear in litt.). It is locally extinct in many areas with no 

37

ecords from Puebla since 1977. The spate of recent records 

suggests that it is more numerous than previously thought, 

but remaining populations are fragmented and, perhaps 

with the exception of those in the remote Sierra Gorda, 

continuing to decline. 

Ecology: It inhabits humid montane and pine-oak forest 

at elevations of 900–3,100m, but has been recorded in 

older secondary growth forest, edge, and disturbed habitats 

associated with agriculture (Clinton-Eitniear et al. 1999, 

Montejo and Tejeda 1996). Many fragmented populations 

are restricted to vegetation along creeks and rivers (J. 

Clinton-Eitniear in litt.). 

Threats: Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the 

result of logging, clearance for agriculture, road building, 

tourist developments, intensive urbanisation, sheep 

ranching, and grazing (Dinerstein et al. 1995). Fragmented 

populations are susceptible to subsistence hunting, 

predators, genetic retrogression, and further human 

encroachment (J. Clinton-Eitniear in litt.). In Veracruz, 

there is widespread conversion of habitat to monoculture 

crops, human settlement, and livestock grazing (Clinton- 

Eitniear et al. 1999) and, in Hidalgo, there is little remaining 

habitat. 

Conservation: There are recent records from Sierra Gorda 

Biosphere Reserve (384km 2 ) (Clinton-Eitniear et al. 1999) 

and near Pico Orizaba National Park (20km 2 ) (Montejo 

and Tejeda 1996). There are historical records from areas 

now within Cofre de Perote and Cañon del Río Blanco 

National Parks, but the species’ current status in these 

reserves is unknown. Environmental education in Veracruz 

has included the development of posters and roadway 

signs (J. Carroll pers. obs.). 

Targets: 

• Survey for additional populations in San Luis Potosi, 

Hidalgo, Veracruz, and Oaxaca. 

• Document habitat requirements, especially within the 

Sierra Gorda. 

• Implement a conservation awareness programme, 

especially within the Sierra Gorda targeting villages 

near known populations. 


(Odontophorus atrifrons) 


This species qualifies as Vulnerable owing to its small range 

and population, both of which must be declining in response 

to habitat loss. The overall range is small and fragmented 

with recent records from only one area. 

Range and population: The black-fronted wood-quail has 

three disjunct populations: the nominate subspecies in the 

Sierra Nevada in Santa Marta Mountains, northeast 

Colombia; subspecies navai in the Sierra de Perija on the 

Colombia-Venezuela border; and subspecies variegatus in 

the northern East Andes of Colombia (Norte de Santander 

and east Santander) (Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990, Hilty and 

Brown 1986). The only recent records are of a small family 

party on the San Lorenzo road in the Santa Marta 

Mountains in October 1994, but none of the races navai or 

variegatus (P. Salaman in litt.). It appears to be declining, 

with total numbers likely to be below 10,000 individuals 

(McGowan et al. 1995, P. Salaman in litt.). 

Ecology: It inhabits montane humid forests at elevations 

of 1,200–3,100m (McGowan et al., 1995, P. Salaman in 

litt.). It is wary and secretive, foraging in dense undergrowth 

(Fjeldså and Krabbe 1990). Two breeding condition males 

and one laying female have been found in August, and an 

immature in July (Hilty and Brown 1986). 

Threats: The Colombian East Andes have been subject to 

four centuries of extensive degradation with progressive 

deforestation on its lower montane slopes (Forero 1989, 

Stiles et al. 1999). In Boyaca and Santander, however, 

where forest loss was gradual until the 1960s and 1970s, 

some sizable tracts remain and habitat is beginning to 

regenerate owing to land abandonment (Stiles et al. 1999). 

The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is threatened by 

agricultural expansion, logging, and burning (Dinerstein 

et al. 1995). On the west slopes, marijuana plantations 

expanded widely in the 1980s and were sprayed by the 

government with herbicides in the early 1990s (L. Olarte in 

litt., L. Renjifoo in litt.). The Sierra de Perijá is heavily 

deforested by cattle-ranching at lower elevations and 

narcotics cultivation above 2,000m (C. Sharpe in litt.). It 

is hunted in some parts of its range. 

Conservation: Although it occurs in the Sierra Nevada de 

Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve (7,310km 2 ), Colombia, 

and the Perijá National Park (2,953km 2 ), Venezuela, neither 

of these formal designations provides adequate protection 

(C. Sharpe in litt., Wege and Long 1995). It is legally 

protected from hunting in Venezuela. 

Targets: 

• Conduct a complete distributional survey to assess status 

and habitat preferences. 

• Survey Perijá National Park, especially the less well 

known southern section, and assess the population and 

extent of habitat loss. 

• Map remaining habitat and assess the extent and rate of 

habitat loss. 

• Produce and promote management recommendations 

for Sierra de Perijá National Park. 

38


(Odontophorus melanonotus) 

Vulnerable B1+2a,b,c,e 

This species has a small range with recent records from 

few sites. Available habitat, and presumably the 

population, is declining. The species, therefore, qualifies 

as Vulnerable 

Range and population: The dark-backed wood-quail has a 

very small range in the Chocó (West Andes) of northwest 

Ecuador (Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and 

Cotopaxi) and southwest Colombia (Nariño) (Best et al. 

1996, Hilty and Brown 1986, N. Krabbe in litt., McGowan 

et al. 1995). The population is estimated at 10,000–20,000 

individuals and declining (Salaman and Strewe in prep.). 

Although considered rare in Ecuador (Ridgely et al. 1998), 

it remains common in Río Nambí and La Planada Nature 

Reserves, Colombia (Salaman and Strewe in prep.) and 

Mindo-Nambillo Protected Forest and Maquipucuna 

Reserve, Ecuador (N. Krabbe in litt.). 

Ecology: This wet subtropical forest specialist occurs 

exclusively in undisturbed, closed-canopy forest at 1,100– 

1,900m. It is typically found in groups of 2–10 individuals, 

which are particularly vocal at dawn during the wet season. 

Recent hatchlings have been recorded in July and August. It 

feeds on terrestrial invertebrates and fruit (N. Krabbe in litt.). 

Threats: Deforestation and hunting for food are the major 

threats to this species (McGowan et al. 1995). Unplanned 

colonisation, following the completion of roads and massive 

logging concessions, has been the primary cause of habitat 

loss. Deforestation rates are accelerating within its range 

primarily due to intensive logging, human settlement, and 

cattle grazing. Forests at these elevations are less threatened 

than those in the lowland Chocó region, but habitat loss is 

occurring below 2,000m, especially along new roads, and 

the Cali-Buenaventura and Pasto-Tumaco Highways 

(Salaman and Stiles 1996). 

Conservation: It occurs in Río Nambí and La Planada 

Nature Reserves, Colombia, and Mindo-Nambillo 

Protected Forest, Los Cedros Biological Reserve, Las 

Tangaras and Maquipucuna Reserve, Ecuador (Best et al. 

1996, P. Salaman in litt.). Both of the protected areas in 

Colombia suffer serious illegal logging within their 

boundaries and have significant unresolved land disputes, 

encompassing over one-third of La Planada and half of 

Río Nambí (R. Strewe pers. comm.). 

Targets: 

• Conduct a complete distributional survey to determine 

its range and numbers more accurately. 


habitat loss. 


(Odontophorus dialeucos) 

Vulnerable D2 

The very small occupied range of this species, combined with 

some potential threats, qualifies it as Vulnerable. 

Range and population: The Tacarcuna wood-quail was 

discovered in 1963 and is only known from Cerros Mali 

and Tacarcuna on the Tacarcuna Ridge in Darien, extreme 

east Panama and adjacent Chocó, northwest Colombia 

(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996). Its area of 

occupancy is estimated at 100km2 (Wege 1996). It is fairly 

common in suitable habitat in Panama (Ridgely and 

Gwynne 1989). 

Ecology: This is a very poorly known terrestrial bird of 

humid forests, found at elevations of 1,050–1,450m 

(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Wege 1996). 

Threats: Hunting for food, and habitat clearance and 

degradation resulting from mining, agriculture, and 

cultivation of coca affect birds in this region (Alvarez- 

Cordero et al. 1994). However, these threats are probably 

not yet factors within this species’ altitudinal range. 

Completion of the Pan-American Highway link through 

Darién could lead to severe, long-term damage to the 

forest of the Tacarcuna Ridge (Alvarez-Cordero et al. 

1994, Wege 1996). 

Conservation: Darien National Park, Panama, protects all 

but the small Colombian part of its range (Wege 1996). 

However, legal protection has not halted habitat loss at 

lower altitudes (Wege 1996). 

Targets: 

• Conduct a complete distributional survey to assess status 

and habitat preferences. 


encroaching habitat loss. 


(Agelastes meleagrides) 


This species is classified as Vulnerable because it is inferred 

to have suffered a rapid population decline over the last 10 

years, based on the rate of forest destruction throughout its 

39

ange, which is now highly fragmented. It is also heavily 

persecuted in some parts of its range. The decline is likely to 

continue, and it is possible that the species will disappear 

from all but a few protected areas. Effective protection is 

essential for the maximum number of sites where it still 

occurs. 

Range and population: The white-breasted guineafowl 

occurs in Sierra Leone (Gola Forest region only, population 

estimated at 5,700–8,700: Allport et al. 1989), Liberia 

(population estimated at more than 10,000 in 1985: Gatter 

1997), Côte d’Ivoire (notably Taï National Park, population 

estimated at 30,000–40,000 in 1990: Gartshore et al. 1995), 

and Ghana (population estimated at 1,000 birds, but these 

could be remnant populations that are not viable (Allport 

1991), and the species may have already been extirpated 

from small logged forests (Holbech 1992, 1996) i.e., up to 

100km2). In 1995, the world population was optimistically 

estimated at 85,000–115,000 (Gartshore et al. 1995). 

Ecology: It inhabits the interior of primary rainforest with 

thin undergrowth (Urban et al. 1986), preferring dry, 

closed-canopy forest in Taï Forest (Gartshore et al. 1995). 

It has proved unable to adapt to the denser undergrowth 

of secondary forest (Urban et al. 1986), although it is 

reported to inhabit old secondary forest in Ghana (Holbech 

1992, 1996). The species has been recorded in logged 

primary forest (Allport et al. 1989), but the presence of 

undisturbed primary forest seems essential (del Hoyo et al. 

1994). It feeds on insects, small molluscs, berries, and 

fallen seeds of forest trees (Urban et al. 1986). The breeding 

season is October–May, possibly year round (del Hoyo et 

al. 1994). 

Threats: Its habitat is rapidly receding and, where it still 

occurs in large numbers, it is heavily poached. Increased 

hunting in logged areas may push the species beyond 

recovery at some sites (Allport et al. 1989, Holbech 1992, 

1996). Interspecific competition with the larger crested 

guineafowl may be a problem in logged high forest 

(Gartshore et al. 1995, Gatter 1997). 

Conservation: In Sierra Leone, the species is restricted to 

Gola Forest, which has little legal protection status (H. 

Thompson in litt.). In Côte d’Ivoire, Taï National Park is 

one of the largest and best-preserved areas of Upper 

Guinea forest (Stattersfield et al. 1998). 

Targets: 

• Conduct surveys in Liberia and identify key sites. 

• Carry out population surveys in Ghana to ascertain its 

status. 

• Conduct education campaigns to address hunting 

pressure. 

• Ensure de facto protection of reserves in the Taï and 

Gola Forests. 

• Take measures in Taï National Park to mitigate the 

effects of rapid land use changes outside the park. 

• Ensure that future studies in Taï National Park and 

Gola Forest include support for local people to contribute 

to research, management, and tourism in and around the 

park. 

40

Chapter 4 

Five-year Plan of Action 

The previous chapter provided a summary of information 

that is of conservation importance for all threatened species 

of partridge, quail, francolin, snowcock, guineafowl, and 

turkey, and outlined the conservation targets that, if 

achieved, should prevent the species from becoming extinct. 

This chapter builds upon these recommendations by 

outlining key projects that the PQF Specialist Group 

proposes should be started or continued during the period 

2000–2004. 

Before looking in detail at these projects, it is helpful to 

assess the results of projects suggested in the first edition. 

This assessment was made by sending out a questionnaire 

to everyone undertaking projects on partridges, quails, 

francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys relating to 

those suggested in the first edition. Of the 19 major projects 

suggested in 1995, 10 have been initiated, and nine have not 

yet been attempted. Where these are judged to be of 

continuing global priority, they are again recommended in 

this Action Plan. Of the 56 individual project objectives 

suggested in the 1995 Action Plan, 21 were achieved by the 

end of the implementation period, one was attempted but 

not achieved, and eight objectives are pending. Twenty-six 

objectives were not attempted during the implementation 

period. This shows that although the Action Plan has 

stimulated new conservation work, the plight of partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys needs 

to be continually highlighted. This is one of the aims of the 

present document. Indeed, many principal investigators of 

projects on these species made reference to the 1995 Action 

Plan in funding proposals, and the Action Plan was 

frequently cited as one of the main reasons for undertaking 

the work. 

These data indicate that a fair amount of the work 

suggested in the first edition of the Action Plan has been 

initiated. The projects suggested in this second edition are 

clear evidence of a new phase in the conservation of some of 

the species, moving on from conducting basic survey work 

to combining existing data with new biological information 

to generate well-informed threat assessments and construct 

management strategies at a variety of scales. Major 

components of some projects are conservation awareness 

programmes, which can now be attempted realistically, 

because much of the necessary baseline data has become 

available over the past five years. The same applies to 

providing and promoting scientifically based management 

recommendations to decision-makers. Another major focus 

is on population monitoring to assess the effectiveness of 

various management initiatives. Throughout, it is intended 

that local communities be involved wherever possible. 

Structure of project outlines: Suggested projects are 

provided in four groups – global, regional, strategic, and 

species-specific. They are outlines of what needs to be 

done, as well as why and how. They are designed to be read 

as much by people who might then seek or donate funds 

allowing a project to be carried out, as by biologists 

wishing to conduct research that contributes to the 

conservation of partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys and their habitats. Together with 

the species accounts given in Chapter 3 and the references 

cited therein, they could be used to develop full project 

proposals. Such proposals can be submitted to the PQF 

Specialist Group, which will be able to provide advice and 

contacts, and help with funding applications through their 

endorsement procedure and international network. 

Each project outline includes entries under a standard 

set of sub-headings, as follows: 

Aims: A brief statement of the project’s major objectives. 

Justification: Why the project is urgent and valuable. 

Project description: Includes a description of how the aims 

might be achieved, often with some mention of study areas 

and methods. 

Timescale: How long the project might last, including time 

travelling to and from the study area. 

Resources: An indication of the approximate scale of the 

project, where possible, through a cost estimate in US$. 

Estimated costs should be carefully itemised for inclusion 

in full project proposals. Totals may ultimately differ 

substantially from what is presented here, particularly if 

researchers work on a voluntary basis. Details of other 

important resource considerations are given where 

appropriate. 

4.1 Global projects 

Project 1. Increasing the effectiveness of 

the PQF Specialist Group 

Project 1a. Increasing the effectiveness of the 

communications network. 

Aim: To develop and expand the PQF Specialist Group 

communications network. 

Justification: The PQF Specialist Group is charged by its 

three parent bodies, the IUCN Species Survival 

Commission, BirdLife International, and the World 

41

Pheasant Association, with responsibility for overseeing 

activities concerned with the conservation and sustainable 

use of partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, 

guineafowl, and turkeys worldwide. This requires it to 

maintain communications with a large and increasing 

network of conservationists to assist with the development 

and support of project proposals, to evaluate project 

reports, and to provide advice for international 

organisations, government departments, NGOs, and 

individuals. The capacity for the Specialist Group to 

engage in assisting its members needs to be continually 

improved in the light of new information on the status and 

conservation of many threatened species. 

Project description: The network requires development or 

expansion in many areas of the world, particularly in 

places where little-known species are found, such as West 

Africa. This should involve increasing contacts in 

government wildlife departments, universities, and 

conservation organisations. 

Timescale: As an ongoing project, this work should 

continue throughout the five-year implementation period 

of this Action Plan. 

Resources: The main cost will be the time to administer the 

work. 

Project 1b. Increasing the effectiveness of 

project monitoring and evaluation. 

Aims: To develop and implement a system for monitoring 

progress of projects and evaluating their outcomes; to 

develop a suitable database structure in which to store this 

information. 

Justification: In order for the PQF Specialist Group to 

provide the most effective assistance and advice to principal 

investigators involved in conservation projects, it is 

essential to monitor progress. This will allow the PQF 

Specialist Group and other organisations, including 

funding bodies, to assess how projects endorsed by the 

Specialist Group have led to concrete conservation actions 

in the field. It will also enable the group to better coordinate 

communication between researchers, acting as a 

central repository for advice on funding bodies, field 

methodology, etc. 

Project description: The material contained within this 

revised Action Plan has contributed to the evaluation and 

assessment of research on, and the conservation of, 

partridges, quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, 

and turkeys over the past five years. Building on this 

foundation, the PQF Specialist Group should aim to 

develop a suitable framework for assessing the effectiveness 

of future projects on an individual basis. It is important 

that this system is streamlined and does not generate 

excessive bureaucracy for project and PQF Specialist 

Group personnel. Methods and species proving difficult 

to work on can be highlighted, and the capacity of the 

global network can be utilised in deriving solutions. Project 

information should be stored in a database so that it is 

rapidly and easily available. 



of this Action Plan, but the system could be set up within 

a year. 

Resources: The main cost will be the administration of the 

programme. There is clearly overlap with similar work 

suggested by other Galliformes Specialist Groups (e.g., 

Fuller and Garson 2000). 

Project 2. Improving communication of 

research findings 

Project 2a. Converting project outputs into 

conservation action. 

Aim: To facilitate the production of reports and publications 

based on research and other conservation activities, and 

designed to prompt new action for conservation. 

Justification: Over the last 25 years, a great deal of 

information has been collected on the distribution, 

abundance, and ecology of many threatened partridges, 

quails, francolins, snowcocks, guineafowl, and turkeys. 

There is an increasing need for presentation of key findings 

in a way that will influence conservation policy. 

Project description: Project reports written for sponsors 

should be used as a basis for shorter documents designed 

specifically for the attention of government and NGO 

officers. They should draw clear lessons from completed 

research projects for the future conservation of species 

and their habitats by suggesting feasible changes to current 

management practices. There should also be advice on 

how to monitor outcomes of such changes once they are 

implemented. The Specialist Group should facilitate 

contacts between members requiring help with these tasks 

and those with relevant experience. Particular species for 

which this approach is urgent and feasible include swamp 

francolin, Nahan’s francolin, and Sichuan hill-partridge 

(see Sections 4.4 and 4.5). 




42

Resources: Assuming that most advice could be offered 

electronically, the main costs will be limited to the 

production of special publications. 

Project 2b. Improving international exposure of 

research findings. 

Aim: To increase the publication of research findings in 

international peer-reviewed journals. 

Justification: The international scientific community does 

not become aware of research findings unless papers are 

published in quality journals. A project to publish and 

disseminate much needed information would help ensure 

that conservation action is based on sound scientific 

evidence. If major agencies involved in global conservation 

are to advocate action relating to conservation, it is necessary 

for them to have access to such material. In addition, 

authorship of papers in international peer-reviewed journals 

can do a great deal for the career prospects of researchers, 

which will in turn improve their prospects of permanent 

employment in the conservation sector and increase their 

capacity to raise project funds at home and abroad. 

Project description: Specialist Group members with the 

most experience in this area should be asked to assist 

others on a one-to-one basis. This would probably involve 

visits in one or both directions to facilitate data 

presentation, statistical analysis, interpretation of findings, 

access to existing literature, and manuscript preparation. 




Resources: The costs of travel, accommodation, and 

subsistence would usually need to be covered for visitors. 

4.2 Regional projects 

Project 3. Maintaining the WPA Asian 

Galliformes sites database 

Aim: To update and maintain a database of localities and 

associated information for Asian Galliformes. 

Justification: Reliable information regarding where species 

occur is the cornerstone of many conservation activities, 

including conservation assessments of the type undertaken 

in this Action Plan, and the identification of important 

areas for groups of species and areas where surveys or 

similar action are required. This information can be used in 

combination with other data sets, such as habitat types and 

protected areas, to carry out a variety of strategic analyses. 

Project description: A database has been compiled for 

Asian Galliformes (see McGowan et al. 1999 for an example 

of its use), but as new fieldwork is carried out, new sites are 

documented. There is a need, therefore, to update the 

database and establish it in such a way that it can readily be 

used for conservation. The existing database contains 

localities on all Galliformes in Asia (except the megapodes) 

and it seems sensible to maintain this structure. As many 

Galliformes inhabit the same areas and are studied or 

surveyed by the same people, it will also maximise the 

efficiency with which data are compiled, assessed, stored, 

and then retrieved. The World Pheasant Association 

provides the logical place for such a database to be housed. 

Once established, updating procedures should be finalised. 

Timescale: As an ongoing project, this work should continue 

through the five-year implementation of this Action Plan, 

although the database should be fully established as soon 

as possible. 

Resources: The main resource requirement is the time to 

administer the database. 

Project 4. Assessing the taxonomic and 

conservation status of the Andean woodquails 

Odontophorus 

Aims: To revise the species-level taxonomy of the Andean 

wood-quails; to examine how habitat loss is affecting these 

species; to assess the efficacy of the protected area network 

covering these species, particularly in terms of altitudinal 

distribution. 

Justification: There is a large number of little-known 

Andean wood-quails, and most species have small 

distributions and specialise in habitats that are rapidly 

disappearing. The taxonomic status of several of the forms 

is unclear, and it is important that limited resources for 

conservation are used where they are most needed to 

safeguard biological diversity. Habitat loss is accelerating 

across much of the region and, as this may affect different 

species in different ways, an assessment of status in relation 

to habitat distribution is urgently required. 

Project description: Various taxonomic methods should be 

employed to examine the degree of distinctiveness of several 

Andean wood-quail populations, with the aim of identifying 

units most appropriate for species-level recognition. This 

is important, as some species have subpopulations and 

subspecies that are highly threatened, while the species as 

a whole may be considered Lower Risk (e.g., chestnut 

wood-quail). It is essential to look at how habitat loss is 

affecting Andean wood-quail species, and this may be 

accomplished by characterising each species’ precise habitat 

43

equirements in terms of forest type and altitudinal range. 

Some species occupy a relatively narrow altitudinal band 

and deforestation affects different altitudes in different 

ways. For example, the gorgeted wood-quail is found only 

in the oak band, which has been lost over much of its range 

in Colombia. Reserves tend to be restricted to high 

elevations, and there is a need to assess how well these 

protected areas are covering the range of these species. 

Recommendations for protected area improvement should 

be made as a result of this study. 

Timescale: A long-term programme of work, although 

individual surveys of any length could contribute useful 

information. 

Resources: Funding for this work could be sought in the 

form of small grants for surveys to the large grants needed 

to sustain a substantial research programme. 

Project 5. Assessing the conservation 

status of Neotropical quails in northern 

Central America 

Aims: To adequately survey the distribution of the quail 

species inhabiting southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, 

and Honduras; to use this information to generate largescale 

conservation assessments of these species. 

Justification: Although the species within this region are 

largely considered to be at Lower Risk, much of this is based 

on indirect evidence regarding amounts of available habitat. 

It remains the case since the last Action Plan was published 

that very little is known about these species. Survey work is 

urgently required to adequately map their distributions and 

populations so that informed and explicit judgements on 

their conservation status can be made. This will also enable 

future judgements on trends in distribution and population 

sizes to be made, allowing declining species to be identified 

and appropriate action to be taken before it becomes too late. 

Project description: Large-scale mapping of probable 

species ranges may pinpoint areas where additional survey 

work may find populations of these species. Particular 

attention should focus on protected areas to establish 

whether there are viable populations within such areas in 

the region. This will also clear the way for more detailed 

habitat use studies to understand why some areas are 

better than others for these species. This, in turn, will help 

identify which species are likely to be threatened in the 

future from human actions, and enable the formulation of 

management plans to prevent their demise. 

Timescale: Such work could be completed within two 

years, although there would be plenty of opportunities for 

short-term fieldwork projects within the context of the 

overall programme. 

Resources: $15,000–25,000. 

Project 6. Assessing populations of Asian 

Galliformes within protected areas 

Aim: To assess whether each of the 82 protected areas 

identified in a recent study contains viable populations of 

threatened Galliformes 

Justification: Recent work has identified a set of 82 protected 

areas within Asia, approximately half of which are 

irreplaceable in the context of Galliformes conservation 

(McGowan et al. 1999). However, the study was only able 

to use species lists from protected areas and was not able to 

assess whether each species recorded was actually present in 

viable numbers. Such an assessment is vital to make sure 

that the most efficient protected area network is identified, 

leading to the most effective use of scarce resources for the 

conservation of Asian Galliformes. Therefore, what is 

needed is a list of species that have viable populations in 

each protected area. 

Project description: Ideally, each protected area would be 

surveyed to assess whether there are viable populations of 

Galliformes species present. This is, however, extremely 

difficult as many areas are hard to survey, most of the 

species are not easy to detect, and many areas remain to be 

surveyed to gain a complete understanding of the entire 

network that has been proposed. Therefore, a few key areas 

should be surveyed and the results extrapolated to habitat 

maps from as many areas as possible. For the most part, the 

broad habitat relations of the target species are sufficiently 

well known to make assessments of the amount of habitat 

available to each species. Ground surveys should concentrate 

on understanding levels of habitat disturbance and the 

effect different levels may have on species distributions. 

Timescale: Surveys of any length within protected areas 

(from a few weeks to several months) will contribute useful 

information to this work. 

Resources: Needs will vary depending on the length and 

scope of the particular project. 

Project 7. Review of information on 

IndoChinese partridges 

Aim: To review the status of species in Laos, Vietnam, and 

Cambodia from information in unpublished reports to 

make an assessment of their conservation needs. 

44

Justification: There has been a considerable amount of 

ornithological survey work in parts of Vietnam since the 

late 1980s (Robson et al. 1989), and general faunal surveys 

in Laos since the early 1990s (Thewlis et al. 1996, 

Duckworth et al. 1998). In contrast, Cambodia has only 

recently received survey attention after a sustained period 

of unrest (Edwards 1998). While some of this work has 

been documented and is available internationally, much 

remains in unpublished reports to government agencies 

and donors. The amount and quality of suitable habitat 

appears to vary across these countries. As there are many 

species and habitats common to these three countries, 

there is clear merit in assessing the status of species and 

their habitats across this biogeographic area. 

Project description: Collate information on distribution 

and habitat use from the ‘grey literature’. This should then 

be related to information on the distribution and quality 

of various habitat types to improve our understanding of 

the status of each species and what its conservation 

requirements are in these countries. The work could 

conclude with a strategy for ensuring these requirements 

are met. This project should also consider the threatened 

pheasants found within this region. 

Timescale: A report could be produced in about four 

months. 

Resources: About $12,000 should cover the cost of 

employing a researcher to visit Vientiane, Hanoi, and 

Phnom Penh during these four months. 

Project 8. Surveys for threatened 

partridges in Sumatra 

Aims: To conduct extensive distribution surveys of 

threatened partridges in Sumatra; to assess the adequacy 

of the protected area network identified in a recent study. 

Justification: Knowledge of Indonesian partridges is poor 

(Holmes 1989). The country has the longest list of birds 

believed to be threatened with extinction but, in many 

cases, this reflects problems presumed to have arisen as a 

result of habitat loss or degradation, rather than direct 

evidence of declines in numbers. The threats facing 

Indonesia’s biodiversity are very real, but the continuing 

lack of baseline information on partridges prevents any 

objective assessment through which to propose the most 

appropriate conservation action. A protected area network 

was identified in a recent study of Asian Galliformes 

(McGowan et al. 1999). 

Project description: The island of Sumatra covers 

476,000km 2 , and establishing the distribution and status 

The Sumatran subspecies of the chestnut-necklaced hill-partridge 

is possibly confined to the north of the island, and has declined 

drastically as a result of habitat destruction. 

of the little-known species and subspecies occurring there 

(e.g., black wood-partridge, long-billed wood-partridge, 

red-billed wood-partridge, ferruginous wood-partridge, 

subspecies atjenensis of the chestnut-necklaced hillpartridge) 

will not be an easy task. However, there is much 

scope for survey teams from within or outside Indonesia 

to survey parts of the island at various times of year. 

Through networking with other Specialist Groups, the 

PQF Specialist Group will attempt to collate any other site 

records for species in Sumatra, as well as their apparent 

absence from localities within their known areas of 

occurrence. At a minimum, information on exact locality, 

altitude, date, and habitat type should be collected. 

Information on other Galliformes species should also be 

collected and provided to the relevant SSC Specialist 

Group. All information should be made available to the 

WPA Asian Galliformes Sites Database and BirdLife 

International’s World Bird Database. 

Timescale: Projects of any duration can contribute useful 

information. 

Resources: Needs will depend on the length and scope of 

individual projects. 

Project 9. Surveys for threatened 

partridges in Borneo 

Aims: To conduct extensive distributional surveys of 

threatened partridges in Borneo; to collate and 

assess existing and new information; to assess the 

adequacy of the protected area network identified in a 

recent study. 


45

Resources: Needs will depend on the length and scope of 

individual projects. 

4.3 Strategic project 

Project 10. Taxonomic reassessment of 

some partridges and New World quails 

Aim: To revise species-level taxonomy in some of the 

partridges and New World quails. 

Although known from Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, 

the black wood-partridge (female shown here) is threatened by 

severe and continuing habitat destruction. 

Justification: Knowledge of Indonesian partridges is poor 

(Holmes 1989). The country has the longest list of birds 

believed to be threatened with extinction, but in many 

cases this reflects problems presumed to have arisen as a 

result of habitat loss or degradation, rather than direct 

evidence of declines in numbers. The threats facing 

Indonesia’s biodiversity are very real, but the continuing 

lack of baseline information on partridges prevents any 

objective assessment through which to propose the most 

appropriate conservation action. New information on the 

threatened partridges known to occur on the island is 

needed, but existing information must be collated and 

assessed. A protected area network was identified in a 

recent study of Asian Galliformes (McGowan et al. 1999). 

Project description: The island of Borneo covers 755,000km 2 

and comprises three countries. This means that establishing 

the distribution and status of all its Galliformes will not be 

an easy task, but there is much scope for survey teams from 

within or outside Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei to 

survey parts of the island at various times of year. Through 

networking with other Specialist Groups, the PQF 

Specialist Group will attempt to collate any other site 

records for species in Borneo, as well as their apparent 

absence from localities within their known areas of 

occurrence. At a minimum, information on exact locality, 

altitude, date, and habitat type should be collected. 

Information on other species should also be collected and 

provided to the relevant SSC Specialist Group. All 

information should be made available to the WPA Asian 

Galliformes Sites Database and BirdLife International’s 

World Bird Database. 

Timescale: Projects of any duration can contribute useful 

information. 


Justification: Conservation, fundamentally, is based on 

the management and protection of natural resources, and 

the species remains the most practical level at which to 

direct conservation action. Such action, therefore, relies 

on identifying and defining species limits. However, recent 

advances in taxonomic thinking (e.g., species concepts, 

Evolutionarily Significant Units) and phylogenetic analysis 

have thrown significant doubt on whether current 

systematic treatments, in particular the presently accepted 

species boundaries within the hill-partridges Arborophila 

and wood-quails Odontophorus, are correctly reflecting 

biological diversity in these genera. There is an urgent 

need for a revision of these species’ taxonomy, as there is 

dispute over the several forms that have variously been 

treated as subspecies and full species. 

Project description: A variety of taxonomic methods should 

be used to examine the question of species limits in 

partridges and wood-quails, and look at possible 

implications for conservation. Further species-level 

taxonomic investigation should focus particularly on some 

of the Arborophila species of Asia, where there is much 

doubt over treatment of the various subspecies (e.g., the 

two subspecies of the chestnut-headed hill-partridge and 

The threatened Annamese subspecies merlini of the chestnutnecklaced 

hill-partridge has been treated by some as a full species. 


46

ace merlini of the chestnut-necklaced hill-partridge). The 

same applies to the various forms of Odontophorus in 

Latin America. The outcome of such work may have 

profound implications for the conservation of these birds. 

Timescale: A long-term project, likely to require three to 

five years for execution. 

Resources: Given the specialist techniques and apparatus 

required, this project may cost in excess of $25,000. 

4.4 Projects for Critically Endangered 

and Endangered species 

Project 11. Djibouti Francolin 


Aims: To clarify distribution and population size of this 

species, linking this information with more detailed ecological 

study; to develop and implement long-term habitat 

management and conservation awareness programmes. 

Justification: The Djibouti francolin is one of the most 

threatened of all species considered in this Action Plan. It 

is restricted to a tiny area involving two sites in Djibouti, 

and only one of those is thought to contain a viable 

population capable of long-term survival. Although some 

work has been carried out on the species, much remains to 

be discovered and several threats associated with 

disturbance from humans and livestock are probably 

affecting this species adversely, as is the poor condition of 

much of the remaining forest in its range. 

Project description: Given that the Djibouti francolin 

appears to be dependent on juniper forest, surveys should 

Known only from two sites, and subject to continuing habitat loss, 

the Djibouti francolin is one of the most endangered Galliformes. 


be undertaken to map the remaining habitat available, 

and investigate why much of the forest appears to be 

dying. It may be necessary to collect further ecological 

data on habitat use and tolerance of disturbed and degraded 

habitat before this can be attempted realistically. Ideally, 

two things will emerge from these efforts: a long-term 

recovery strategy, focusing on conservation awareness by 

local communities, and a feasible and achievable set of 

habitat management recommendations, where francolin 

populations are monitored regularly to assess the 

effectiveness of this approach. In the longer term, more 

detailed ecological study will enable fine tuning of the 

management strategy, but basic data can and should be 

used at the earliest opportunity to assist the recovery of 

this species. 

Timescale: Survey work could be carried out for varying 

intervals, but the long-term nature of the work suggested 

here implies a project spanning several years. 

Resources: Small-scale surveys could be conducted relatively 

cheaply, but larger sums will be required for ecological 

study, conservation awareness programmes, and the 

development and promotion of a management plan. 

Project 12. Nahan’s francolin 

(Francolinus nahani) 

Aims: To continue collation and publication of existing 

information on the conservation status of this species; to 

produce and promote a comprehensive recovery plan. 

Justification: Nahan’s francolin is a forest specialist, and 

is restricted to a few surviving forest fragments in western 

Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. The 

species has been studied in some detail in the past few years 

(Dranzoa et al. 1999, Sande in press), and there is now a 

need to collate all information relevant to the species’ 

conservation status and ensure publication of this material 

in peer-reviewed journals. This will enable the development 

of a long-term recovery and management plan for this 

species. 

Project description: Particular management 

recommendations should be assembled into a recovery 

plan for Nahan’s francolin, and this promoted to 

appropriate authorities and local people through 

community partnerships. Long-term monitoring of 

populations should be put in place to assess the effectiveness 

of management strategies and suggest ways in which they 

can be improved. The emphasis should be on concrete 

conservation action based on sound science and monitoring 

the progress made to allow continued refinement of the 

management tools used. 

47

Timescale: As a long-term project, this work is likely to 

take several years. 

Resources: Substantial funding will be required to ensure 

collation and publication of relevant information and 


Project 13. Mount Cameroon francolin 


Aims: To conduct intensive surveys of remaining populations; 

to assess the conservation status of the species based on the 

amount of available habitat; to produce, promote, and 

monitor the effects of a habitat management plan. 

Justification: The Mount Cameroon francolin has a global 

range of less than 200km 2 on Mount Cameroon. This 

makes it extremely vulnerable to habitat loss and 

degradation, and unfortunately, logging is proceeding 

rapidly around its last remaining population. Burning of 

grasslands by hunters is another severe threat to the species. 

Although its habitat is normally subjected to periodic fire 

and regeneration, the frequency of grassland burning 

combined with substantial forest habitat loss is believed to 

be greater than the population can withstand. 

Project description: Thorough surveys of the remaining 

population should be undertaken, paying particular 

attention to the habitats used by the species. When data are 

complete, the degree of fragmentation should be assessed, 

and the amount and distribution of remaining suitable 

habitat mapped. If grassland burning turns out to be a 

major threat, ways of alleviating it must be sought by 

incorporating it in the production and promotion of a 

habitat management plan. In the longer term, population 

indexing and monitoring techniques should be developed 

so that the progress of management actions can be assessed. 

Habitat within the tiny range of the Mount Cameroon francolin is 

being lost through grass burning and logging. 


Timescale: Survey work could be conducted on a variety of 

timescales, but monitoring should continue on a regular 

basis for the foreseeable future. 

Resources: These will depend on the length and scope of 

individual surveys, although long-term funding for the 

monitoring work and production of the management plan 

should be sought. 

Project 14. Sichuan hill-partridge 


Aims: To ensure adequate protection of existing 

populations; to survey suitable habitat for as yet 

undiscovered populations; to undertake a long-term 

ecological study of habitat requirements and breeding 

biology; to use existing research results to produce feasible 

habitat management recommendations published in peerreviewed 

journals. 

Justification: This species is known only from south-central 

Sichuan, with some probable records from Yunnan. It 

exists in small populations that are highly fragmented. This 

makes the species highly vulnerable to local extinction 

through stochastic events. Habitat loss within its range is 

continuing, and urgent action is required to protect the 

areas in which it is found. Further study into the ecology of 

the species will enable the production of a specific habitat 

management plan, leading to sensible proposals that can 

best help safeguard the future of the Sichuan hill-partridge. 

Project description: The overwhelming requirement is the 

establishment of a protected area network capable of 

sustaining the species in the long term. This will involve an 

extension to the Dafengding Nature Reserve. Lobbying 

for such an extension can be combined with the promotion 

of better forestry practices, which will greatly assist 

populations of the hill-partridge without introducing undue 

costs for logging operators. An ecological study focusing 

on habitat use and breeding biology should be carried out. 

Because the species has such a fragmented range, it is likely 

that further populations exist. Survey work should examine 

areas of suitable habitat outside the current known range 

and attempt to locate new populations. Particular 

management recommendations should be assembled into 

a recovery plan for the species, and this promoted to 




of management strategies, and suggest ways in which they 

can be improved. The emphasis here is on getting concrete 

conservation action based on sound science, and 

monitoring its progress to allow continued refining of the 

management tools used. 

48

populations and quality of remaining habitat should be 

developed and used to monitor the species’ conservation 

status at regular intervals. Long-term monitoring stations 

could be set up. Some form of monitoring is extremely 

important, as it is the only way of assessing the effectiveness 

of improved management within the protected areas. 

Timescale: Survey work could last from a few weeks to 

months, although development of monitoring protocols 

and the habitat management plans will take one to two 

years. 

Proposals have been made to improve the level of protection for 

areas supporting the Sichuan hill-partridge. 

Timescale: Survey work could require from a few weeks to 

a few months; habitat protection lobbying should be 

ongoing and the implementation of an ecological research 

programme will take three years at a minimum. 

Resources: Needs will vary depending on length and scope 

of survey work, although substantial long-term funding 

will be required for the ecological research. 

Project 15. Orange-necked hill-partridge 


Aims: To survey for additional populations of this species; 

to monitor known populations; to promote better 

management of protected areas in which the species is 

known to occur. 

Justification: Found in only three sites in central Vietnam, 

the orange-necked hill-partridge began its severe decline 

owing to extensive deforestation, particularly as a result of 

herbicide spraying, during the Vietnam war. Commercial 

logging continues to remove habitat at an alarming rate, 

and hunting compounds the problems faced by this species. 

There is a strong case for improving habitat management 

and enforcement of regulations in Cat Tien National Park 

and Cat Loc Nature Reserve, and further work should 

focus on finding additional populations outside these 

areas. 

Project description: Survey for this species outside its 

existing known range, based on identifying fragments of 

suitable forest. Work on the development of a management 

plan within Cat Loc is urgently required, and a WWF 

project is underway on proposals for management at Cat 

Tien. Ways of indexing the abundance of remaining 


Resources: Variable, depending on length and scope of 

survey work, although substantial long-term funding 

should be sought for population monitoring work. 

Project 16. Chestnut-headed hill-partridge 

(Arborophila cambodiana) 

Aims: To survey for remaining populations of this species 

outside known areas; to campaign for better habitat 

protection in known sites; to monitor the population at 

Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. 

Justification: What is currently known of the distribution 

and status of this species, found in two populations in 

Thailand and Cambodia, indicates that it has undergone a 

severe decline in terms of geographic range and population 

size over past decades. The total global population is 

estimated at less than 1,000 individuals. Logging on a 

massive scale is the primary threat to the species in 

Cambodia, for example over 80% of Bokor National Park 

has already been logged. In Thailand, logging is on a 

smaller scale, but the population there is thought to number 

less than 200 birds. Further surveys are urgently required 

to establish whether any other populations exist, and known 

populations must be monitored so that further declines can 

be detected quickly and action taken to alleviate threats. 

Project description: Extensive surveys are required in 

forested habitat suitable for this species, as is an idea of how 

much of its favoured habitat remains. Particular attention 

could focus on the Cardamom Mountains north of Bokor 

in Cambodia. Also urgent is a campaign for greater 

protection of habitat within protected areas. This could 

best be achieved by lobbying for a moratorium on logging 

in Bokor and Kirirom National Parks in Cambodia. A 

monitoring programme of the population in the Khao Soi 

Dao Wildlife Sanctuary should be established to ensure 

baseline data are available against which to measure future 

changes in the Thai population of this species. 

Timescale: Survey work could last from a few weeks to 

months, although development of monitoring protocols 

49

and the habitat protection lobbying will take one to two 

years. 

Resources: Variable, depending on length and scope of 

survey work, although substantial long-term funding 

should be sought for population monitoring work. 

Project 17. Himalayan quail 

(Ophrysia superciliosa) 

Aim: To search for this species in suitable habitat. 

Justification: There have been no confirmed sightings of 

the Himalayan quail for many years, and indeed the 

species may already be extinct. There clearly is an urgent 

need to mount an intensive search for this species to 

ascertain whether it still survives in the Lower Himalayas 

of Uttar Pradesh. If the species can be found, protection 

for its habitat will be a major priority. 

Project description: Work is underway to look for this 

species. WPA-South Asia Regional Office in collaboration 

with WWF-India has launched a multi-phased project. 

The first phase produced a booklet to highlight the need 

for funding for further searches involving the forest 

department network. It is hoped that survey work will 

commence early in 2000. As the Himalayan quail may 

prefer habitats similar to those used by cheer pheasants 

Catreus wallichi, areas where the pheasant is found should 

also be visited. When identified, potential areas should be 

visited on the ground by survey teams, and a variety of 

methods used to attempt to locate birds. This work must 

be carried out through different times of year, as there is 

some debate as to whether the species is sedentary or 

migratory. 

Timescale: A long-term approach of approximately two 

years should be taken, so that all suitable habitat can be 

surveyed at different times of year. 

There have been no records of the Himalayan quail for over a 

century. 

Resources: Substantial funding will be required for this 

project; the high profile of the search can be harnessed to 

help secure funds. 

Project 18. Gorgeted wood-quail 


Aims: To identify and survey areas of remnant forest 

outside the current range and arrange protection if more 

populations are found; to monitor the population within 

the Cachalu Wildlife Sanctuary. 

Justification: In recent years, the gorgeted wood-quail has 

only been recorded from a single area in Colombia – the 

Cachalu Wildlife Sanctuary, near Virolín, Santander. Its 

known population must be very small, and is feared to be 

declining. Forest is being cleared around the edge of 

Cachalu, although the reserve itself has been protected 

since 1993, and its terrain is such that logging inside the 

reserve is unlikely to be widespread. 

Project description: As this species is so rare, any small 

populations existing outside the protected area should be 

identified through survey work in apparently suitable 

remaining forest fragments. If populations are found, a 

case should be made for immediate gazettement of these 

areas. Within the Cachalu Wildlife Sanctuary itself, the 

population size should be measured and monitored at 

regular intervals, as it is imperative that any declines are 

identified very quickly so remedial action can be taken. 

Timescale: Survey work could be conducted on a variety of 

timescales, but monitoring should continue on a regular 

basis for the foreseeable future. 

Resources: These will depend on the length and scope of 

individual survey expeditions, although long-term funding 

for the monitoring work should be sought. 

4.5 Projects for Vulnerable species 

Project 19. Swamp francolin 

(Francolinus gularis) 

Aims: To collate and publish existing information on the 

biology and conservation status of this species; to produce 

and promote a comprehensive recovery plan. 


Justification: The swamp francolin is restricted to tall, wet, 

natural grasslands, a habitat that has undergone rapid 

decline in both extent and quality in the Indian 

Subcontinent. The species has been studied in some detail 

in the past few years (Javed 1993, Javed et al. 1999, Peet et 

50

al. 1999), and there is now a need to collate all information 

on the species’ ecology, distribution, and conservation 

status and ensure publication of this material in peerreviewed 

journals. This will enable the development of a 

long-term recovery and management plan for this species. 



plan for the swamp francolin, and this promoted to 

appropriate authorities and local people through community 

partnerships. Long-term monitoring of populations should 

be put in place to assess the effectiveness of management 

strategies, and suggest ways in which they can be improved. 

The emphasis here is on getting concrete conservation 

action based on sound science, and monitoring its progress 

to allow continued refining of the management tools used. 



Resources: Funding of around $10,000 will be required to 

ensure collation and publication of relevant information 

and recommendations. 

Project 20. Manipur bush-quail 


Aims: To re-survey the known range of this species; to 

afford protected area status to any localities found to 

support viable populations. 

Justification: There are no recent confirmed records of this 

species, which appears to have undergone a massive decline 

in range and population size since the beginning of the 

century. The main problem for this species is the destruction 

and flooding of its tall grassland habitat, to support the 

growing human populations of Manipur and Bangladesh. 

In addition, it has been subject to high levels of hunting 

and trapping. The Manipur bush-quail is not known to 

occur in any protected areas. 

Project description: Survey work should be conducted in 

the historical localities of the eastern hills of Manipur, the 

south Manipur Basin, and areas around Phalel, Imphal, 

and Goalpara in Assam. Fortunately, the species has a 

relatively distinctive call, so reasonably large areas can be 

surveyed. As this species is not yet known from any 

protected area, strong recommendations should be made 

to gazette localities found to support viable populations as 

soon as possible, and existing protected areas within its 

known range should be searched. 

Timescale: There is scope for survey work on a variety of 

scales. 

There have been no confirmed sightings of the Manipur bush-quail 

since 1932. 

Resources: This will vary depending on the scope and 

intensity of survey work. 

Project 21. Hainan hill-partridge 


Aims: To survey remaining habitat for this species; to 

study further its habitat requirements and the distribution 

of remaining habitat; to assess how well the range is 

covered by protected areas, and whether any extensions or 

links are required; to conduct a conservation awareness 

programme with the aim of reducing illegal hunting for 

food. 

Justification: The Hainan hill-partridge is found only on 

the island of Hainan, off the south coast of China. It is 

restricted to primary tropical evergreen forest. This habitat 

has undergone a substantial decline on the island in the 

second half of this century, as forest has been cleared for 

commercial reasons and to make way for agriculture and 

development. The species’ precise habitat requirements 

remain unknown, as does the best way of ensuring protected 

area coverage for the partridge. In addition, there are two 

distinct subspecies of pheasant on the island which merit 

attention (Hainan silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera 

whiteheadi and Hainan grey peacock-pheasant Polyplectron 

bicalcaratum katsumatae). 

Project description: There is a need to survey the island 

fully to locate all remaining populations. Further study 

should be conducted into its habitat requirements, and 

this information can be used together with the survey data 

to investigate how well the species is covered by protected 

areas. Specific recommendations, such as the formation of 

new reserves or linking together existing protected areas, 


51

may arise from this work, but for now, the upgrading of 

Nanwei Ling from county to provincial level nature reserve 

is recommended. A public awareness programme could be 

a productive way of reducing illegal hunting for food. 

Timescale: Initial surveys of any length could provide 

useful data. Protected areas analysis would take several 

months, and the conservation awareness programme would 

be longer term still. 

Resources: There is a variety of funding possibilities, and 

there is the possibility of using the Hainan hill-partridge as 

a flagship for conservation on the island. 

Project 22. Bearded wood-partridge 


Aims: To collate and publish existing information on the 

biology and conservation status of this species; to produce 

and promote a comprehensive recovery plan. 

Justification: The bearded wood-partridge is restricted to 

a few tiny fragments of forest and has undergone serious 

declines. Its habitats are subject to intensive commercial 

logging and forest clearance, and the remaining small and 

fragmented populations are vulnerable to local extinction 

through stochastic and local processes. The species has 

been studied in some detail in the past few years (Montejo 

and Tejeda 1996, Eitniear et al. in press). There is now a 

need to collate all information on the species’ ecology, 

distribution, and conservation status and ensure 

publication of this material in peer-reviewed journals. 

This will enable the development of a long-term recovery 

and management plan for this species. 



plan for the bearded wood-partridge, and this promoted to 




of management strategies, and suggest ways in which they 

can be improved. The emphasis here is on getting concrete 

conservation action based on sound science, and monitoring 

its progress to allow continued refining of the management 

tools used. 



Resources: Substantial funding will be required to ensure 

collation and publication of relevant information and 


52

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58

Appendix 1 

List of Contacts 

World Pheasant Association 

P.O. Box 5 

Lower Basildon 

Reading, Berkshire 

RG8 9PF 

United Kingdom 

Tel: +44 118 984 5140 

Fax: +44 118 984 3369 

E-mail: admin@pheasant.org.uk 

http://www.pheasant.org.uk 

WPA-South Asia Regional Office 

Rahul Kaul 

c/o WWF-India Secretariat 

172-B Lodi Estate 

New Delhi 110 003 

India 

Tel.: +91 11 4693744, 4627586 

Fax: +91 11 4626837 

Email: r_kaul@hotmail.com 

BirdLife International 

Wellbrook Court 

Girton Road, Cambridge 

CB3 0NA 


Tel: +44 1223 277318 

Fax: +44 1223 277200 

E-mail: birdlife@birdlife.org.uk 

Website: http://www.birdlife.net 

PQF Specialist Group 

John P. Carroll (Chairman) 

Daniel B. Warnell School of Forest Resources 

University of Georgia 

Athens, GA 30602 

United States 

Tel: +1 706 542 5815 

E-mail: jcarroll@smokey.forestry.uga.edu 

Richard A. Fuller 

Department of Biological Sciences 

University of Durham 

South Road 

Durham DH1 3LE 


Tel: +44 191 374 3350 

E-mail: r.a.fuller@durham.ac.uk 

John P. Carroll 

Daniel B. Warnell School of Forest Resources 

University of Georgia 

Athens, GA 30602 

United States 

Tel: +1 706 542 5815 

E-mail: jcarroll@smokey.forestry.uga.edu 

Philip J.K. McGowan 

c/o World Pheasant Association 

P.O. Box 5 

Lower Basildon 

Reading, Berkshire 

RG8 9PF 


Tel: +44 118 984 5140 

Fax: +44 118 984 3369 

E-mail: conservation@pheasant.org.uk 

Roberto Pedraza Muñoz (President) 

Grupo Ecológico Sierra Gorda 

Juarez No. 9, Centro, C.P. 76340 

Jalpan de Serra, Queretaro 

Mexico 

Tel/Fax: (429) 6 02 42 

Email: sierrago@ciateq.mx 

http://www.woodrising.com/gesg/homepage.htm 

Conservation Breeding Specialist Group 

U.S. Seal (Chairman) 

12101 Johnny Cake Ridge Road 

Apple Valley, MN 55124-8151 

United States 

Tel: +1 612 431 9325 

Fax: +1 612 432 2757 

E-mail: office@cbsg.org 

http://www.cbsg.org/ 

59

Appendix 2 

Captive Populations of Partridges, Quails, 

Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys 

Although records of captive populations are maintained 

through several sources, the figures below represent current 

best estimates of global captive populations, including 

collections in public and private ownership, from published 

and unpublished sources. They were compiled by Han 

Assink, Alain Hennache, Gary Robbins, Simon Tonge, 

and Roger Wilkinson. See also Sheppard and Bruning 

(1999). 

Species 

Number in captivity 

Critically Endangered 

Djibouti francolin Francolinus ochropectus 0 

Himalayan quail Ophrysia superciliosa 0 

Gorgeted wood-quail Francolinus ochropectus 0 

Endangered 

Nahan’s francolin Francolinus nahani 0 

Mount Cameroon francolin Francolinus camerunensis 0 

Sichuan hill-partridge Arborophila rufipectus 0 

Orange-necked hill-partridge Arborophila davidi 0 

Chestnut-headed hill-partridge Arborophila cambodiana 5–10 

Vulnerable 

Swamp francolin Francolinus gularis 20 

Harwood’s francolin Francolinus harwoodi 0 

Grey-striped francolin Francolinus griseostriatus 0 

Swierstra’s francolin Francolinus swierstrai 0 

Black wood-partridge Melanoperdix nigra 10–20 

Manipur bush-quail Perdicula manipurensis 0 

Udzungwa forest-partridge Xenoperdix udzungensis 0 

Chestnut-breasted hill-partridge Arborophila mandellii 0 

White-necklaced hill-partridge Arborophila gingica 25–30 

Hainan hill-partridge Arborophila ardens 10–15 

White-faced hill-partridge Arborophila orientalis 0 

Bearded wood-partridge Dendrortyx barbatus 20 

Black-fronted wood-quail Odontophorus atrifrons 0 

Dark-backed wood-quail Odontophorus melanonotus 0 

Tacarcuna wood-quail Odontophorus dialeucos 0 

White-breasted guineafowl Agelastes meleagrides 0 

60

Partridges, Quails, Francolins, Snowcocks, Guineafowl, and Turkeys

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